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Dong W, Gong F, Zhao Y, Bai H, Yang R. Ferroptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction in acute central nervous system injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1228968. [PMID: 37622048 PMCID: PMC10445767 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1228968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute central nervous system injuries (ACNSI), encompassing traumatic brain injury (TBI), non-traumatic brain injury like stroke and encephalomeningitis, as well as spinal cord injuries, are linked to significant rates of disability and mortality globally. Nevertheless, effective and feasible treatment plans are still to be formulated. There are primary and secondary injuries occurred after ACNSI. Most ACNSIs exhibit comparable secondary injuries, which offer numerous potential therapeutic targets for enhancing clinical outcomes. Ferroptosis, a newly discovered form of cell death, is characterized as a lipid peroxidation process that is dependent on iron and oxidative conditions, which is also indispensable to mitochondria. Ferroptosis play a vital role in many neuropathological pathways, and ACNSIs may induce mitochondrial dysfunction, thereby indicating the essentiality of the mitochondrial connection to ferroptosis in ACNSIs. Nevertheless, there remains a lack of clarity regarding the involvement of mitochondria in the occurrence of ferroptosis as a secondary injuries of ACNSIs. In recent studies, anti-ferroptosis agents such as the ferroptosis inhibitor Ferrostain-1 and iron chelation therapy have shown potential in ameliorating the deleterious effects of ferroptosis in cases of traumatic ACNSI. The importance of this evidence is extremely significant in relation to the research and control of ACNSIs. Therefore, our review aims to provide researchers focusing on enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of ACNSIs with valuable insights by summarizing the physiopathological mechanisms of ACNSIs and exploring the correlation between ferroptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and ACNSIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxue Dong
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command of PLA, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fanghe Gong
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command of PLA, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu Zhao
- School of Medicine, Xizang Minzu University, Xianyang, China
| | - Hongmin Bai
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command of PLA, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruixin Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command of PLA, Guangzhou, China
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Wu C, Wang P, Wang B, Nijiati M, Hou M. Effects of Cooling Interventions with Different Target Temperatures on Heat Stroke Rats. J Inflamm Res 2023; 16:2345-2355. [PMID: 37284704 PMCID: PMC10239648 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s408316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the optimal target temperature of cooling intervention in heat stroke (HS) rats and explore the potential mechanisms of cooling intervention in alleviating heat stroke-induced damage. Materials and Methods A total of 32 Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 4 groups (n=8/group), including control, HS[core body temperature (Tc)], HS(Tc-1°C) and HS(Tc+1°C) group. Heat stroke model was established in rats of HS(Tc), HS(Tc-1°C) and HS(Tc+1°C) group. Rats in HS(Tc) group were cooled to baseline core body temperature after establishing heat stroke model, HS(Tc-1°C) group to baseline core body temperature minus 1°C and HS(Tc+1°C) group to baseline core body temperature plus 1°C. We compared the histopathological changes of lung, liver and renal tissue, as well as cell apoptosis and expression of critical proteins in phosphatidylinositol 3´-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway. Results Heat stroke caused the histopathological damage and cell apoptosis of lung, liver and renal tissue, which could be alleviated by cooling intervention to a certain extent. Notably, HS(Tc+1°C) group demonstrated a better effect on alleviating cell apoptosis although the differences were not significant. Heat stroke lead to the elevated expression of p-Akt, which subsequently induced the elevated expression of Caspase-3 and Bax, as well as the decreased expression of Bcl-2. Cooling intervention could reverse this trend. Notably, the expression level of Bax in lung tissue of HS(Tc+1°C) group was significantly lower than that of HS(Tc) and HS(Tc-1°C) group. Conclusion The mechanisms of cooling intervention in alleviating heat stroke-induced damage were associated with the expression changes of p-Akt, Caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2. The better effect of Tc+1°C might be associated with low expression of Bax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changdong Wu
- Xinjiang Emergency Center, People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, 830001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ping Wang
- Xinjiang Emergency Center, People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, 830001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Bin Wang
- Xinjiang Emergency Center, People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, 830001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Muyesai Nijiati
- Xinjiang Emergency Center, People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, 830001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ming Hou
- Xinjiang Emergency Center, People’s Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, 830001, People’s Republic of China
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3
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Wang L, Bayanbold K, Zhao L, Wang Y, Adamcakova-Dodd A, Thorne PS, Yang H, Jiang BH, Liu LZ. Redox sensitive miR-27a/b/Nrf2 signaling in Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 809:151118. [PMID: 34718002 PMCID: PMC9387726 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a well-known carcinogen that can cause several types of cancer including lung cancer. NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), the redox sensitive transcription factor, can protect normal cells from a variety of toxicants and carcinogens by inducing the expression of cellular protective genes and maintaining redox balance. However, Nrf2 also protects cancer cells from radio- and chemo-therapies and facilitates cancer progression. Although Cr(VI) treatment has been demonstrated to upregulate Nrf2 expression, the mechanisms for Nrf2 regulation upon chronic Cr(VI) exposure remain to be elucidated. We found that Nrf2 was upregulated in BEAS-2B cells exposed to Cr(VI) from 1 to 5 months, and also in Cr(VI)-induced transformed (Cr-T) cells with Cr(VI) treatment for 6 months. We showed that KEAP1, the classic negative regulator of Nrf2, was downregulated after Cr(VI) exposure for 4 months, suggesting that Nrf2 induction by Cr(VI) treatment is through KEAP1 decrease at late stage. To further decipher the mechanisms of Nrf2 upregulation at early stage of Cr(VI) exposure, we demonstrated that miR-27a and miR-27b were redox sensitive miRNAs, since reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers induced miR-27a/b expression. After Cr(VI) exposure for 1 month, the expression levels of miR-27a/b was dramatically decreased. The changes of miR-27a/b and their target Nrf2 were confirmed in vivo by mouse model intranasally exposed to Cr(VI) for 12 weeks. Nrf2 was a direct target of miR-27a/b, which acted as tumor suppressors in vitro and in vivo to inhibit tumorigenesis and cancer development of Cr-T cells. The results suggested that the inhibition of miR-27a/b was responsible for Nrf2 upregulation at both early stage and late stage of Cr(VI) exposure. This novel regulation of Nrf2 upon chronic Cr(VI) exposure through redox-regulated miR-27a/b will provide potential targets for preventing and treating Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wang
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Academy of Medical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Khaliunaa Bayanbold
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Lei Zhao
- Department of Medical Oncology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Yifang Wang
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Andrea Adamcakova-Dodd
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Peter S Thorne
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Hushan Yang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Bing-Hua Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| | - Ling-Zhi Liu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
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4
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Raman D, Pervaiz S. Redox inhibition of protein phosphatase PP2A: Potential implications in oncogenesis and its progression. Redox Biol 2019; 27:101105. [PMID: 30686777 PMCID: PMC6859563 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2019.101105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular processes are dictated by the active signaling of proteins relaying messages to regulate cell proliferation, apoptosis, signal transduction and cell communications. An intricate web of protein kinases and phosphatases are critical to the proper transmission of signals across such cascades. By governing 30–50% of all protein dephosphorylation in the cell, with prominent substrate proteins being key regulators of signaling cascades, the phosphatase PP2A has emerged as a celebrated player in various developmental and tumorigenic pathways, thereby posing as an attractive target for therapeutic intervention in various pathologies wherein its activity is deregulated. This review is mainly focused on refreshing our understanding of the structural and functional complexity that cocoons the PP2A phosphatase, and its expression in cancers. Additionally, we focus on its physiological regulation as well as into recent advents and strategies that have shown promise in countering the deregulation of the phosphatase through its targeted reactivation. Finally, we dwell upon one of the key regulators of PP2A in cancer cells-cellular redox status-its multifarious nature, and its integration into the reactome of PP2A, highlighting some of the significant impacts that ROS can inflict on the structural modifications and functional aspect of PP2A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepika Raman
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shazib Pervaiz
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Medical Science Cluster Cancer Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; National University Cancer Institute, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore; NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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5
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Nguyen LXT, Troadec E, Kalvala A, Kumar B, Hoang DH, Viola D, Zhang B, Nguyen DQ, Aldoss I, Ghoda L, Budde E, Pichiorri F, Rosen S, Forman SJ, Marcucci G, Pullarkat V. The Bcl-2 inhibitor venetoclax inhibits Nrf2 antioxidant pathway activation induced by hypomethylating agents in AML. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:14040-14049. [PMID: 30623427 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.28091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), an important process for the cytotoxicity of various acute myeloid leukemia (AML) therapies including hypomethylating agents (HMAs), concurrently activates the NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) antioxidant response pathway which in turn results in induction of antioxidant enzymes that neutralize ROS. In this study, we demonstrated that Nrf2 inhibition is an additional mechanism responsible for the marked antileukemic activity in AML seen with the combination of HMAs and venetoclax (ABT-199). HMA and venetoclax combined treatment augmented mitochondrial ROS induction and apoptosis compared with treatment HMA alone. Treatment of AML cell lines as well as primary AML cells with venetoclax disrupted HMA decitabine-increased nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and induction of downstream antioxidant enzymes including heme oxygenase-1 and NADP-quinone oxidoreductase-1. Venetoclax treatment also leads to dissociation of B-cell lymphoma 2 from the Nrf2/Keap-1 complex and targets Nrf2 to ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Thus, our results here demonstrated an undiscovered mechanism underlying synergistic effect of decitabine and venetoclax in AML cells, elucidating for impressive results in antileukemic activity against AML in preclinical and early clinical studies by combined treatment of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Xuan Truong Nguyen
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Center of Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Estelle Troadec
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Arjun Kalvala
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Bijender Kumar
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Dinh Hoa Hoang
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Domenico Viola
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Bin Zhang
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Dang Quan Nguyen
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Center of Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Ibrahim Aldoss
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Lucy Ghoda
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Elizabeth Budde
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Flavia Pichiorri
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Steven Rosen
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center and Beckman Research Institute, Duarte, California
| | - Stephen J Forman
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center and Beckman Research Institute, Duarte, California
| | - Guido Marcucci
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center and Beckman Research Institute, Duarte, California
| | - Vinod Pullarkat
- Gehr Family Center for Leukemia Research, Hematology Malignancies and Stem Cell Transplantation Institute, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California.,City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center and Beckman Research Institute, Duarte, California
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6
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Tilija Pun N, Khakurel A, Shrestha A, Kim SH, Park PH. Critical role of tristetraprolin and AU-rich element RNA-binding protein 1 in the suppression of cancer cell growth by globular adiponectin. FEBS Open Bio 2018; 8:1964-1976. [PMID: 30524947 PMCID: PMC6275284 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Adiponectin exhibits potent antitumor activities. Herein, we examined the molecular mechanisms underlying suppression of tumor growth by globular adiponectin (gAcrp). We demonstrated that gAcrp suppressed B‐cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‐2) expression, an anti‐apoptotic gene, by inducing its mRNA destabilization, which was accompanied with a decrease in cell viability and increased caspase‐3 activity in hepatic cancer cells. In addition, gAcrp increased expression of tristetraprolin (TTP) and AU‐rich element RNA‐binding protein 1 (AUF1), which are mRNA stability regulatory proteins. Moreover, gAcrp‐induced suppression of Bcl‐2 expression was abrogated by knockdown of TTP or AUF1. These data indicate that gAcrp induces apoptosis of hepatic cancer cells by TTP‐ and AUF1‐mediated Bcl‐2 mRNA destabilization, and further suggest that TTP and AUF1 are novel targets mediating the antitumor activity of adiponectin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sang-Hyun Kim
- Department of Pharmacology School of Medicine Kyungpook National University Daegu Korea
| | - Pil-Hoon Park
- College of Pharmacy Yeungnam University Gyeongsan Korea
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7
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Ge H, Li Z, Jiang L, Li Q, Geng C, Yao X, Shi X, Liu Y, Cao J. Cr (VI) induces crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy through endoplasmic reticulum stress in A549 cells. Chem Biol Interact 2018; 298:35-42. [PMID: 30416085 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium [Cr (VI)], which is widely found in occupational environments, is a recognized human carcinogen. In this study, the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in Cr (VI)-induced crosstalk of apoptosis and autophagy was investigated. Cr (VI) resulted in ER stress by upregulating the expression of GRP78 and p-PERK. 4-Phenylbutyric acid (4PBA), an inhibitor of ER stress, reduced both Cr (VI)-induced apoptosis and autophagy, suggesting that ER stress played an important role in Cr (VI)-induced apoptosis and autophagy in A549 cells. Furthermore, Cr (VI)-induced apoptosis preceded autophagy. Z-VAD-FMK, the suppressor of apoptosis, repressed Cr (VI)-induced autophagy. Pretreatment with 3-MA, the inhibitor of autophagy, increased Cr (VI)-induced apoptosis. Exposure to Cr (VI) significantly reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) during Cr (VI) treatment for 6-12 h. However, Cr (VI)-reduced MMP rescued significantly after treatment with Cr (VI) for 24 h compared with that of 6 h and 12 h groups, suggesting that Cr (VI)-induced autophagy at 24 h might rescue Cr (VI)-induced decrease of MMP through engulfing damaged mitochondria and then inhibit apoptosis in A549 cells. Above all, our results indicated that Cr (VI)-induced ER stress plays an important role in the crosstalk between apoptosis and autophagy. The autophagy might be apoptosis-dependent and subsequently prevents apoptosis cell death to keep A549 cells resistant to Cr (VI)-induced further toxicity. This maybe underlies the mechanism of Cr (VI)-induced carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Ge
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Zhiguo Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Liping Jiang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Qiujuan Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Chengyan Geng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Xiaofeng Yao
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Xiaoxia Shi
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Yong Liu
- School of Life Science and Medicine, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin 124221, China.
| | - Jun Cao
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Dalian Medical University, No. 9 W. Lvshun South Road, Dalian 116044, China.
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8
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Demethoxycurcumin mediated targeting of MnSOD leading to activation of apoptotic pathway and inhibition of Akt/NF-κB survival signalling in human glioma U87 MG cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 345:75-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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9
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Tilija Pun N, Park PH. Adiponectin inhibits inflammatory cytokines production by Beclin-1 phosphorylation and B-cell lymphoma 2 mRNA destabilization: role for autophagy induction. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 175:1066-1084. [PMID: 29333604 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Adiponectin potently suppresses inflammatory mediator production. Autophagy is known to play a critical role in the modulation of inflammatory responses by adiponectin. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clearly understood. Interaction between Beclin-1 and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) is a critical event in autophagy induction. We examined the effects of globular adiponectin (gAcrp) on the Beclin-1/Bcl-2 association and its underlying mechanisms. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The effect of gAcrp on the interaction between Beclin-1 and Bcl-2 was examined by immunoprecipitation followed by Western blotting. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, we determined the effects of gAcrp on Beclin-1 phosphorylation and Bcl-2 mRNA stability, and investigated their role in the suppression of inflammatory mediators using pharmacological inhibitors and transient target gene knockdown. KEY RESULTS Globular adiponectin disrupted the association between Beclin-1 and Bcl-2 and increased Beclin-1 phosphorylation at Thr119 , critical residue for binding with Bcl-2, via a death-associated protein kinase-1 (DAPK1)-dependent mechanism. Moreover, gAcrp reduced Bcl-2 expression via Bcl-2 mRNA destabilization, without significantly affecting Bcl-2 promoter activity and protein degradation, which was mediated by tristetraprolin (TTP) induction. Finally, DAPK1 and TTP were shown to play key roles in gAcrp-induced autophagosome formation and suppression of LPS-stimulated TNF-α and IL-1β expression. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Beclin-1 phosphorylation and Bcl-2 mRNA destabilization mediated by DAPK1 and TTP are crucial events leading to autophagy and the suppression of inflammatory cytokine production by gAcrp. These results provide novel mechanisms underlying adiponectin's modulation of inflammatory responses. DAPK and TTP are potential therapeutic targets for the management of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pil-Hoon Park
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Korea
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10
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Li L, Tan H, Yang H, Li F, He X, Gu Z, Zhao M, Su L. Reactive oxygen species mediate heat stress-induced apoptosis via ERK dephosphorylation and Bcl-2 ubiquitination in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Oncotarget 2017; 8:12902-12916. [PMID: 28038454 PMCID: PMC5355065 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.14186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat stress can induce the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in HUVEC cells, indicating that apoptosis may be a prominent pathological feature of heat stroke, however, little is known about the precise mechani sms involved in it. In this study, we describe the apoptotic effect of intense heat stress on HUVEC cells and our investigation of its underlying mechanisms. Treatment of cells with intense heat stress induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a concomitant increase in activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Furthermore, by over-expression of MnSOD and GPx in cells, we show that ROS, and especially superoxide, is the primary oxidative species induced by intense heat stress and responsible for cell death. In addition, we explored the mechanism by which superoxide regulates the apoptotic effect of intense heat stress, and found that it involved Bcl-2 down-regulation through ubiquitin - proteasomal degradation. Superoxide production also led to Bcl-2 dephosphorylation through inactivation of MAP kinase ERK1/2, which promoted Bcl-2 ubiquitination. Taken together, these findings describe a novel pathway downstream of heat stress-induced apoptosis in HUVEC cells, and provide new insight into the process of redox-mediated down-regulation of Bcl-2 and apoptosis induction. These results could be important in the understanding of pathogenesis of heat stroke and for the development of preventive and treatment measures, both of which are currently lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.,Department of Pathophysiology, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation Research, Guangzhou 510515, P.R. China
| | - Hongping Tan
- Department of Epilepsy Surgery, Guangdong Sanjiu Brain Hospital, Guangzhou 510510, P.R. China.,Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Hong Yang
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.,Department of Pathophysiology, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation Research, Guangzhou 510515, P.R. China
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.,Department of Pathophysiology, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation Research, Guangzhou 510515, P.R. China
| | - Xuan He
- Department of Pathophysiology, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation Research, Guangzhou 510515, P.R. China
| | - Zhengtao Gu
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.,Department of Pathophysiology, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation Research, Guangzhou 510515, P.R. China
| | - Ming Zhao
- Department of Pathophysiology, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Shock and Microcirculation Research, Guangzhou 510515, P.R. China
| | - Lei Su
- Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China.,Department of Intensive Care Unit, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, P.R. China
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11
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Kulkarni YM, Kaushik V, Azad N, Wright C, Rojanasakul Y, O'Doherty G, Iyer AKV. Autophagy-Induced Apoptosis in Lung Cancer Cells by a Novel Digitoxin Analog. J Cell Physiol 2017; 231:817-28. [PMID: 26264876 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
We have synthesized a novel derivative of Digitoxin, termed "MonoD", which demonstrates cytotoxic effects in lung cancer cells with much higher potency as compared to Digitoxin. Our data show that within 1 h of MonoD treatment, H460 cells showed increased oxidative stress, increased formation of autophagic vacuoles, and increased expression of pro-autophagic markers Beclin-1 and LC3-II. Cells pretreated with MnTBAP, a superoxide scavenger not only lowered superoxide production, but also had lower levels of LC3-II and Beclin-1. Prolonged treatment with MonoD-induced apoptosis in lung cancer cells. We investigated MonoD-dependent regulation of Akt and Bcl2, proteins that are known regulators of both autophagy and apoptosis. Molecular and pharmacologic inhibitors of Bcl2 and Akt, when combined with MonoD, led to higher expression of LC3-II and Beclin-1 as compared to MonoD alone, suggesting a repressive effect for these proteins in MonoD-dependent autophagy. Pretreatment of cells with an autophagy inhibitor repressed the apoptotic potential of MonoD, confirming that early autophagic flux is important to drive apoptosis. Therapeutic entities such as MonoD that target multiple pathways such as autophagy and apoptosis may prove advantageous over current therapies that have unimodal basis for action and may drive sustained tumor regression, which is highly desirable. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 817-828, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesh M Kulkarni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
| | - Vivek Kaushik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
| | - Neelam Azad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
| | - Clayton Wright
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
| | - Yon Rojanasakul
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, Virginia
| | - George O'Doherty
- Department of Chemistry, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Anand Krishnan V Iyer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
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Mycobacterium avium MAV2052 protein induces apoptosis in murine macrophage cells through Toll-like receptor 4. Apoptosis 2016; 21:459-72. [PMID: 26842846 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-016-1220-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium and its sonic extracts induce apoptosis in macrophages. However, little is known about the M. avium components regulating macrophage apoptosis. In this study, using multidimensional fractionation, we identified MAV2052 protein, which induced macrophage apoptosis in M. avium culture filtrates. The recombinant MAV2052 induced macrophage apoptosis in a caspase-dependent manner. The loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm), mitochondrial translocation of Bax, and release of cytochrome c from mitochondria were observed in macrophages treated with MAV2052. Further, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was required for the apoptosis induced by MAV2052. In addition, ROS and mitogen-activated protein kinases were involved in MAV2052-mediated TNF-α and IL-6 production. ROS-mediated activation of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1)-JNK pathway was a major signaling pathway for MAV2052-induced apoptosis. Moreover, MAV2052 bound to Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 molecule and MAV2052-induced ROS production, ΔΨm loss, and apoptosis were all significantly reduced in TLR4(-/-) macrophages. Altogether, our results suggest that MAV2052 induces apoptotic cell death through TLR4 dependent ROS production and JNK pathway in murine macrophages.
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13
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Wright C, Iyer AKV, Kulkarni Y, Azad N. S-Nitrosylation of Bcl-2 Negatively Affects Autophagy in Lung Epithelial Cells. J Cell Biochem 2016; 117:521-32. [PMID: 26241894 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic cellular mechanism involving lysosomal degradation of unwanted cellular components. Interaction between Beclin-1 and Bcl-2 proteins is known to play a critical role in the initiation of autophagy. We report that malignantly transformed lung epithelial cells are resistant to autophagy and express lower basal levels of autophagic proteins, Beclin-1 and LC3-II as compared to non-tumorigenic cells. Additionally, increased levels of nitric oxide (NO) and Bcl-2 were observed in transformed cells. Nitric oxide was found to negatively regulate autophagy initiation and autophagic flux by nitrosylating Bcl-2 and stabilizing its interaction with Beclin-1, resulting in inhibition of Beclin-1 activity. An increase in the apoptotic initiator caspase-9 and the apoptosis and autophagy-associated kinase p38/MAPK in both cell types indicated possible autophagy-apoptosis crosstalk. Pre-treatments with ABT-737 (Bcl-2 inhibitor) and aminoguanidine (NO inhibitor), and transfection with a non-nitrosylable Bcl-2 cysteine double-mutant plasmid resulted in increased autophagic flux (LC3-II/p62 upregulation) corresponding with decreased S-nitrocysteine expression, thus corroborating the regulatory role of Bcl-2 S-nitrosylation in autophagy. In conclusion, our study reveals a novel mechanism of autophagy resistance via post-translational modification of Bcl-2 protein by NO, which may be critical in driving cellular tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clayton Wright
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
| | | | - Yogesh Kulkarni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
| | - Neelam Azad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia
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Pragya P, Shukla AK, Murthy RC, Abdin MZ, Kar Chowdhuri D. Characterization of the effect of Cr(VI) on humoral innate immunity using Drosophila melanogaster. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2015; 30:1285-1296. [PMID: 24771359 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Revised: 04/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
With the advancement of human race, different anthropogenic activities have heaped the environment with chemicals that can cause alteration in the immune system of exposed organism. As a first line of barrier, the evolutionary conserved innate immunity is crucial for the health of an organism. However, there is paucity of information regarding in vivo assessment of the effect of environmental chemicals on innate immunity. Therefore, we examined the effect of a widely used environmental chemical, Cr(VI), on humoral innate immune response using Drosophila melanogaster. The adverse effect of Cr(VI) on host humoral response was characterized by decreased gene expression of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in the exposed organism. Concurrently, a significantly decreased transcription of humoral pathway receptors (Toll and PGRP) and triglyceride level along with inhibition of antioxidant enzyme activities were observed in exposed organism. This in turn weakened the immune response of exposed organism that was manifested by their reduced resistance against bacterial infection. In addition, overexpression of the components of humoral immunity particularly Diptericin benefits Drosophila from Cr(VI)-induced humoral immune-suppressive effect. To our knowledge, this is the first report regarding negative impact of an environmental chemical on humoral innate immune response of Drosophila along with subsequent protection by AMPs, which may provide novel insight into host-chemical interactions. Also, our data validate the utility and sensitivity of Drosophila as a model that could be used for screening the possible risk of environmental chemicals on innate immunity with minimum ethical concern that can be further extrapolated to higher organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Pragya
- Embryotoxicology Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi, 110062, India
| | - A K Shukla
- Embryotoxicology Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi, 110062, India
| | - R C Murthy
- Analytical Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - M Z Abdin
- Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi, 110062, India
| | - D Kar Chowdhuri
- Embryotoxicology Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
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15
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Xu D, Li L, Liu L, Dong H, Deng Q, Yang X, Song E, Song Y. Polychlorinated biphenyl quinone induces mitochondrial-mediated and caspase-dependent apoptosis in HepG2 cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2015; 30:1063-1072. [PMID: 24604693 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) quinones are known to cause toxic effects, but their mechanisms are quite unclear. In this study, we examined whether 2,3,5-trichloro-6-phenyl-[1,4]benzoquinone, PCB29-pQ, induces cell death via apoptosis pathway. Our result showed PCB29-pQ exposure decreased HepG2 cell viability in a time-dependent manner. Lactate dehydrogenase leakage assay also implied the cytotoxicity of PCB29-pQ. 4',6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride staining and flow cytometry assays both confirmed PCB29-pQ caused dose-dependent apoptotic cell death in HepG2 cells. Furthermore, we found that PCB29-pQ exposure increased cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and induced the translocation of cytochrome c from mitochondria into cytosol in HepG2 cells. Moreover, PCB29-pQ exposure induced B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) downregulation and Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) upregulation, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage, accompanied with the increased caspase-3/9 and p53 expressions. Taking together, these results suggested PCB29-pQ induced HepG2 cells apoptosis through a ROS-driven, mitochondrial-mediated and caspase-dependent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Demei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingrui Li
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Lichao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Dong
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Qin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojia Yang
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Erqun Song
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Song
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
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16
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Behndig AF, Shanmuganathan K, Whitmarsh L, Stenfors N, Brown JL, Frew AJ, Kelly FJ, Mudway IS, Sandström T, Wilson SJ. Effects of controlled diesel exhaust exposure on apoptosis and proliferation markers in bronchial epithelium - an in vivo bronchoscopy study on asthmatics, rhinitics and healthy subjects. BMC Pulm Med 2015; 15:99. [PMID: 26303256 PMCID: PMC4547420 DOI: 10.1186/s12890-015-0096-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidemiological evidence demonstrates that exposure to traffic-derived pollution worsens respiratory symptoms in asthmatics, but controlled human exposure studies have failed to provide a mechanism for this effect. Here we investigated whether diesel exhaust (DE) would induce apoptosis or proliferation in the bronchial epithelium in vivo and thus contribute to respiratory symptoms. METHODS Moderate (n = 16) and mild (n = 16) asthmatics, atopic non-asthmatic controls (rhinitics) (n = 13) and healthy controls (n = 21) were exposed to filtered air or DE (100 μg/m(3)) for 2 h, on two separate occasions. Bronchial biopsies were taken 18 h post-exposure and immunohistochemically analysed for pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins (Bad, Bak, p85 PARP, Fas, Bcl-2) and a marker of proliferation (Ki67). Positive staining was assessed within the epithelium using computerized image analysis. RESULTS No evidence of epithelial apoptosis or proliferation was observed in healthy, allergic or asthmatic airways following DE challenge. CONCLUSION In the present study, we investigated whether DE exposure would affect markers of proliferation and apoptosis in the bronchial epithelium of asthmatics, rhinitics and healthy controls, providing a mechanistic basis for the reported increased airway sensitivity in asthmatics to air pollutants. In this first in vivo exposure investigation, we found no evidence of diesel exhaust-induced effects on these processes in the subject groups investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelie F Behndig
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Division of Medicine/Respiratory Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Karthika Shanmuganathan
- Histochemistry Research Unit, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
| | - Laura Whitmarsh
- Histochemistry Research Unit, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
| | - Nikolai Stenfors
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Division of Medicine/Respiratory Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Joanna L Brown
- Histochemistry Research Unit, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
| | - Anthony J Frew
- Histochemistry Research Unit, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
| | - Frank J Kelly
- MRC - PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Franklin-Wilkins Building, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Ian S Mudway
- MRC - PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Franklin-Wilkins Building, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Thomas Sandström
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Division of Medicine/Respiratory Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Susan J Wilson
- Histochemistry Research Unit, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK. .,Histochemistry Research Unit, Sir Henry Wellcome Laboratories, Mailpoint 894, Level B, South Block, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton, UK.
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17
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An L, Fu J, Zhang T. Reversible effects of vitamins C and E combination on cognitive deficits and oxidative stress in the hippocampus of melamine-exposed rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 132:152-159. [PMID: 25802127 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that the spatial cognitive deficits of rats were induced by chronic melamine exposure, which was associated with the hippocampal oxidative damage. Currently, we examined the antioxidative effect of vitamins C and E combination on cognitive function in melamine-treated rats. Melamine was oral administrated to male adolescent Wistar at a dosage of 300mg/kg/day for 28days. After that, animals received vitamins C and E at a dose of 150 and 200mg/kg, respectively, intraperitoneally for the next 7days. Cognitive behaviors were investigated using the Morris water maze test. The biochemical indexes were detected in the hippocampal homogenate. The treatment with vitamin complex significantly ameliorated cognitive deficits induced by melamine. ROS, MDA, and NO contents were almost back to normal, while SOD, CAT, GSH-Px, and NOS activities were improved as well. The neural apoptosis in the hippocampus were ameliorated by regulating the expression of anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl-2) and caspase-3. Additionally, histological observation showed that vitamin complex effectively alleviated the injuries of hippocampal neurons. These results suggest that the potential therapeutic for oxidative damage induced neuronal apoptosis after treatment of vitamins C and E combination, which is most likely related to the antioxidative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei An
- College of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials Ministry of Education, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China; Max-Planck Institute for Neurological Research, Cologne 50931, Germany
| | - Jingxuan Fu
- College of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials Ministry of Education, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Tao Zhang
- College of Life Sciences and Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials Ministry of Education, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China.
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18
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Saleh AM, El-Abadelah MM, Aziz MA, Taha MO, Nasr A, Rizvi SAA. Antiproliferative activity of the isoindigo 5'-Br in HL-60 cells is mediated by apoptosis, dysregulation of mitochondrial functions and arresting cell cycle at G0/G1 phase. Cancer Lett 2015; 361:251-61. [PMID: 25790909 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2015.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Our new compound, 5'-Br [(E)-1-(5'-bromo-2'-oxoindolin-3'-ylidene)-6-ethyl-2,3,6,9-tetrahydro-2,9-dioxo-1H-pyrrolo[3,2-f]quinoline-8-carboxylic acid], had shown strong, selective antiproliferative activity against different cancer cell lines. Here, we aim to comprehensively characterize the mechanisms associated with its cytotoxicity in the human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells. We focused at studying the involvement of apoptotic pathway and cell cycle effects. 5'-Br significantly inhibited proliferation by inducing caspase-dependent apoptosis. Involvement of caspase independent mechanism is also possible due to observed inability of z-VAD-FMK to rescue apoptotic cells. 5'-Br was found to trigger intrinsic apoptotic pathway as indicated by depolarization of the mitochondrial inner membrane, decreased level of cellular ATP, modulated expression and phosphorylation of Bcl-2 leading to loss of its association with Bax, and increased release of cytochrome c. 5'-Br treated cells were found arrested at G0/G1 phase with modulation in protein levels of cyclins, dependent kinases and their inhibitors. Expression and enzymatic activity of CDK2 and CDK4 was found inhibited. Retinoblastoma protein (Rb) phosphorylation was also inhibited whereas p21 protein levels were increased. These results suggest that the antiproliferative mechanisms of action of 5'-Br could involve apoptotic pathways, dysregulation of mitochondrial functions and disruption of cell cycle checkpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman M Saleh
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS), National Guard Health Affairs, P.O. Box: 3660, Mail Code: 3127, Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia; King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), National Guard Health Affairs, P.O. Box 22490, Riyadh 11426, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mustafa M El-Abadelah
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
| | - Mohammad Azhar Aziz
- King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), National Guard Health Affairs, P.O. Box 22490, Riyadh 11426, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mutasem O Taha
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
| | - Amre Nasr
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS), National Guard Health Affairs, P.O. Box: 3660, Mail Code: 3127, Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia; Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Al-Neelain University, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Syed A A Rizvi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University (NSU), Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33328, USA
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A mutation in Drosophila methuselah resists paraquat induced Parkinson-like phenotypes. Neurobiol Aging 2014; 35:2419.e1-2419.e16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Lee K, Hart MR, Briehl MM, Mazar AP, Tome ME. The copper chelator ATN-224 induces caspase-independent cell death in diffuse large B cell lymphoma. Int J Oncol 2014; 45:439-47. [PMID: 24788952 PMCID: PMC4079159 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2014.2396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bcl-2 and other anti-apoptotic proteins are associated with defective caspase-dependent apoptotic pathways, resulting in chemoresistance. We have previously shown that ATN-224, a copper chelator drug, induces cell death in murine thymic lymphoma cells transfected with Bcl-2. In the current study, we tested whether ATN-224 was effective in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) cells, which have increased anti-apoptotic proteins through translocation or amplification. We found that nanomolar concentrations of ATN-224 induced cell death in DLBCL cells independent of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL or Mcl-1 status. ATN-224 treatment resulted in mitochondrial dysfunction, release of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and induction of caspase-independent cell death. In addition, ATN-224 degraded Mcl-1 and enhanced the effect of the BH3 mimetic ABT-263. These findings indicate that ATN-224 has potential as a therapeutic for the treatment of DLBCL. Induction of caspase-independent cell death in apoptosis-resistant DLBCL would provide a therapeutic alternative for the treatment of refractory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy Lee
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Matthew R Hart
- Department of GIPD Genetics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Margaret M Briehl
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Andrew P Mazar
- Department of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 85724, USA
| | - Margaret E Tome
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
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21
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A strategically designed small molecule attacks alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase in tumor cells through a redox process. Cancer Metab 2014; 2:4. [PMID: 24612826 PMCID: PMC4108059 DOI: 10.1186/2049-3002-2-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Targeting cancer cell metabolism is recognized as a promising arena for development of cancer chemotherapeutics. Moreover, redox metabolism is also systematically altered in tumor cells. Indeed, there is growing reason to believe that tumor-specific alteration of redox control of metabolism will be central to understanding and attacking malignancy. We report here that lipoate analog CPI-613 attacks a gate-keeping, lipoate-using metabolic enzyme, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KGDH), by a redox mechanism selectively in tumors cells. Results CPI-613 inhibited KGDH function strongly and rapidly, selectively in tumor cells. Moreover, CPI-613 induced a correspondingly rapid, powerful redox signal in tumor cell mitochondria. This signal was associated with redox modification of KGDH (including extensive enzyme glutathionylation and redox blockage of enzyme lipoate sulfhydryls), correlating with KGDH inactivation. The source of this tumor-specific mitochondrial redox modulatory signal was not electron transport complexes (I or III), but was largely or entirely the E3 (dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase) component of dehydrogenases, including KGDH. Finally, we demonstrated that KGDH activity was redox regulated (in tumor cells), as expected if a tumor-specific redox process (auto)regulates KGDH. Conclusions Our data demonstrate that lipoate analog CPI-613 attacks redox control of KGDH activity in tumor cells, perhaps by modulation of an existing lipoate-sensitive allosteric process normally governing tumor cell KGDH activity. Together with its previously reported, mechanistically distinct (non-redox) effects on the other major, lipoate-using mitochondrial metabolic enzyme, pyruvate dehydrogenase, CPI-613’s KGDH effects indicate that this agent simultaneously attacks multiple central, essential components of tumor cell metabolic regulation.
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Pragya P, Shukla AK, Murthy RC, Abdin MZ, Kar Chowdhuri D. Over-expression of superoxide dismutase ameliorates Cr(VI) induced adverse effects via modulating cellular immune system of Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88181. [PMID: 24505420 PMCID: PMC3913750 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionarily conserved innate immune system plays critical role for maintaining the health of an organism. However, a number of environmental chemicals including metals are known to exert adverse effects on immune system. The present study assessed the in vivo effect of a major environmental chemical, Cr(VI), on cellular immune response using Drosophila melanogaster and subsequently the protective role of superoxide dismutase (SOD) based on the comparable performance of the tested anti-oxidant enzymes. The immuno-modulatory potential of Cr(VI) was demonstrated by observing a significant reduction in the total hemocyte count along with impaired phagocytic activity in exposed organism. Concurrently, a significant increase in the percentage of Annexin V-FITC positive cells, activation of DEVDase activity, generation of free radical species along with inhibition of anti-oxidant enzyme activities was observed in the hemocytes of exposed organism. In addition, we have shown that ONOO(-) is primarily responsible for Cr(VI) induced adverse effects on Drosophila hemocytes along with O2(-). While generation of O2(-)/ONOO(-) in Cr(VI) exposed Drosophila hemocytes was found to be responsible for the suppression of Drosophila cellular immune response, Cr(VI) induced alteration was significantly reduced by the over-expression of sod in Drosophila hemocytes. Overall, our results suggest that manipulation of one of the anti-oxidant genes, sod, benefits the organism from Cr(VI) induced alteration in cellular immunity. Further, this study demonstrates the applicability of D. melanogaster to examine the possible effects of environmental chemicals on innate immunity which can be extrapolated to higher organisms due to evolutionary conservation of innate immune system between Drosophila and mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prakash Pragya
- Embryotoxicology Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Arvind Kumar Shukla
- Embryotoxicology Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Ramesh Chandra Murthy
- Analytical Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | | | - Debapratim Kar Chowdhuri
- Embryotoxicology Section, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Comparative Studies of Tri- and Hexavalent Chromium Cytotoxicity and Their Effects on Oxidative State of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cells. Curr Microbiol 2013; 68:448-56. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-013-0496-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Oyetibo GO, Ilori MO, Obayori OS, Amund OO. Chromium (VI) biosorption properties of multiple resistant bacteria isolated from industrial sewerage. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2013; 185:6809-6818. [PMID: 23315153 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-013-3066-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Chromium (VI) [Cr (VI)] biosorption by four resistant autochthonous bacterial strains was investigated to determine their potential for use in sustainable marine water-pollution control. Maximum exchange between Cr (VI) ions and protons on the cells surfaces were at 30-35 °C, pH 2.0 and 350-450 mg/L. The bacterial strains effectively removed 79.0-90.5 % Cr (VI) ions from solution. Furthermore, 85.3-93.0 % of Cr (VI) ions were regenerated from the biomasses, and 83.4-91.7 % of the metal was adsorbed when the biomasses was reused. Langmuir isotherm performed better than Freundlich isotherm, depicting that Cr (VI) affinity was in the sequence Rhodococcus sp. AL03Ni > Burkholderia cepacia AL96Co > Corynebacterium kutscheri FL108Hg > Pseudomonas aeruginosa CA207Ni. Biosorption isotherms confirmed that Rhodococcus sp. AL03Ni was a better biosorbent with a maximum uptake of 107.46 mg of Cr (VI) per g (dry weight) of biomass. The results highlight the high potential of the organisms for bacteria-based detoxification of Cr (VI) via biosorption.
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Lee K, Briehl MM, Mazar AP, Batinic-Haberle I, Reboucas JS, Glinsmann-Gibson B, Rimsza LM, Tome ME. The copper chelator ATN-224 induces peroxynitrite-dependent cell death in hematological malignancies. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 60:157-67. [PMID: 23416365 PMCID: PMC3654089 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Revised: 02/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Chemoresistance due to oxidative stress resistance or upregulation of Bcl-2 contributes to poor outcome in the treatment of hematological malignancies. In this study, we utilize the copper-chelator drug ATN-224 (choline tetrathiomolybdate) to induce cell death in oxidative stress-resistant cells and cells overexpressing Bcl-2 by modulating the cellular redox environment and causing mitochondrial dysfunction. ATN-224 treatment decreases superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) activity, increases intracellular oxidants, and induces peroxynitrite-dependent cell death. ATN-224 also targets the mitochondria, decreasing both cytochrome c oxidase (CcOX) activity and mitochondrial membrane potential. The concentration of ATN-224 required to induce cell death is proportional to SOD1 levels, but independent of Bcl-2 status. In combination with doxorubicin, ATN-224 enhances cell death. In primary B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia patient samples, ATN-224 decreases the viable cell number. Our findings suggest that ATN-224's dual targeting of SOD1 and CcOX is a promising approach for treatment of hematological malignancies either as an adjuvant or as a single agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy Lee
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | | | - Andrew P. Mazar
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute. Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - Ines Batinic-Haberle
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Julio S. Reboucas
- Departmento de Química CCEN, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB 58051-970, Brazil
| | | | - Lisa M. Rimsza
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Margaret E. Tome
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
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Abstract
AIM To investigate whether sequestosome 1/p62 (p62), a key cargo adaptor protein involved in both the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the autophagy-lysosome system, could directly regulate autophagy in vitro. METHODS HEK 293 cells or HeLa cells were transfected with p62-expressing plasmids or siRNA targeting p62. The cells or the cell lysates were subsequently subjected to immunofluorescence assay, immunoprecipitation assay, or immunoblot analysis. In vitro pulldown assay was used to study the interaction of p62 with Bcl-2. RESULTS Overexpression of p62 significantly increased the basal level of autophagy in both HEK 293 cells and HeLa cells, whereas knockdown of p62 significantly decreased the basal level of autophagy. In vitro pulldown assay showed that p62 directly interacted with Bcl-2. It was observed in HeLa cells that p62 co-localized with Bcl-2. Furthermore, knockdown of p62 in HEK 293 cells significantly increased the amount of Beclin 1 that co-immunoprecipitated with Bcl-2. CONCLUSION p62 induces autophagy by disrupting the association between Bcl-2 and Beclin 1.
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Chun SH, Cha YN, Kim C. Urethane increases reactive oxygen species and activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase in RAW 264.7 macrophages and A549 lung epithelial cells. Arch Pharm Res 2013; 36:775-82. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-013-0104-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Luanpitpong S, Chanvorachote P, Stehlik C, Tse W, Callery PS, Wang L, Rojanasakul Y. Regulation of apoptosis by Bcl-2 cysteine oxidation in human lung epithelial cells. Mol Biol Cell 2013; 24:858-69. [PMID: 23363601 PMCID: PMC3596255 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e12-10-0747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Bcl-2 interacts with ERK to suppress apoptosis. Hydrogen peroxide disrupts the interaction through Bcl-2 cysteine oxidation, which promotes apoptosis. These findings provide a novel redox regulatory mechanism that controls apoptosis via Bcl-2 cysteine oxidation, which could aid in the understanding of pathogenesis under oxidative stress conditions. Hydrogen peroxide is a key mediator of oxidative stress known to be important in various cellular processes, including apoptosis. B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) is an oxidative stress–responsive protein and a key regulator of apoptosis; however, the underlying mechanisms of oxidative regulation of Bcl-2 are not well understood. The present study investigates the direct effect of H2O2 on Bcl-2 cysteine oxidation as a potential mechanism of apoptosis regulation. Exposure of human lung epithelial cells to H2O2 induces apoptosis concomitant with cysteine oxidation and down-regulation of Bcl-2. Inhibition of Bcl-2 oxidation by antioxidants or by site-directed mutagenesis of Bcl-2 at Cys-158 and Cys-229 abrogates the effects of H2O2 on Bcl-2 and apoptosis. Immunoprecipitation and confocal microscopic studies show that Bcl-2 interacts with mitogen-activated protein kinase (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 [ERK1/2]) to suppress apoptosis and that this interaction is modulated by cysteine oxidation of Bcl-2. The H2O2-induced Bcl-2 cysteine oxidation interferes with Bcl-2 and ERK1/2 interaction. Mutation of the cysteine residues inhibits the disruption of Bcl-2–ERK complex, as well as the induction of apoptosis by H2O2. Taken together, these results demonstrate the critical role of Bcl-2 cysteine oxidation in the regulation of apoptosis through ERK signaling. This new finding reveals crucial redox regulatory mechanisms that control the antiapoptotic function of Bcl-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudjit Luanpitpong
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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29
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Liu YB, Gao X, Deeb D, Arbab AS, Gautam SC. Pristimerin Induces Apoptosis in Prostate Cancer Cells by Down-regulating Bcl-2 through ROS-dependent Ubiquitin-proteasomal Degradation Pathway. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; Suppl 6:005. [PMID: 24877026 DOI: 10.4172/2157-2518.s6-005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pristimerin is a quinonemethide triterpenoid with the potential of a promising anticancer agent. Pristimerin (PM) has shown anticancer activity against a range of cancer cell lines, but its activity for prostate cancer has not been adequately investigated. In the present study we have examined the underlying mechanisms of the apoptotic response of the hormone-sensitive (LNCaP) and hormone-refractory (PC-3) prostate cancer cell lines to PM. Treatment with PM induced apoptosis in both cell lines as characterized by increased annexin V-binding and cleavage of PARP-1 and procaspases-3 and -9. It also induced mitochondrial depolarization, cytochrome c release from mitochondria and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Response to PM is regulated by Bcl-2 since it down-regulated Bcl-2 expression and overexpression of Bcl-2 rendered prostate cancer cells resistant to PM. ROS plays a role in down-regulation of Bcl-2, since treatment with PM in the presence of various ROS modulators, e.g., n-acetylcysteine (NAC), a general purpose antioxidant; diphenylene iodonium (DPI), a NADPH inhibitor; rotenone (ROT), a mitochondrial electron transport chain interrupter rotenone or MnTBAP, a O2 scavenger, attenuated the down-regulation of Bcl-2. Furthermore, ROS is also involved in the ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of Bcl-2 as both of these events were blocked by O 2- scavenger MnTBAP. Thus, pristimerin induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells predominately through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway by inhibiting antiapoptic Bcl-2 through a ROS-dependent ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Bo Liu
- Departments of Surgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Xiaohua Gao
- Departments of Surgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Dorrah Deeb
- Departments of Surgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Ali S Arbab
- Department of Radiology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Subhash C Gautam
- Departments of Surgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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Myers CR. The effects of chromium(VI) on the thioredoxin system: implications for redox regulation. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 52:2091-107. [PMID: 22542445 PMCID: PMC3955998 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] compounds are highly redox active and have long been recognized as potent cytotoxins and carcinogens. The intracellular reduction of Cr(VI) generates reactive Cr intermediates, which are themselves strong oxidants, as well as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical. These probably contribute to the oxidative damage and effects on redox-sensitive transcription factors that have been reported. However, the identification of events that initiate these signaling changes has been elusive. More recent studies show that Cr(VI) causes irreversible inhibition of thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and oxidation of thioredoxin (Trx) and peroxiredoxin (Prx). Mitochondrial Trx2/Prx3 are more sensitive to Cr(VI) treatment than cytosolic Trx1/Prx1, although both compartments show thiol oxidation with higher doses or longer treatments. Thiol redox proteomics demonstrate that Trx2, Prx3, and Trx1 are among the most sensitive proteins in cells to Cr(VI) treatment. Their oxidation could therefore represent initiating events that have widespread implications for protein thiol redox control and for multiple aspects of redox signaling. This review summarizes the effects of Cr(VI) on the TrxR/Trx system and how these events could influence a number of downstream redox signaling systems that are influenced by Cr(VI) exposure. Some of the signaling events discussed include the activation of apoptosis signal regulating kinase and MAP kinases (p38 and JNK) and the modulation of a number of redox-sensitive transcription factors including AP-1, NF-κB, p53, and Nrf2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Myers
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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31
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Luanpitpong S, Chanvorachote P, Nimmannit U, Leonard SS, Stehlik C, Wang L, Rojanasakul Y. Mitochondrial superoxide mediates doxorubicin-induced keratinocyte apoptosis through oxidative modification of ERK and Bcl-2 ubiquitination. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 83:1643-54. [PMID: 22469513 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Massive apoptosis of keratinocytes has been implicated in the pathogenesis of chemotherapy-induced skin toxicities, but the underlying mechanisms of action are not well understood. The present study investigated the apoptotic effect of doxorubicin (DOX) on HaCaT keratinocytes and determined the underlying mechanisms. Treatment of the cells with DOX induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and a concomitant increase in apoptotic cell death through the mitochondrial death pathway independent of p53. Electron spin resonance and flow cytometry studies showed that superoxide is the primary oxidative species induced by DOX and responsible for the death inducing effect. Ectopic expression of mitochondrial superoxide scavenging enzyme (MnSOD) or treatment with MnSOD mimetic (MnTBAP) inhibited DOX-induced superoxide generation and apoptosis. The mechanism by which superoxide mediates the apoptotic effect of DOX was shown to involve downregulation of Bcl-2 through ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation. Superoxide induces dephosphorylation of Bcl-2 through MAP kinase ERK1/2 inactivation, which promotes ubiquitination of Bcl-2. We also provide evidence for the oxidative modification of ERK1/2 through cysteine sulfenic acid formation. These findings indicate a novel pathway for redox regulation of apoptosis regulatory proteins, which could be important in the understanding of chemotherapy-induced toxicities and development of preventive treatment strategies which are currently lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudjit Luanpitpong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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Wang TC, Jia G, Song YS, Zhang J, Ma YH, Feng WY, Liu LZ, Zhang N, Zhou JW, Yan L, Zhen S, Qian Q. Effects of chronic chromate exposure on human serum prostate specific antigen: a cross sectional study. INDUSTRIAL HEALTH 2012; 50:95-102. [PMID: 22293723 DOI: 10.2486/indhealth.ms1278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The detrimental effect of chronic chromium (Cr) exposure on the prostate has never been studied. Here, we report the prostate specific antigen (PSA) changes in occupational chromate exposed workers. In this study, eighty six male occupational chromate exposed workers and forty five age-matched controls were recruited. The concentration of Cr in urine (U-Cr), serum total PSA (tPSA), free PSA (fPSA), high sensitive C reactive protein (Hs-CRP) and peripheral white blood cells count (WBC) were measured. The results show that the U-Cr, serum tPSA, Hs-CRP and WBC were significantly higher in Cr exposed workers when compared to the controls. Contrastively, the serum fPSA level in Cr exposed workers was lower than controls. A significant positive correlation between U-Cr and serum tPSA was observed. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that serum tPSA and fPSA level was statistically associated with the serum Hs-CRP and U-Cr concentration in Cr exposed workers. These observations suggested that chronic Cr exposure could produce potential prostate injury and the nonspecific inflammation at least might be one of the reasons to explain the elevated concentration of tPSA in chronic occupational chromate exposed workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Cheng Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Third Hospital of Peking University, Beijing, P.R. China
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Kaushal N, Elliott M, Robson MJ, Iyer AKV, Rojanasakul Y, Coop A, Matsumoto RR. AC927, a σ receptor ligand, blocks methamphetamine-induced release of dopamine and generation of reactive oxygen species in NG108-15 cells. Mol Pharmacol 2011; 81:299-308. [PMID: 22101517 DOI: 10.1124/mol.111.074120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine is a highly addictive psychostimulant drug of abuse that causes neurotoxicity with high or repeated dosing. Earlier studies demonstrated the ability of the selective σ receptor ligand N-phenethylpiperidine oxalate (AC927) to attenuate the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine in vivo. However, the precise mechanisms through which AC927 conveys its protective effects remain to be determined. With the use of differentiated NG108-15 cells as a model system, the effects of methamphetamine on neurotoxic endpoints and mediators such as apoptosis, necrosis, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and dopamine release were examined in the absence and presence of AC927. Methamphetamine at physiologically relevant micromolar concentrations caused apoptosis in NG108-15 cells. At higher concentrations of methamphetamine, necrotic cell death was observed. At earlier time points, methamphetamine caused ROS/RNS generation, which was detected with the fluorigenic substrate 5-(and-6)-chloromethyl-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescin diacetate, acetyl ester, in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. N-Acetylcysteine, catalase, and l-N(G)-monomethyl arginine citrate inhibited the ROS/RNS fluorescence signal induced by methamphetamine, which suggests the formation of hydrogen peroxide and RNS. Exposure to methamphetamine also stimulated the release of dopamine from NG108-15 cells into the culture medium. AC927 attenuated methamphetamine-induced apoptosis, necrosis, ROS/RNS generation, and dopamine release in NG108-15 cells. Together, the data suggest that modulation of σ receptors can mitigate methamphetamine-induced cytotoxicity, ROS/RNS generation, and dopamine release in cultured cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Kaushal
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University Health Sciences Center, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, USA
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34
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Luanpitpong S, Nimmannit U, Chanvorachote P, Leonard SS, Pongrakhananon V, Wang L, Rojanasakul Y. Hydroxyl radical mediates cisplatin-induced apoptosis in human hair follicle dermal papilla cells and keratinocytes through Bcl-2-dependent mechanism. Apoptosis 2011; 16:769-82. [PMID: 21573972 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-011-0609-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Induction of massive apoptosis of hair follicle cells by chemotherapy has been implicated in the pathogenesis of chemotherapy-induced alopecia (CIA), but the underlying mechanisms of regulation are not well understood. The present study investigated the apoptotic effect of cisplatin in human hair follicle dermal papilla cells and HaCaT keratinocytes, and determined the identity and role of specific reactive oxygen species (ROS) involved in the process. Treatment of the cells with cisplatin induced ROS generation and a parallel increase in caspase activation and apoptotic cell death. Inhibition of ROS generation by antioxidants inhibited the apoptotic effect of cisplatin, indicating the role of ROS in the process. Studies using specific ROS scavengers further showed that hydroxyl radical, but not hydrogen peroxide or superoxide anion, is the primary oxidative species responsible for the apoptotic effect of cisplatin. Electron spin resonance studies confirmed the formation of hydroxyl radicals induced by cisplatin. The mechanism by which hydroxyl radical mediates the apoptotic effect of cisplatin was shown to involve down-regulation of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 through ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation. Bcl-2 was also shown to have a negative regulatory role on hydroxyl radical. Together, our results indicate an essential role of hydroxyl radical in cisplatin-induced cell death of hair follicle cells through Bcl-2 regulation. Since CIA is a major side effect of cisplatin and many other chemotherapeutic agents with no known effective treatments, the knowledge gained from this study could be useful in the design of preventive treatment strategies for CIA through localized therapy without compromising the chemotherapy efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudjit Luanpitpong
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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35
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Wu F, Sun H, Kluz T, Clancy HA, Kiok K, Costa M. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) protects against chromate-induced toxicity in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 258:166-75. [PMID: 22079256 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2011] [Revised: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a human carcinogen that results in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a variety of DNA lesions leading to cell death. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the major polyphenol present in green tea, possesses potent antioxidative activity capable of protecting normal cells from various stimuli-induced oxidative stress and cell death. Here we demonstrated that co-treatment with EGCG protected human normal bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells from Cr(VI)-induced cell death in a dose-dependent manner. Cr(VI) induces apoptosis as the primary mode of cell death. Co-treatment of BEAS-2B cells with EGCG dose-dependently suppressed Cr(VI)-induced apoptosis. Fluorescence microscopic analyses and quantitative measurement revealed that EGCG significantly decreased intracellular levels of ROS induced by Cr(VI) exposure. Using a well-established K(+)/SDS precipitation assay, we further showed that EGCG was able to dose-dependently reduce DNA-protein cross-links (DPC), lesions that could be partially attributed to Cr(VI)-induced oxidative stress. Finally, analyses of Affymetrix microarray containing 28,869 well-annotated genes revealed that, among the 3412 genes changed more than 1.5-fold by Cr(VI) treatment, changes of 2404 genes (70%) were inhibited by pretreatment of EGCG. Real-time PCR confirmed the induction of 3 genes involved in cell death and apoptosis by Cr(VI), which was eliminated by EGCG. In contrast, Cr(VI) reduced the expression of 3 genes related to cellular defense, and this reduction was inhibited by EGCG. Our results indicate that EGCG protects BEAS-2B cells from Cr(VI)-induced cytotoxicity presumably by scavenging ROS and modulating a subset of genes. EGCG, therefore, might serve as a potential chemopreventive agent against Cr(VI) carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fen Wu
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY 10987, USA
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36
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Anti-Apoptotic Effect of Hyperbaric Oxygen Preconditioning on a Rat Model of Myocardial Infarction. J Surg Res 2011; 171:41-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2010.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Revised: 01/02/2010] [Accepted: 01/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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37
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Nickens KP, Han Y, Shandilya H, Larrimore A, Gerard GF, Kaldjian E, Patierno SR, Ceryak S. Acquisition of mitochondrial dysregulation and resistance to mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis after genotoxic insult in normal human fibroblasts: a possible model for early stage carcinogenesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2011; 1823:264-72. [PMID: 22057391 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2011.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Revised: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Acquisition of death-resistance is critical in the evolution of neoplasia. Our aim was to model the early stages of carcinogenesis by examining intracellular alterations in cells that have acquired apoptosis-resistance after exposure to a complex genotoxin. We previously generated sub-populations of BJ-hTERT human diploid fibroblasts, which have acquired death-resistance following exposure to hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], a broad-spectrum genotoxicant. Long-term exposure to certain forms of Cr(VI) is associated with respiratory carcinogenesis. Here, we report on the death-sensitivity of subclonal populations derived from clonogenic survivors of BJ-hTERT cells treated with 5 μM Cr(VI) (DR1, DR2), or selected by dilution-based cloning without treatment (CC1). Following Cr(VI) treatment, CC1 cells downregulated expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and exhibited extensive expression of cleaved caspase 3. In contrast, the DR cells exhibited no cleaved caspase 3 expression and maintained expression of Bcl-2 following recovery from 24 h Cr(VI) exposure. The DR cells also exhibited attenuated mitochondrial-membrane depolarization and mitochondrial retention of cytochrome c and SMAC/DIABLO following Cr(VI) exposure. The DR cells exhibited less basal mtDNA damage, as compared to CC1 cells, which correlates with intrinsic (non-induced) death-resistance. Notably, there was no difference in p53 protein expression before or after treatment among all cell lines. Taken together, our data suggest the presence of more resilient mitochondria in death-resistant cells, and that death-resistance can be acquired in normal human cells early after genotoxin exposure. We postulate that resistance to mitochondrial-mediated cell death and mitochondrial dysregulation may be an initial phenotypic alteration observed in early stage carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen P Nickens
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, The George Washington University Medical Center, 2300 I Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA
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38
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Koike-Kuroda Y, Kakeyama M, Fujimaki H, Tsukahara S. Use of live imaging analysis for evaluation of cytotoxic chemicals that induce apoptotic cell death. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:2012-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Revised: 07/01/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Azad N, Iyer A, Vallyathan V, Wang L, Castranova V, Stehlik C, Rojanasakul Y. Role of oxidative/nitrosative stress-mediated Bcl-2 regulation in apoptosis and malignant transformation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1203:1-6. [PMID: 20716276 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05608.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Bcl-2 is a key apoptosis regulatory protein of the mitochondrial death pathway. The oncogenic potential of Bcl-2 is well established, with its overexpression reported in various cancers. The antiapoptotic function of Bcl-2 is closely associated with its expression levels. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) are important intracellular signaling molecules that play a key role in various physiological processes including apoptosis. We have recently reported that ROS and RNS can regulate Bcl-2 expression levels, thereby impacting its function. Superoxide anion (*O(2)(-)) plays a proapoptotic role by causing downregulation and degradation of Bcl-2 protein through the ubiquitin-proteasomal pathway. In contrast, nitric oxide (NO)-mediated S-nitrosylation of Bcl-2 prevents its ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation, leading to inhibition of apoptosis. Interestingly, NO-mediated S-nitrosylation and stabilization of Bcl-2 protein was the primary mechanism involved in the malignant transformation of nontumorigenic lung epithelial cells in response to long-term carcinogen exposure. We describe a novel mechanism of Bcl-2 regulation by *O(2)(-) and NO, providing a new dimension to reactive species-mediated Bcl-2 stability, apoptotic cell death, and cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelam Azad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia, USA.
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40
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Azad N, Iyer AKV, Wang L, Lu Y, Medan D, Castranova V, Rojanasakul Y. Nitric oxide-mediated bcl-2 stabilization potentiates malignant transformation of human lung epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010; 42:578-85. [PMID: 19556603 PMCID: PMC2874443 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2009-0094oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2009] [Accepted: 06/13/2009] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) compounds are known human carcinogens associated with the incidence of lung cancer. Although a direct correlation between Cr(VI) exposure and lung cancer has been established, several studies aimed at generating animal models for Cr(VI) have yielded inconsistent data that do not affirmatively support findings from epidemiologic studies. Because the lack of a good animal model has hindered the identification of molecular mechanisms involved in Cr(VI) exposure, we developed an in vitro model that facilitates mechanistic studies of Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis. We report here that long-term exposure to Cr(VI) leads to the malignant transformation of nontumorigenic human lung epithelial cells. Cr(VI)-transformed cells exhibited loss of contact inhibition, colony formation, and increased rates of cell invasion, migration, and proliferation, as compared with passage-matched control cells. Cr(VI)-transformed cells evaded apoptosis by a mechanism involving S-nitrosylation and stabilization of Bcl-2 protein in a nitric oxide-dependent manner. This study establishes an important in vitro model that facilitates mechanistic studies of Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis, and elucidates a novel mechanism that causes apoptosis-resistant malignant transformation of nontumorigenic lung cells in response to a human carcinogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelam Azad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia 23668, USA.
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Nickens KP, Patierno SR, Ceryak S. Chromium genotoxicity: A double-edged sword. Chem Biol Interact 2010; 188:276-88. [PMID: 20430016 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2010.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Certain forms of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] are known respiratory carcinogens that induce a broad spectrum of DNA damage. Cr(VI)-carcinogenesis may be initiated or promoted through several mechanistic processes including, the intracellular metabolic reduction of Cr(VI) producing chromium species capable of interacting with DNA to yield genotoxic and mutagenic effects, Cr(VI)-induced inflammatory/immunological responses, and alteration of survival signaling pathways. Cr(VI) enters the cell through non-specific anion channels, and is metabolically reduced by agents including ascorbate, glutathione, and cysteine to Cr(V), Cr(IV), and Cr(III). Cr(III) has a weak membrane permeability capacity and is unable to cross the cell membrane, thereby trapping it within the cell where it can bind to DNA and produce genetic damage leading to genomic instability. Structural genetic lesions produced by the intracellular reduction of Cr(VI) include DNA adducts, DNA-strand breaks, DNA-protein crosslinks, oxidized bases, abasic sites, and DNA inter- and intrastrand crosslinks. The damage induced by Cr(VI) can lead to dysfunctional DNA replication and transcription, aberrant cell cycle checkpoints, dysregulated DNA repair mechanisms, microsatelite instability, inflammatory responses, and the disruption of key regulatory gene networks responsible for the balance of cell survival and cell death, which may all play an important role in Cr(VI) carcinogenesis. Several lines of evidence have indicated that neoplastic progression is a result of consecutive genetic/epigenetic changes that provide cellular survival advantages, and ultimately lead to the conversion of normal human cells to malignant cancer cells. This review is based on studies that provide a glimpse into Cr(VI) carcinogenicity via mechanisms including Cr(VI)-induced death-resistance, the involvement of DNA repair mechanisms in survival after chromium exposure, and the activation of survival signaling cascades in response to Cr(VI) genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen P Nickens
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, The George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20037, United States
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Franco R, Sánchez-Olea R, Reyes-Reyes EM, Panayiotidis MI. Environmental toxicity, oxidative stress and apoptosis: ménage à trois. Mutat Res 2008; 674:3-22. [PMID: 19114126 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2008.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2008] [Accepted: 11/27/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis is an evolutionary conserved homeostatic process involved in distinct physiological processes including organ and tissue morphogenesis, development and senescence. Its deregulation is also known to participate in the etiology of several human diseases including cancer, neurodegenerative and autoimmune disorders. Environmental stressors (cytotoxic agents, pollutants or toxicants) are well known to induce apoptotic cell death and to contribute to a variety of pathological conditions. Oxidative stress seems to be the central element in the regulation of the apoptotic pathways triggered by environmental stressors. In this work, we review the established mechanisms by which oxidative stress and environmental stressors regulate the apoptotic machinery with the aim to underscore the relevance of apoptosis as a component in environmental toxicity and human disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Franco
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P. O. Box 12233, 111. T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States.
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