Clinical and Epidemiologic Patterns of Chikungunya Virus Infection and Coincident Arboviral Disease in a School Cohort in Haiti, 2014-2015

Dengue and Other Arbovirus Infections among Schoolchildren, Haiti, 2021

In 2021, we screened 91 children in Haiti with acute undifferentiated febrile illness for arbovirus infections. We identified a major outbreak of dengue virus type 2, with 67% of the children testing positive. Two others were positive for chikungunya East/Central/South African IIa subclade, and 2 were positive for Zika virus.

Mayaro Virus: An Emerging Alphavirus in the Americas

Mayaro virus (MAYV) is an arbovirus first isolated in Trinidad and Tobago in 1954. MAYV is the causative agent of Mayaro fever, which is characterised by high fever, maculopapular rash, myalgia and arthralgia. The potential for chronic arthralgia is of particular clinical concern. Currently, MAYV outbreaks are restricted to South and Central America, with some cases reported in Africa as well as several imported cases in Europe. However, in recent years, MAYV has become a growing global concern due to its potential to emerge into urban transmission cycles. Challenges faced with diagnostics, as well as a lack of specific antivirals or licensed vaccines further exacerbate the potential global health threat posed by MAYV. In this review, we discuss this emerging arboviral threat with a particular focus on the current treatment and vaccine development efforts. Overall, MAYV remains a neglected arbovirus due to its limited area of transmission. However, with the potential of its urbanisation and expanding circulation, the threat MAYV poses to global health cannot be overlooked. Further research into the improvement of current diagnostics, as well as the development of efficacious antivirals and vaccines will be crucial to help prevent and manage potential MAYV outbreaks.

Global Prevalence of Zika and Chikungunya Coinfection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Zika virus (ZIKV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) are arthropod-borne viruses with significant pathogenicity, posing a substantial health and economic burden on a global scale. Moreover, ZIKV-CHIKV coinfection imposes additional therapeutic challenges as there is no specific treatment for ZIKV or CHIKV infection. While a growing number of studies have documented the ZIKV-CHIKV coinfection, there is currently a lack of conclusive reports on this coinfection. Therefore, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the true statistics of ZIKV-CHIKV coinfection in the global human population. Relevant studies were searched for in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar without limitation in terms of language or publication date. A total of 33 studies containing 41,460 participants were included in this meta-analysis. The study protocol was registered with PROSPERO under the registration number CRD42020176409. The pooled prevalence and confidence intervals of ZIKV-CHIKV coinfection were computed using a random-effects model. The study estimated a combined global prevalence rate of 1.0% [95% CI: 0.7-1.2] for the occurrence of ZIKV-CHIKV coinfection. The region of North America (Mexico, Haiti, and Nicaragua) and the country of Haiti demonstrated maximum prevalence rates of 2.8% [95% CI: 1.5-4.1] and 3.5% [95% CI: 0.2-6.8], respectively. Moreover, the prevalence of coinfection was found to be higher in the paediatric group (2.1% [95% CI: 0.0-4.2]) in comparison with the adult group (0.7% [95% CI: 0.2-1.1]). These findings suggest that the occurrence of ZIKV-CHIKV coinfection varies geographically and by age group. The results of this meta-analysis will guide future investigations seeking to understand the underlying reasons for these variations and the causes of coinfection and to develop targeted prevention and control strategies.

Trends in emerging vector-borne viral infections and their outcome in children over two decades

This review utilizes quatitative methods and bibliometric data to analyse the trends of emerging and re-emerging vector-borne diseases, with a focus on their impact on pediatric population. To conduct this analysis, a systematic search of PubMed articles from the past two decades was performed, specifically looking at 26 different vector-borne viruses listed in WHO and CDC list of vector-borne viruses. The review found that diseases like Dengue, Zika, West Nile, and Chikungunya were frequently discussed in the literature. On the other hand, diseases such as Tick-borne encephalitis, Rift Valley fever, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Sindbis fever, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Ross River virus, and Eastern equine encephalitis showed an upward trend in publications, indicating potential resurgence. In addition to discussing trends and patterns, the review delves into the clinical manifestations and long-term effects of the top 10 viruses in children. It highlights various factors including deforestation, urbanization, global travel, and immunosuppression that contribute to disease emergence and resurgence. To effectively combat these vector-borne diseases, continuous surveillance is crucial. The review also emphasizes the importance of increased vaccination efforts and targeted research to address the health challenges they pose. IMPACT: This review employs quantitative analysis of publications to elucidate trends in emerging pediatric vector-borne viral diseases over two decades. Dengue, the most prevalent of these diseases, has spread to new regions. New strains of Japanese Encephalitis have caused outbreaks. Resurgence of Tick-borne Encephalitis, West Nile, and Yellow Fever due to vaccine hesitancy has also transpired. Continuous global surveillance, increased vaccination, and research into novel therapeutics are imperative to combat the substantial morbidity and mortality burden these diseases pose for children worldwide.

Joint Involvement Can Predict Chikungunya in a Dengue Syndemic Setting in India

Dengue and chikungunya have been endemic in India but have the tendency to cause periodic epidemics, often together, wherein they are termed 'syndemic'. Such a syndemic was observed in 2016 in India which resulted in a further scarcity of already resource-poor specific diagnostic infrastructure even in many urban conglomerates. A cross-sectional study was thus conducted, on 978 fever patients that consulted the ICMR-NIMR fever clinic, New Delhi, in September 2016, with an objective to identify symptom/s that could predict chikungunya with certainty. The overall aim was to rationally channelize the most clinically suitable patients for the required specific diagnosis of chikungunya. Based on their clinical profile, febrile patients attending NIMR's clinic, appropriate laboratory tests and their association analyses were performed. Bivariate analysis on 34 clinical parameters revealed that joint pain, joint swelling, rashes, red spots, weakness, itching, loss of taste, red eyes, and bleeding gums were found to be statistically significantly associated predictors of chikungunya as compared to dengue. While, in multivariate analysis, only four symptoms (joint pain in elbows, joint swelling, itching and bleeding gums) were found in statistically significant association with chikungunya. Hence, based on the results, a clinician may preferably channelize febrile patients with one or more of these four symptoms for chikungunya-specific diagnosis and divert the rest for dengue lab diagnosis in a dengue-chikungunya syndemic setting.

In Vitro and In Vivo Coinfection and Superinfection Dynamics of Mayaro and Zika Viruses in Mosquito and Vertebrate Backgrounds

Globalization and climate change have contributed to the simultaneous increase and spread of arboviral diseases. Cocirculation of several arboviruses in the same geographic region provides an impetus to study the impacts of multiple concurrent infections within an individual vector mosquito. Here, we describe coinfection and superinfection with the Mayaro virus (Togaviridae, Alphavirus) and Zika virus (Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) in vertebrate and mosquito cells, as well as Aedes aegypti adult mosquitoes, to understand the interaction dynamics of these pathogens and effects on viral infection, dissemination, and transmission. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes were able to be infected with and transmit both pathogens simultaneously. However, whereas Mayaro virus was largely unaffected by coinfection, it had a negative impact on infection and dissemination rates for Zika virus compared to single infection scenarios. Superinfection of Mayaro virus atop a previous Zika virus infection resulted in increased Mayaro virus infection rates. At the cellular level, we found that mosquito and vertebrate cells were also capable of being simultaneously infected with both pathogens. Similar to our findings in vivo, Mayaro virus negatively affected Zika virus replication in vertebrate cells, displaying complete blocking under certain conditions. Viral interference did not occur in mosquito cells. IMPORTANCE Epidemiological and clinical studies indicate that multiple arboviruses are cocirculating in human populations, leading to some individuals carrying more than one arbovirus at the same time. In turn, mosquitoes can become infected with multiple pathogens simultaneously (coinfection) or sequentially (superinfection). Coinfection and superinfection can have synergistic, neutral, or antagonistic effects on viral infection dynamics and ultimately have impacts on human health. Here we investigate the interaction between Zika virus and Mayaro virus, two emerging mosquito-borne pathogens currently circulating together in Latin America and the Caribbean. We find a major mosquito vector of these viruses-Aedes aegypti-can carry and transmit both arboviruses at the same time. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering co- and superinfection dynamics during vector-pathogen interaction studies, surveillance programs, and risk assessment efforts in epidemic areas.

Analysis of Zika Virus Sequence Data Associated with a School Cohort in Haiti

Zika virus (ZIKV) infections occurred in epidemic form in the Americas in 2014-2016, with some of the earliest isolates in the region coming from Haiti. We isolated ZIKV from 20 children with acute undifferentiated febrile illness who were part of a cohort of children seen at a school clinic in the Gressier region of Haiti. The virus was also isolated from three pools of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes collected at the same location. On phylogenetic analysis, three distinct ZIKV clades were identified. Strains from all three clades were present in Haiti in 2014, making them among the earliest isolates identified in the Western Hemisphere. Strains from all three clades were also isolated in 2016, indicative of their persistence across the time period of the epidemic. Mosquito isolates were collected in 2016 and included representatives from two of the three clades; in one instance, ZIKV was isolated from a pool of male mosquitoes, suggestive of vertical transmission of the virus. The identification of multiple ZIKV clades in Haiti at the beginning of the epidemic suggests that Haiti served as a nidus for transmission within the Caribbean.

Genome Sequence of Genotype 1A Hepatovirus A Isolated from Plasma from a Haitian Child

Genotype 1A hepatovirus A was identified by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and isolated from plasma from a Haitian child with acute undifferentiated febrile illness and malaise. The strain was most closely related to Brazilian strains, consistent with recognized patterns of virus movement in the Caribbean region.

Global prevalence of dengue and chikungunya coinfection: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 43,341 participants

Dengue and chikungunya virus are important arboviruses of public health concern. In the past decades, they have accounted for numerous outbreaks of dengue and chikungunya in different parts of the world. Several cases of concurrent infection of dengue and chikungunya have been documented. However, the true burden of this concurrent infection is unknown. Here, a systematic review and meta-analysis of published data on the prevalence of dengue and chikungunya coinfection in the human population was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis. Six electronic databases (Web of science, Embase, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar) were searched without year or language restrictions for relevant studies. The study protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020175344). Eighty-three studies involving a total of 43,341 participants were included. The random-effects model was employed to calculate the summary estimates. A pooled global prevalence of 2.5% (95% CI: 1.8-3.4) was obtained for dengue and chikungunya coinfection. Males and females appear to be coinfected at a fairly similar rate. Among the regions, Asia accounted for the highest prevalence (3.3%, 95% CI: 2.3-4.6) while North America was the least (0.8%, 95% CI: 0.3-2.4). The prevalence estimates varied across different countries. A much higher prevalence rates were obtained for Colombia (37.4%, 95% CI: 9.1-78.1), Madagascar (18.2%, 95% CI: 10.1-30.6), Laos (12.5%, 95% CI: 5.3-26.7), Maldives (4.5%, 95% CI: 1.5-13.0) and Thailand (3.7%, 95% CI: 0.4-26.3). This first extensive systematic review and meta-analysis reveals dengue and chikungunya coinfection as a global problem worthy of consideration. It is therefore pertinent that both infections be assessed during diagnosis, mosquito vector control practices be implemented, and vaccine development strides be supported globally.

The global burden of Chikungunya fever among children: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis

Chikungunya fever (CHIKF) is an arboviral illness that was first described in Tanzania (1952). In adults, the disease is characterised by debilitating arthralgia and arthritis that can persist for months, with severe illness including neurological complications observed in the elderly. However, the burden, distribution and clinical features of CHIKF in children are poorly described. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis to determine the epidemiology of CHIKF in children globally by describing its prevalence, geographical distribution, and clinical manifestations. We searched electronic databases for studies describing the epidemiology of CHIKF in children. We included peer-reviewed primary studies that reported laboratory confirmed CHIKF. We extracted information on study details, sampling approach, study participants, CHIKF positivity, clinical presentation and outcomes of CHIKF in children. The quality of included studies was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal tool for case reports and National Institute of Health quality assessment tool for quantitative studies and case series. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of CHIKF among children by geographical location. We summarised clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, administered treatment and disease outcomes associated with CHIKF in children. We identified 2104 studies, of which 142 and 53 articles that met the inclusion criteria were included in the systematic literature review and meta-analysis, respectively. Most of the selected studies were from Asia (54/142 studies) and the fewest from Europe (5/142 studies). Included studies were commonly conducted during an epidemic season (41.5%) than non-epidemic season (5.1%). Thrombocytopenia was common among infected children and CHIKF severity was more prevalent in children <1 year. Children with undifferentiated fever before CHIKF was diagnosed were treated with antibiotics and/or drugs that managed specific symptoms or provided supportive care. CHIKF is a significant under-recognised and underreported health problem among children globally and development of drugs/vaccines should target young children.

The global epidemiology of chikungunya from 1999 to 2020: A systematic literature review to inform the development and introduction of vaccines

Chikungunya fever is an acute febrile illness that is often associated with severe polyarthralgia in humans. The disease is caused by chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a mosquito-borne alphavirus. Since its reemergence in 2004, the virus has spread throughout the tropical world and several subtropical areas affecting millions of people to become a global public health issue. Given the significant disease burden, there is a need for medical countermeasures and several vaccine candidates are in clinical development. To characterize the global epidemiology of chikungunya and inform vaccine development, we undertook a systematic literature review in MEDLINE and additional public domain sources published up to June 13, 2020 and assessed epidemiological trends from 1999 to 2020. Observational studies addressing CHIKV epidemiology were included and studies not reporting primary data were excluded. Only descriptive analyses were conducted. Of 3,883 relevant sources identified, 371 were eligible for inclusion. 46% of the included studies were published after 2016. Ninety-seven outbreak reports from 45 countries and 50 seroprevalence studies from 31 countries were retrieved, including from Africa, Asia, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe. Several countries reported multiple outbreaks, but these were sporadic and unpredictable. Substantial gaps in epidemiological knowledge were identified, specifically granular data on disease incidence and age-specific infection rates. The retrieved studies revealed a diversity of methodologies and study designs, reflecting a lack of standardized procedures used to characterize this disease. Nevertheless, available epidemiological data emphasized the challenges to conduct vaccine efficacy trials due to disease unpredictability. A better understanding of chikungunya disease dynamics with appropriate granularity and better insights into the duration of long-term population immunity is critical to assist in the planning and success of vaccine development efforts pre and post licensure.

Chikungunya disease is a mosquito-borne viral infection which causes an acute febrile illness often associated with debilitating polyarthralgia. It is estimated that over three quarters of the world’s populations live in areas at-risk of chikungunya virus transmission and to date, no efficacious medical countermeasures exist. To guide vaccine development against chikungunya, data regarding where and when outbreaks occur are needed. We conducted a systematic literature review to describe the global epidemiology of chikungunya to inform vaccine development. We used well-defined methods to search for and identify relevant research published between 1, January 1999 and 13, June 2020 in MEDLINE and other publicly available sources. We reviewed 371 references which emphasized the global expansion of chikungunya since its reemergence in 2004. Gaps in epidemiological knowledge identified included the population at risk, magnitude of outbreaks, and duration of natural immunity. This information is essential for late-stage development of chikungunya vaccines.

Orthobunyaviruses in the Caribbean: Melao and Oropouche virus infections in school children in Haiti in 2014

We report the identification of two orthobunyaviruses, Melao virus (MELV) and Oropouche virus (OROV), in plasma specimens from Haitian children with acute febrile illness who presented during outbreaks caused by alpha- and flaviviruses in 2014. Heretofore not described as a human pathogen, MELV was isolated in cell culture from the plasma of five case patients. OROV RNA was detected in the plasma of an additional child, using an unbiased sequencing approach, with phylogenetic inference suggesting a close relationship with strains from Brazil. Abdominal pain was reported by four case patients with MELV infections, with lymphadenopathy noted in two cases. Our findings document the occurrence of these orthobunyaviruses within the Caribbean region and highlight the critical importance of surveillance with viral genome sequence analyses to identify outbreaks caused by these and other emerging viruses.

Melao and Oropuche virus infections were detected in Haitian children who developed acute febrile illnesses in year 2014. As these viruses were not previously known to circulate in Haiti, our findings highlight the critical importance of surveillance to identify outbreaks caused by these and other emerging viruses.

Chikungunya and Zika Viruses: Co-Circulation and the Interplay between Viral Proteins and Host Factors

Chikungunya and Zika viruses, both transmitted by mosquito vectors, have globally re-emerged over for the last 60 years and resulted in crucial social and economic concerns. Presently, there is no specific antiviral agent or vaccine against these debilitating viruses. Understanding viral-host interactions is needed to develop targeted therapeutics. However, there is presently limited information in this area. In this review, we start with the updated virology and replication cycle of each virus. Transmission by similar mosquito vectors, frequent co-circulation, and occurrence of co-infection are summarized. Finally, the targeted host proteins/factors used by the viruses are discussed. There is an urgent need to better understand the virus-host interactions that will facilitate antiviral drug development and thus reduce the global burden of infections caused by arboviruses.

Emergence of porcine delta-coronavirus pathogenic infections among children in Haiti through independent zoonoses and convergent evolution

Coronaviruses have caused three major epidemics since 2003, including the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. In each case, coronavirus emergence in our species has been associated with zoonotic transmissions from animal reservoirs^1,2, underscoring how prone such pathogens are to spill over and adapt to new species. Among the four recognized genera of the family Coronaviridae – Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Deltacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus, – human infections reported to date have been limited to alpha- and betacoronaviruses³. We identify, for the first time, porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) strains in plasma samples of three Haitian children with acute undifferentiated febrile illness. Genomic and evolutionary analyses reveal that human infections were the result of at least two independent zoonoses of distinct viral lineages that acquired the same mutational signature in the nsp15 and the spike glycoprotein genes by convergent evolution. In particular, structural analysis predicts that one of the changes in the Spike S1 subunit, which contains the receptor-binding domain, may affect protein’s flexibility and binding to the host cell receptor. Our findings not only underscore the ability of deltacoronaviruses to adapt and potentially lead to human-to-human transmission, but also raise questions about the role of such transmissions in development of pre-existing immunity to other coronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV-2.

Postnatally Acquired Zika Virus Disease Among Children, United States, 2016-2017

BACKGROUND

The clinical findings among children with postnatally acquired Zika virus disease are not well characterized. We describe and compare clinical signs and symptoms for children aged <18 years.

METHODS

Zika virus disease cases were included if they met the national surveillance case definition, had illness onset in 2016 or 2017, resided in a participating state, and were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pediatric cases were aged <18 years; congenital and perinatal infections were excluded. Pediatric cases were matched to adult cases (18‒49 years). Clinical information was compared between younger and older pediatric cases and between children and adults.

RESULTS

A total of 141 pediatric Zika virus disease cases were identified; none experienced neurologic disease. Overall, 28 (20%) were treated in an emergency department, 1 (<1%) was hospitalized; none died. Of the 4 primary clinical signs and symptoms associated with Zika virus disease, 133 (94%) children had rash, 104 (74%) fever, 67 (48%) arthralgia, and 51 (36%) conjunctivitis. Fever, arthralgia, and myalgia were more common in older children (12‒17 years) than younger children (1‒11 years). Arthralgia, arthritis, edema, and myalgia were more common in adults compared to children.

CONCLUSIONS

This report supports previous findings that Zika virus disease is generally mild in children. The most common symptoms are similar to other childhood infections, and clinical findings and outcomes are similar to those in adults. Healthcare providers should consider a diagnosis of Zika virus infection in children with fever, rash, arthralgia, or conjunctivitis, who reside in or have traveled to an area where Zika virus transmission is occurring.

Independent infections of porcine deltacoronavirus among Haitian children

Coronaviruses have caused three major epidemics since 2003, including the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. In each case, the emergence of coronavirus in our species has been associated with zoonotic transmissions from animal reservoirs^1,2, underscoring how prone such pathogens are to spill over and adapt to new species. Among the four recognized genera of the family Coronaviridae, human infections reported so far have been limited to alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses^3-5. Here we identify porcine deltacoronavirus strains in plasma samples of three Haitian children with acute undifferentiated febrile illness. Genomic and evolutionary analyses reveal that human infections were the result of at least two independent zoonoses of distinct viral lineages that acquired the same mutational signature in the genes encoding Nsp15 and the spike glycoprotein. In particular, structural analysis predicts that one of the changes in the spike S1 subunit, which contains the receptor-binding domain, may affect the flexibility of the protein and its binding to the host cell receptor. Our findings highlight the potential for evolutionary change and adaptation leading to human infections by coronaviruses outside of the previously recognized human-associated coronavirus groups, particularly in settings where there may be close human-animal contact.

Pre and postnatal exposure to Chikungunya virus does not affect child neurodevelopmental outcomes at two years of age

BACKGROUND

The 2005-06 chikungunya virus (CHIKV) outbreak in La Réunion suggested that mothers could transmit CHIKV to their neonates while viremic during the intrapartum period, and more than half of the infected neonates showed impaired neurodevelopment at two years of age. However, data sparsity precluded an overview of the developmental impact of vertical infection within the whole prenatal period.

OBJECTIVE & METHODS

The current study assessed two-year old children born to mothers who were infected during the 2014 CHIKV outbreak in Grenada to determine the neurodevelopmental impact of perinatal CHIKV infection throughout gestation. Mother and child infection status were confirmed by serologic testing (IgG and IgM) for CHIKV. Cognitive, fine motor, gross motor, language and behavioral outcomes were assessed at two years of age on the INTERGROWTH-21st Neurodevelopment Assessment (INTER-NDA).

RESULTS

No differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes were observed between two-year-old children born to mothers infected with CHIKV during gestation (n = 149) and those born to mothers not infected with CHIKV (n = 161). No differences were found in INTER-NDA scores between children infected with CHIKV (n = 47) and children not infected with CHIKV (n = 592). Likewise, there were no differences between children infected with CHIKV post-partum (n = 19) versus children not infected with CHIKV (n = 592).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that children exposed and/or infected with CHIKV outside of the intrapartum period experience no significant neurodevelopmental delay at two years of age, as measured by the INTER-NDA, compared to their unexposed and/or uninfected peers. These results complement those of previous studies which showed a neurodevelopmental risk only for children infected during the intrapartum period, while the mother was highly viremic. These results might be reassuring for women of childbearing age and public health officials in CHIKV-endemic regions.

The frequency and clinical presentation of Zika virus coinfections: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

There is limited knowledge on the influence of concurrent coinfections on the clinical presentation of Zika virus (ZIKV) disease.

METHODS

To better understand the types, frequencies and clinical manifestations of ZIKV coinfections, we did a systematic review of four databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, LILACS) without restrictions for studies on ZIKV coinfections confirmed by nucleic acid (quantitative real-time-PCR) testing of ZIKV and coinfecting pathogens. The review aimed to identify cohort, cross-sectional, case series and case report studies that described frequencies and/or clinical signs and symptoms of ZIKV coinfections. Conference abstracts, reviews, commentaries and studies with imprecise pathogen diagnoses and/or no clinical evaluations were excluded.

RESULTS

The search identified 34 articles from 10 countries, comprising 2 cohort, 10 cross-sectional, 8 case series and 14 case report studies. Coinfections were most frequently reported to have occurred with other arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses); out of the 213 coinfections described, ZIKV infections co-occurred with chikungunya in 115 cases, with dengue in 68 cases and with both viruses in 19 cases. Other coinfecting agents included human immunodeficiency, Epstein-Barr, human herpes and Mayaro viruses, Leptospira spp, Toxoplasma gondii and Schistosoma mansoni. ZIKV-coinfected cases primarily presented with mild clinical features, typical of ZIKV monoinfection; however, 9% of cases in cohort and cross-sectional studies were reported to experience complications.

CONCLUSION

Based on the evidence collated in this review, coinfections do not appear to strongly influence the clinical manifestations of uncomplicated ZIKV infections. Further research is needed to confirm whether risk of severe complications is altered when ZIKV infection co-occurs with other infections.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42018111023.

Chikungunya in Infants and Children: Is Pathogenesis Increasing?

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) was first extensively described in children during outbreaks in India and South Asia during the mid-1960s. Prior to the 2005 emergence of CHIKV on Reunion Island, CHIKV infection was usually described as a dengue-like illness with arthralgia in Africa and febrile hemorrhagic disease in Asia. Soon after the 2005 emergence, severe CNS consequences from vertical and perinatal transmission were described and as CHIKV continued to emerge in new areas over the next 10 years, severe manifestation of infection and sequelae were increasingly reported in infants and neonates. The following review describes the global reemergence and the syndromes of Chikungunya fever (CHIKF) in infants and children. The various manifestations of CHIKF are described and connected to the viral lineage that was documented in the area at the time the disease was described. The data show that certain manifestations of CHIKF occur with specific viral lineages and genetic motifs, which suggests that severe manifestations of CHIKF in the very young may be associated with the emergence of new viral lineages.

Emergence of Madariaga virus as a cause of acute febrile illness in children, Haiti, 2015-2016

Madariaga virus (MADV), also known as South American eastern equine encephalitis virus, has been identified in animals and humans in South and Central America, but not previously in Hispaniola or the northern Caribbean. MADV was isolated from virus cultures of plasma from an 8-year-old child in a school cohort in the Gressier/Leogane region of Haiti, who was seen in April, 2015, with acute febrile illness (AFI). The virus was subsequently cultured from an additional seven AFI case patients from this same cohort in February, April, and May 2016. Symptoms most closely resembled those seen with confirmed dengue virus infection. Sequence data were available for four isolates: all were within the same clade, with phylogenetic and molecular clock data suggesting recent introduction of the virus into Haiti from Panama sometime in the period from October 2012-January 2015. Our data document the movement of MADV into Haiti, and raise questions about the potential for further spread in the Caribbean or North America.

Madariaga virus (MADV) is the name given to what used to be called South American eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), based on recent studies suggesting that MADV is distinct genetically from the EEEV circulating in North America. Until now, MADV has been found primarily in animals in South and Central America, with a limited number of human cases reported (most of whom had encephalitis). Our group has been responsible for a series of studies assessing the etiology of acute febrile illness (AFI) among children in a school cohort in Haiti. Unexpectedly, in April, 2015, we identified MADV on viral culture of plasma from a student with AFI in this cohort; an additional seven cases were identified on culture of samples from children with AFI in this same cohort in February, April, and May 2016. On sequence analysis, all strains were very similar genetically, and appear to have come from a strain introduced into Haiti from Panama sometime in the period from October 2012- January 2015. Symptoms of children were similar to those seen with dengue; none had encephalitis. Our data indicate that this virus, which has the potential for causing serious illness, has been recently introduced into Haiti, and raises the possibility that it might move into other parts of the Caribbean or North America.

Detection and phylogenetic characterization of arbovirus dual-infections among persons during a chikungunya fever outbreak, Haiti 2014

In the context of recent arbovirus epidemics, questions about the frequency of simultaneous infection of patients with different arbovirus species have been raised. In 2014, a major Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) epidemic impacted the Caribbean and South America. As part of ongoing screening of schoolchildren presenting with acute undifferentiated febrile illness in rural Haiti, we used RT-PCR to identify CHIKV infections in 82 of 100 children with this diagnosis during May-August 2014. Among these, eight were infected with a second arbovirus: six with Zika virus (ZIKV), one with Dengue virus serotype 2, and one with Mayaro virus (MAYV). These dual infections were only detected following culture of the specimen, suggesting low viral loads of the co-infecting species. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that the ZIKV and MAYV strains differ from those detected later in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Moreover, CHIKV and ZIKV strains from co-infected patients clustered monophyletically in their respective phylogeny, and clock calibration traced back the common ancestor of each clade to an overlapping timeframe of introduction of these arboviruses onto the island.