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Ghimire R, Brown JL, Thitaram C, Bansiddhi P. Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1370909. [PMID: 38532794 PMCID: PMC10964907 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1370909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Welfare is a fundamental aspect of animal management and conservation. In light of growing public awareness and welfare concerns about captive elephants, there is an urgent need for comprehensive, globally coordinated efforts for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) that participate in religious, logging, or tourist activities in range countries where the majority reside, and where welfare issues have been identified but not addressed. This review provides a comparative analysis of available animal assessment tools. Each offers distinct features for assessment that allow institutions to select criteria for specific needs and available resources. Most are applied to general animal welfare assessments, although some are tailored to particular species, including elephants. The tools span diverse formats, from digital to primarily paper-based assessments. Assessments operate at individual and institutional levels and across multiple welfare domains. Methodologies rely on keeper ratings or expert evaluations, incorporate numerical scoring and Likert scales for welfare grading, and encompass inputs including behaviors, health, and physiological indicators. For tourist camp elephants, one challenge is that the tools were developed in zoos, which may or may not have application to non-zoological settings. Digital tools and assessment methodologies such as keeper ratings face logistical challenges when applied across tourist venues. As with any tool, reliability, validity, and repeatability are essential and must address the unique welfare challenges of diverse captive settings. We propose that a holistic, context-specific, evidence-based, and practical tool be developed to ensure high elephant welfare standards in non-zoological facilities throughout Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Ghimire
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Supanta J, Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Punturee K, Somboon N, Towiboon P, Khonmee J. Physiological changes in captive elephants in Northern Thailand as a result of the COVID-19 tourism ban - muscle, liver, metabolic function, and body condition. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1303537. [PMID: 38179326 PMCID: PMC10764436 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1303537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The international travel ban initiated in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how captive elephants were managed in Thailand. A lack of tourists and associated income meant elephants were chained longer with reduced food provisions, had fewer mahouts, and limited exercise like riding, which likely affected health and welfare. Fifty-eight elephants from six tourist camps were assigned a body condition score (BCS) and blood samples were collected monthly for 2 years during the travel ban to measure: (1) muscle enzymes [creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST)]; (2) liver enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)]; (3) lipids [total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low (LDL) and high (HDL) density lipoproteins]; and metabolic function [glucose, insulin, fructosamine]. Serum CK concentrations were lower at the end of the study, possibly due to no tourist activities like riding. Changes in liver function included increased AST and ALP, also possibly due to physical inactivity. Feeding less bananas and sugar cane was associated with fewer elephants in the obese category and lower TG concentrations. However, increases in glucose, insulin and fructosamine were observed as local people returned to feed elephants after lifting travel restrictions. In sum, changes in several health biomarkers were observed in association with restricted activities and food resources. Camps need better plans to meet the health and welfare needs of elephants during any future disruptions to the tourism industry, although reduced feeding of sweet treats appeared to have positive effects on body condition and metabolic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarawee Supanta
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Khanittha Punturee
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nopphamas Somboon
- Small Animal Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Towiboon P, Pringproa K, Punyapornwithaya V, Tankaew P, Kittisirikul N, Toonrongchang W, Janyamathakul T, Muanghong P, Thitaram C. Seasonal patterns of oxidative stress markers in captive Asian elephants in Thailand and relationships to elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus shedding. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1263775. [PMID: 37795017 PMCID: PMC10546319 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1263775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant activity and accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which can have detrimental effects on animal health. Annual fluctuations in oxidative stress status can occur, increasing disease susceptibility during certain time periods. However, a full understanding of factors related to oxidative stress in Asian elephants and how to mitigate the negative consequences is lacking. Methods This study measured six serum oxidative stress markers [reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), albumin, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase] and two stress markers [serum cortisol and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM)] in 23 captive Asian elephants in Thailand over a 12 months period to examine relationships with age and season. Results Seasonal variations were observed, with several markers exhibiting significantly higher concentrations in the summer (ROS, MDA, 8-OHdG, albumin) and lower values during the rainy/winter seasons (MDA, 8-OHdG, albumin, catalase). By contrast, GPx was the only marker to be highest during the rainy season. For the stress markers, higher fGCM concentrations were noted during the rainy season, which contrasts with earlier studies showing more activity in the winter (tourist season). Positive correlations were found between the temperature-humidity index and ROS, GPx, and fGCM, while a negative correlation was observed with serum albumin. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) shedding events were associated with higher concentrations of ROS and MDA. A moderate negative correlation was observed between 8-OHdG and the PCR threshold cycle of EEHV shedding (Ct), indicating DNA damage may be involved in EEHV shedding in elephants. Discussion Results revealed significant age and seasonal effects on several oxidative stress markers, indicating those factors should be considered in study design and data interpretation. There also may be physiological adaptations in oxidative stress conditions in relation to environmental changes that could impact health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Doctoral Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pallop Tankaew
- Central Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Narueporn Kittisirikul
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang, Thailand
| | | | | | | | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Ukonaho S, Berger V, Franco dos Santos DJ, Htut W, Aung HH, Nyeing UK, Reichert S, Lummaa V. Seasonal variation in molecular and physiological stress markers in Asian elephants. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 11:coad029. [PMID: 38026806 PMCID: PMC10660384 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coad029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Free-living species exhibit seasonal variation in various life history traits, including vital rates such as birth and death patterns. Different physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie the expression of life history traits that contribute to lifetime fitness. However, although the broad impacts of seasonality on life history traits and trade-offs is well established in many systems, the exact physiological mechanisms responsible for driving differences within and between individuals are poorly understood. Among them, molecular and physiological stress pathways, such as stress hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and oxidative stress, have potential to mediate relationships between individual survival, reproduction and environmental seasonality. Here, we determine how different physiological markers of stress including faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs), heterophils/lymphocytes (H/L) ratio, two markers indicating oxidative balance including a marker of oxidative damage (reactive oxygen metabolites, ROM) and a marker of antioxidant defences (superoxide dismutase, SOD) and body weight vary in a large semi-captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) exposed to extreme seasonality (e.g. elevated temperatures). Individuals showed higher FCM levels and H/L ratios during cold season, indicating increased stress, and the lowest FCM levels during monsoon season and H/L ratios during hot and dry season, but we found no pattern in oxidative stress (ROM and SOD) levels. Hot season also associated with a decline in body weight. The present study shows how different physiological parameters (FCM levels and H/L ratio), molecular (oxidative stress) and body condition vary with seasonal changes, and how these parameters might allow individuals to adapt to such variations. Our results on an endangered long-lived species are crucial in indicating the most productive timing for conservation efforts, predicting how individuals cope with environmental changes, and allow for a more accurate representation of how animal physiology operates in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Ukonaho
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
| | - Vérane Berger
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
| | | | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, MONREC, Myanmar
| | | | | | - Sophie Reichert
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Towiboon P, Punyapornwithaya V, Pringproa K, Thitaram C. Measures of Oxidative Status Markers in Relation to Age, Sex, and Season in Sick and Healthy Captive Asian Elephants in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091548. [PMID: 37174585 PMCID: PMC10177462 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a pathological condition that can have adverse effects on animal health, although little research has been conducted on wildlife species. In this study, blood was collected from captive Asian elephants for the assessment of five serum oxidative status markers (reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations; malondialdehyde, MDA; albumin; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; and catalase) in healthy (n = 137) and sick (n = 20) animals. Health problems consisted of weakness, puncture wounds, gastrointestinal distress, eye and musculoskeletal problems, and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD). Fecal samples were also collected to assess glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) as a measure of stress. All data were analyzed in relation to age, sex, sampling season, and their interactions using generalized linear models, and a correlation matrix was constructed. ROS and serum albumin concentrations exhibited the highest concentrations in aged elephants (>45 years). No sex differences were found for any biomarker. Interactions were observed for age groups and seasons for ROS and catalase, while GPx displayed a significant interaction between sex and season. In pairwise comparisons, significant increases in ROS and catalase were observed in summer, with higher ROS concentrations observed only in the adult female group. Lower catalase activity was exhibited in juvenile males, subadult males, adult females, and aged females compared to subadult and adult elephants (males and females) in winter and the rainy season. There was a positive association between catalase activity and fGCMs (r = 0.23, p < 0.05), and a number of red blood cell parameters were positively associated with several of these biomarkers, suggesting high oxidative and antioxidative activity covary in red cells (p < 0.05). According to health status, elephants with EEHV-HD showed the most significant changes in oxidative stress markers, with MDA, GPx, and catalase being higher and albumin being lower than in healthy elephants. This study provides an analysis of understudied health biomarkers in Asian elephants, which can be used as additional tools for assessing the health condition of this species and suggests age and season may be important factors in data interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Doctoral Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
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Sugianto NA, Newman C, Macdonald DW, Buesching CD. Effects of weather and social factors on hormone levels in the European badger (Meles meles). ZOOLOGY 2023; 158:126093. [PMID: 37149943 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2023.126093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Animals in the wild continually experience changes in environmental and social conditions, which they respond to with behavioural, physiological and morphological adaptations related to individual phenotypic quality. During unfavourable environmental conditions, reproduction can be traded-off against self-maintenance, mediated through changes in reproductive hormone levels. Using the European badger (Meles meles) as a model species, we examine how testosterone in males and oestrogens in females respond to marked deviations in weather from the long-term mean (rainfall and temperature, where badger earthworm food supply is weather dependent), and to social factors (number of adult males and females per social group and total adults in the population), in relation to age, weight and head-body length. Across seasons, testosterone levels correlated postively with body weight and rainfall variability, whereas oestrone correlated positively with population density, but negatively with temperature variability. Restricting analyses to the mating season (spring), heavier males had higher testosterone levels and longer females had higher oestradiol levels. Spring oestrone levels were lower when temperatures were above normal. That we see these effects for this generally adaptive species with a broad bioclimatic niche serves to highlight that climatic effects (especially with the threat of anthropogenic climate change) on reproductive physiology warrant careful attention in a conservation context.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Sugianto
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney OX13 5QL, UK.
| | - C Newman
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney OX13 5QL, UK; Cook's Lake Farming Forestry and Wildlife Inc (Ecological Consultancy), Queens County, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - D W Macdonald
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney OX13 5QL, UK
| | - C D Buesching
- Cook's Lake Farming Forestry and Wildlife Inc (Ecological Consultancy), Queens County, Nova Scotia, Canada; Department of Biology, Irving K. Barber Faculty of Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
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Yang Y, Tummaruk P, Angkawanish T, Langkaphin W, Chatdarong K. Seasonal Effects on Body Condition and Characteristics of the Estrous Cycle in Captive Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) in Thailand: A Retrospective Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071133. [PMID: 37048389 PMCID: PMC10093222 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of season on the body condition score (BCS), the characteristics of the estrous cycle (luteal phase [LPL], follicular phase [FPL], estrous cycle [ECL] lengths, and the start of the luteal phase [SLP] and follicular phase [SFP]), and progesterone levels (baseline and peak) of eight captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. From 2014 to 2019, blood samples were collected weekly for serum progesterone enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). Estrous cycles (n = 70), including the luteal and follicular phases, and BCS (n = 70) were recorded. Based on the BCS, the LPL, FPL, and ECL were assigned to the following two groups: normal (BCS = 3.0-4.0, n = 38) and overweight (BCS = 4.5-5.0, n = 32). The findings demonstrated that there was no difference in LPL between the groups. However, in the normal group, the ECL was one week longer (14.9 ± 1.7 vs. 13.9 ± 1.7 weeks; p < 0.05), and the FPL also tended to be one week longer (7.2 ± 1.7 vs. 6.4 ± 1.5 weeks; p = 0.06) than in the overweight group. The mean progesterone level during the rainy, hot, and cool seasons was not statistically different. Based on the yearly averaged BCS from three seasons, the baseline and peak levels of progesterone were classified into the normal (n = 16) and overweight (n = 12) groups. Females with a normal BCS tended to exhibit higher progesterone peak levels (p = 0.08). The majority of peaks appeared during the rainy season (53.57%). The BCS was highest during the hot (4.47) and rainy (4.38) seasons, but not during the cool (4.12) season. The LPL, FPL, and ECL were not affected by the season in which the luteal phase occurred. On the other hand, the rainy season had a significant effect on the SFP, resulting in a longer LPL (p < 0.05) and ECL (p = 0.01); both were the longest during the rainy season. In conclusion, the effects of season on BCS may be related to characteristics of the estrous cycle and peak progesterone levels. Ultimately, these findings provide ground knowledge to assist elephant managers and owners in planning breeding activities using seasonal effects and BCS measurements in tropical climates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Yang
- Research Unit of Obstetrics and Reproduction in Animals, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Padet Tummaruk
- Research Unit of Obstetrics and Reproduction in Animals, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Taweepoke Angkawanish
- The Thai Elephant Conservation Center, National Elephant Institute of Thailand, The Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
| | - Warangkhana Langkaphin
- The Thai Elephant Conservation Center, National Elephant Institute of Thailand, The Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
| | - Kaywalee Chatdarong
- Research Unit of Obstetrics and Reproduction in Animals, Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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Hirtle NO, Stepanuk JEF, Heywood EI, Christiansen F, Thorne LH. Integrating
3D
models with morphometric measurements to improve volumetric estimates in marine mammals. Methods Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan O. Hirtle
- Stony Brook University School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Stony Brook NY USA
| | | | - Eleanor I. Heywood
- Stony Brook University School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Stony Brook NY USA
| | - Fredrik Christiansen
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies Aarhus C Denmark
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology Aarhus University Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Lesley H. Thorne
- Stony Brook University School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Stony Brook NY USA
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Nokkaew W, Intarapuk A, Sakulthai A, Wajjwalku W, Thongtip N. Study of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in captive Asian elephants in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. Vet World 2022; 15:647-654. [PMID: 35497973 PMCID: PMC9047137 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.647-654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Over the past two decades, the number of elephant camps in Thailand has increased considerably, and captive elephants have become more popular within the tourism industry. Tourist activities involving elephant exhibitions and trekking potentially affect animal health and welfare. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between a novel stress biomarker, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), and various factors (sex, age, weather season, tourist season, and elephant usage patterns), monitoring the fGCM concentration during and after trekking activities ceased. Materials and Methods: Fecal samples of 20 captive Asian elephants from two camps in Kanchanaburi Province were collected monthly for 1 year. The fGCM concentrations were measured using enzyme immunoassay and evaluated relative to individual demography, season, and tourist trekking activity. The mean differences of fGCMs concentrations were compared by analysis of variance and t-test statistics according to data types with p<0.5. Results: Significant differences in mean fGCM concentrations were found between age categories (p=0.001), trekking and non-trekking animals (p=0.039), and during and after trekking (p=0.023). The mean fGCM concentration of elephants aged during 0-44 years (136.7 ng/g) was significantly higher than for animals over 44 years old (107.7 ng/g), and the elephant trekking group (144.9 ng/g) was significantly higher than the other group (124.7 ng/g). Within the trekking group, the mean fGCM concentrations gradually declined to 129.13 ng/g within 8 months of trekking cessation. Conclusion: Elephant’s ages and activities co-influenced the variance of fGCM concentrations. In addition, permanent tourist activity, especially trekking, can increase elephant stress. This study’s findings can be applied to the health status monitoring of captive elephants and result in improved animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weerapun Nokkaew
- Graduate Program in Bio-Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.,Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mahanakorn University of Technology, Nong Chok, Bangkok 10530, Thailand
| | - Apiradee Intarapuk
- Public Health Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mahanakorn University of Technology, Nong Chok, Bangkok 10530, Thailand
| | - Apichaya Sakulthai
- Department of Farm Technology Management, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Panyapiwat Institute of Management, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Worawidh Wajjwalku
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Thasala, Nakhonsithammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Nikorn Thongtip
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand.,Center for Agricultural Biotechnology, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand.,Center of Excellence on Agricultural Biotechnology (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE), Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
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Lalande LD, Lummaa V, Aung HH, Htut W, Nyein UK, Berger V, Briga M. Sex-specific body mass ageing trajectories in adult Asian elephants. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:752-762. [PMID: 35470907 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In species with marked sexual dimorphism, the classic prediction is that the sex which undergoes stronger intrasexual competition ages earlier or quicker. However, more recently, alternative hypotheses have been put forward, showing that this association can be disrupted. Here, we utilize a unique, longitudinal data set of a semi-captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), a species with marked male-biased intrasexual competition, with males being larger and having shorter lifespans, and investigate whether males show earlier and/or faster body mass ageing than females. We found evidence of sex-specific body mass ageing trajectories: adult males gained weight up to the age of 48 years old, followed by a decrease in body mass until natural death. In contrast, adult females gained body mass with age until a body mass decline in the last year of life. Our study shows sex-specific ageing patterns, with an earlier onset of body mass declines in males than females, which is consistent with the predictions of the classical theory of ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas D Lalande
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France.,Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, UMR 5558, Villeurbanne CEDEX, France
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Htoo H Aung
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, West Gyogone Forest Compound, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, West Gyogone Forest Compound, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - U Kyaw Nyein
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, West Gyogone Forest Compound, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Vérane Berger
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Michael Briga
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Infectious Disease Epidemiology Group, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
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11
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Seltmann MW, Jackson J, Lynch E, Brown JL, Htut W, Lahdenperä M, Lummaa V. Sex-specific links between the social landscape and faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in semi-captive Asian elephants. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2022; 319:113990. [PMID: 35151724 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2022.113990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although social behaviour is common in group-living mammals, our understanding of its mechanisms in long-lived animals is largely based on studies in human and non-human primates. There are health and fitness benefits associated with strong social ties, including increased life span, reproductive success, and lower disease risk, which are attributed to the proximate effects of lowered circulating glucocorticoid hormones. However, to deepen our understanding of health-social dynamics, we must explore species beyond the primate order. Here, using Asian elephants as a model species, we combine social data generated from semi-captive timber elephants in Myanmar with measurements of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations. These data enable a "natural experiment" because individuals live in work groups with different demographic compositions. We examine sex-specific FGM concentrations for four different aspects of an individuals' social world: general sociality, work group size, sex ratio and the presence of immatures (<5 years) within the work group. Males experienced lower FGM concentrations when engaged in more social behaviours and residing in female-biased work groups. Surprisingly, females only exhibited lower FGM concentrations when residing with calves. Together, our findings highlight the importance of sociality on individual physiological function among elephants, which may have broad implications for the benefits of social interactions among mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Jackson
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark; Deparmtent of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Emily Lynch
- The North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC 27205, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institue, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mirkka Lahdenperä
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20014 Turku, Finland; Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
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12
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Castelblanco-Martínez DN, Slone DH, Landeo-Yauri SS, Ramos EA, Alvarez-Alemán A, Attademo FLN, Beck CA, Bonde RK, Butler SM, Cabrias-Contreras LJ, Caicedo-Herrera D, Galves J, Gómez-Camelo IV, González-Socoloske D, Jiménez-Domínguez D, Luna FO, Mona-Sanabria Y, Morales-Vela JB, Olivera-Gómez LD, Padilla-Saldívar JA, Powell J, Reid JP, Rieucau G, Mignucci-Giannoni AA. Analysis of body condition indices reveals different ecotypes of the Antillean manatee. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19451. [PMID: 34593916 PMCID: PMC8484672 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98890-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessing the body condition of wild animals is necessary to monitor the health of the population and is critical to defining a framework for conservation actions. Body condition indices (BCIs) are a non-invasive and relatively simple means to assess the health of individual animals, useful for addressing a wide variety of ecological, behavioral, and management questions. The Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus) is an endangered subspecies of the West Indian manatee, facing a wide variety of threats from mostly human-related origins. Our objective was to define specific BCIs for the subspecies that, coupled with additional health, genetic and demographic information, can be valuable to guide management decisions. Biometric measurements of 380 wild Antillean manatees captured in seven different locations within their range of distribution were obtained. From this information, we developed three BCIs (BCI1 = UG/SL, BCI2 = W/SL3, BCI3 = W/(SL*UG2)). Linear models and two-way ANCOVA tests showed significant differences of the BCIs among sexes and locations. Although our three BCIs are suitable for Antillean manatees, BCI1 is more practical as it does not require information about weight, which can be a metric logistically difficult to collect under particular circumstances. BCI1 was significantly different among environments, revealing that the phenotypic plasticity of the subspecies have originated at least two ecotypes-coastal marine and riverine-of Antillean manatees.
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Affiliation(s)
- D N Castelblanco-Martínez
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico city, Mexico. .,Universidad de Quintana Roo, Chetumal, Mexico. .,Fundación Internacional Para la Naturaleza y la Sustentabilidad, Chetumal, Mexico.
| | - D H Slone
- U.S. Geological Survey, Sirenia Project, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Gainesville, USA
| | - S S Landeo-Yauri
- Fundación Internacional Para la Naturaleza y la Sustentabilidad, Chetumal, Mexico
| | - E A Ramos
- Fundación Internacional Para la Naturaleza y la Sustentabilidad, Chetumal, Mexico
| | - A Alvarez-Alemán
- Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute, Clearwater, USA.,Centro de Investigaciones Marinas, Universidad de la Habana, Havana, Cuba
| | - F L N Attademo
- Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade/Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservação de Mamíferos Aquáticos, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - C A Beck
- U.S. Geological Survey, Sirenia Project, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Gainesville, USA.,Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute, Clearwater, USA
| | - R K Bonde
- Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute, Clearwater, USA
| | - S M Butler
- U.S. Geological Survey, Sirenia Project, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Gainesville, USA
| | - L J Cabrias-Contreras
- Caribbean Manatee Conservation Center, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Bayamon, Puerto Rico
| | | | - J Galves
- Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute, Clearwater, USA
| | | | | | | | - F O Luna
- Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade/Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservação de Mamíferos Aquáticos, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - J Powell
- Clearwater Marine Aquarium Research Institute, Clearwater, USA
| | - J P Reid
- U.S. Geological Survey, Sirenia Project, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Gainesville, USA
| | - G Rieucau
- Fundación Internacional Para la Naturaleza y la Sustentabilidad, Chetumal, Mexico.,Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, USA
| | - A A Mignucci-Giannoni
- Caribbean Manatee Conservation Center, Inter American University of Puerto Rico, Bayamon, Puerto Rico.,Center for Conservation Medicine and Ecosystem Health, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Bassetterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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13
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Non-Invasive Determination of Annual Fecal Cortisol, Androstenedione, and Testosterone Variations in a Herd of Male Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) and Their Relation to Some Climatic Variables. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11092723. [PMID: 34573690 PMCID: PMC8467623 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Studies of physiology, animal welfare, and behavior in endangered species are gaining more importance with the aim of contributing to their conservation, and studies that use non-invasive methods for hormonal determinations are especially valuable. In this study, feces were used to assess whether the adrenal and gonadal hormones showed variation in male Asian elephants in a 14-month period and to evaluate whether there were any influences of climatic variables with respect to hormonal secretion. We show here that the use of non-invasive methods to measure the levels of steroid hormones in Asian elephant feces allows us to obtain useful results without having to subject the animals to stressful activity or requiring specific training to obtain the samples. Additionally, this research provides a deeper understanding of endocrine regulation in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in order to enhance reproduction programs in captivity and conserve the species. Abstract The measurement of stress and reproductive hormones in wild animal species by non-invasive methods is of special interest. To assess whether the adrenal and gonadal hormones show annual variations in male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and to evaluate whether there is any influence of climatic variables on hormonal secretion, fecal samples were taken from a herd of 7 Asian elephants over a 14-month period to subsequently determine the concentrations of testosterone (T), androstenedione (A4), and cortisol (C) by a validated immunoassay technique. Data referring to three climatic variables in the place and period of study were collected, namely monthly mean values of temperature, humidity and rainfall. Levels of T and A4 showed two major increases in July (T: 1088.35 ± 131.04 ng/g; A4: 480.40 ± 50.86 ng/g) and October (T: 825.09 ± 31.60 ng/g; A4: 319.96 ± 32.69 ng/g) (p < 0.05). Our results show a secretion of fecal androgens dependent on temperature (T and A4), and humidity (T). Male musth was detected during the initial increases of T and A4 levels. The highest concentrations of C were observed in September (156.67 ± 60.89 ng/g) (p < 0.05), probably due to the stressful fights that occurred during the musth period. The observed results of the fecal levels of T, A4 and C were similar to those obtained by invasive methods. In conclusion, fecal secretion of the three hormones in these captive male Asian elephants showed variations related in some cases to different weather factors.
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14
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Boonprasert K, Yun Y, Kosaruk W, Towiboon P, Tankaew P, Punyapornwithaya V, Janyamathakul T, Muanghong P, Brown JL, Thitaram C, Somgird C. A Longitudinal Study of Hematology and Stress Biomarker Profiles in Young Asian Elephants ( Elephas Maximus) in Relation to Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV) in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11092530. [PMID: 34573496 PMCID: PMC8471699 DOI: 10.3390/ani11092530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary A change in hematology profiles is one indicator of EEHV infection before clinical signs appear; however, to be effective, individual baselines and age-matched reference values are needed. A longitudinal investigation of viremia, hematology values, and stress biomarkers was performed in three non-EEHV and six prior infected EEHV calves to better understand EEHV-HD-associated factors. Blood, saliva, and feces were collected for 1 year for analysis of complete blood count (CBC), viral load, glucocorticoids (GCs), and Immunoglobulin A (IgA). Results did not differ between the groups, except for one elephant that presented with EEHV-HD during the study and exhibited high viremia, altered hematology profiles, and decreased stress biomarker concentrations. Thus, as in other studies, hematology changes were associated with EEHV infection, while preliminary data in one calf suggests that stress-response measures might also be informative and warrant further investigation. Abstract Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) is a virulent disease that causes severe hemorrhage and sudden death in Asian elephant calves. A change in hematology profiles is one indicator of infection before clinical signs appear; however, to be effective, individual baselines and age-matched reference values are needed. Stress has been speculated to be a factor in clinical EEHV cases, but relationships have not been demonstrated empirically. This study evaluated blood hematology and several stress response markers—salivary cortisol, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), salivary Immunoglobulin A (SIgA), and fecal IgA (FIgA) in samples collected for 1 year from three healthy calves with no EEHV history (non-EEHV), and six that had previously been infected, developed clinical signs and survived (prior-EEHV). Hematology values between non-EEHV and prior-EEHV elephants were not different and within published reference ranges. Concentrations of salivary cortisol, FGM, SIgA, and FIgA also were variable and showed seasonal differences, but no relationships to prior EEHV status. One of the prior EEHV calves became re-infected, developed hemorrhagic disease (HD), and died during the study period. That calf exhibited lymphocytopenia, monocytopenia, and thrombocytopenia. Additionally, all stress biomarker concentrations were lower in the 12 days before viremia was observed. Thus, as in other studies, changes in hematology occur with EEHV infection, while preliminary data in one calf suggests that stress-response measures might also be informative and should be studied further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khajohnpat Boonprasert
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
| | - Yaoprapa Yun
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
| | - Worapong Kosaruk
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
| | - Pallop Tankaew
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand;
- Veterinary Public Health Centre and Food Safety for Asia Pacific (VPHCAP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | | | - Panida Muanghong
- Mae Taeng Elephant Park and Clinic, Mae Thang, Chiang Mai 50150, Thailand;
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (K.B.); (Y.Y.); (W.K.); (P.T.); (P.T.); (J.L.B.); (C.T.)
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-53-948015
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15
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Franco dos Santos DJ, Berger V, Cristofari R, Htut W, Nyein UK, Aung HH, Reichert S, Lummaa V. Seasonal variation of health in Asian elephants. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa119. [PMID: 33408865 PMCID: PMC7771574 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Long-lived species are often predicted to be buffered against seasonal variation: longevity means low annual mortality and reproductive rates and annual variability in climate may therefore have a smaller impact on population growth rates of long-lived species in comparison to short-lived ones. However, little is known of the physiological mechanisms underlying such patterns in long-lived species. In this study, we investigated seasonal variation in the health of Asian elephants living in a seasonal monsoon climate. We used two complementary methods: (i) global and (ii) trait-by-trait analyses of seasonal effects on 23 health parameters of 225 individually marked elephants with known age and reproductive and health history, with repeated measures per individual over a 26-month period. The global analysis highlighted the biggest differences in health between the hot and monsoon seasons. Our trait-specific analyses identified the physiological functions underlying such health variation in different ecological settings, including haematological, immunological, muscular, kidney and liver functions, as well as protein balance and electrolytes. Overall, the results suggest that even long-lived, large mammals may experience physiological changes in response to seasonal variation that in extreme circumstances can pose a significant health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vérane Berger
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Yliopistonmäki (Vesilinnantie 5) 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Robin Cristofari
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Yliopistonmäki (Vesilinnantie 5) 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, West Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, 11011 Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - U Kyaw Nyein
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, West Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, 11011 Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Htoo Htoo Aung
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, West Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, 11011 Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Sophie Reichert
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Yliopistonmäki (Vesilinnantie 5) 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Yliopistonmäki (Vesilinnantie 5) 20014 Turku, Finland
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16
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Glaeser SS, Edwards KL, Wielebnowski N, Brown JL. Effects of physiological changes and social life events on adrenal glucocorticoid activity in female zoo-housed Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241910. [PMID: 33156856 PMCID: PMC7647113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ensuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species and includes breeding of individuals managed under human care. Understanding how factors in the captive environment affect individual animal wellbeing can be aided by long-term monitoring of biological functioning. This study involved longitudinal assessments (4 to 28 years) of reproductive and adrenal hormones in zoo-housed female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (age range 4 to ~71 years) to elucidate patterns in adrenal glucocorticoid (GC) activity in association with reproductive and demographic factors, and examine individual response to major social changes. Concentrations of serum and urinary cortisol covaried more consistently with physiological changes (ovarian cycle phase, puberty, pregnancy, lactational anestrus, and age) than with social life events (births, deaths, and facility transfers). Cortisol fluctuated across the ovarian cycle with mean concentrations being higher in the follicular than in the luteal phase, and concentrations were highest in lactational anestrous compared to all other reproductive states. The elephants in this study exhibited substantial individuality in adrenal GC response to major social change, reinforcing the need to assess welfare on an individual basis and to consider factors influencing the impact of perceived stressors, such as social relationships, social support, temperament, and life history. Outcomes from this study deepen our understanding of Asian elephant physiology and highlight the importance of taking intrinsic patterns of hormone secretion into account when evaluating the impact of external factors. Finally, a better understanding of the impact of social change and resiliency in response to real and perceived stressors allows us to improve social management to enhance welfare in both captive settings and free-ranging environments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katie L. Edwards
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
- North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, United Kingdom
| | | | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
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17
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Plangsangmas T, Towiboon P, Punyapornwithaya V, Silva-Fletcher A, Thitaram C, Khonmee J, Edwards KL, Somgird C. Effect of Tourist Activities on Fecal and Salivary Glucocorticoids and Immunoglobulin A in Female Captive Asian Elephants in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101928. [PMID: 33096598 PMCID: PMC7589861 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary How tourist camp activities affect individual elephant welfare is an important and highly debated topic. Saliva and fecal samples were collected monthly for 1 year from 44 female Asian elephants that participated in three programs (saddle-, bareback-, or no-riding), and analyzed for glucocorticoids (GC) and immunoglobulin A (IgA). The hypothesis was that better welfare would be associated with low GC and high IgA concentrations. Both biomarkers showed significant variation with respect to camp size, riding activities, tourist-to-elephant ratios and seasonality, but not always consistently between feces and saliva, and not always in the predicted direction. However, there was no clear indication that riding per se negatively affected these two biomarkers. The lack of consistent responses highlights the difficulty in interpreting physiological data in relation to management factors, and suggests more work is needed to differentiate between potential chronic (feces) and acute (saliva) responses. Abstract Asian elephants have been an important part of wildlife ecotourism in Thailand for over two decades. Elephants in tourist camps are exposed to a variety of management styles and daily activities that can potentially affect health and welfare. This study investigated relationships between a novel welfare biomarker, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and daily camp activities, and compared results to glucocorticoid (GC) measures. Often no-riding camps are portrayed as providing better welfare than camps that offer riding. Therefore, we predicted that elephants at no-riding camps would have lower GC and higher IgA concentrations, and a low GC/IgA ratio. Forty-four female elephants from six elephant camps were divided into three groups based on riding activities: saddle-riding, bareback-riding, and no-riding. Fecal and salivary samples were collected monthly for 1 year along with evaluations of body condition, foot health, and wounding. Camp environment and management varied among camps, although the major difference was in riding activities. Concentrations of GCs and IgA varied among the working groups, but not always consistently between sample matrices. Overall fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were lowest in the saddle-riding group. Only in one bareback-riding camp did the elephants exhibit a potentially positive welfare response with a low GC/IgA ratio over time. Other results varied between the two biomarkers, with considerable variability across camps, suggesting there is more to good welfare than whether elephants participate in riding or not. Several other human-induced stressors, like chaining, ankus use, and limited social opportunities are likely to be impacting well-being and should be considered to ensure management practices meet physical and psychological welfare needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Master’s Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand;
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA; (J.L.B.); (K.L.E.)
| | - Tithipong Plangsangmas
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Faculty of VeterinaryMedicine and Applied Zoology, HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, Lak Si, Bangkok 10210, Thailand
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand;
- Veterinary Public Health Centre and Food Safety for Asia Pacific (VPHCAP), Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Ayona Silva-Fletcher
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK;
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Katie L. Edwards
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA; (J.L.B.); (K.L.E.)
- North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Upton-by-Chester, Chester CH2 1LH, UK
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; (T.P.); (P.T.); (C.T.); (J.K.)
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-53948-015
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Social, Reproductive and Contextual Influences on Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites in Captive Yangtze Finless Porpoises (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis) and Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/jzbg1010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the use of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGCM) measurements as non-invasive biomarkers for the stress response in mammals has increased, few studies have been conducted in odontocetes. We investigated if animal sex, age, pregnancy or contextual variations (season, sampling time, enrichment, social separation and presence of visitors) influenced the FGCM concentrations in presumably healthy, captive and endangered Yangtze finless porpoises (YFPs, N = 4) and bottlenose dolphins (BDs, N = 3). For YFPs, the FGCM concentrations were influenced by season (p = 0.01), diurnal variation (p = 0.01) and pregnancy (p = 0.005). Contextual variables that were associated with increases in FGCM concentrations included social separations (p = 0.003) and numbers of visitors (p = 0.0002). Concentrations of FGCMs were lower (p = 0.001) after exposure to environmental enrichment. For BDs, enrichment was associated with reduced concentrations of FGCMs (p < 0.0001). The presence of visitors also influenced this species’ FGCM concentrations (p = 0.006). These results demonstrate that changes in the FGCM concentrations in YFPs and BDs may occur in response to contextual and social changes. In combination with other behavioral and physiological assessments, measurements of FGCMs may be a useful tool for monitoring cetacean welfare. Such monitoring may help researchers identify and better understand situations that may be stressful for animals and, therefore, improve management and husbandry. Furthermore, results from our study and inferences of the FGCM concentrations in cetaceans, and their potential relationship to stress, may be extrapolated to studies of free-ranging animals, which may help detect possible environmental or anthropogenic stressors that could be affecting these populations.
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Oduor S, Brown J, Macharia GM, Boisseau N, Murray S, Obade P. Differing physiological and behavioral responses to anthropogenic factors between resident and non-resident African elephants at Mpala Ranch, Laikipia County, Kenya. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10010. [PMID: 33062433 PMCID: PMC7528812 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heterogeneous landscapes like those of Laikipia County, Kenya consist of a mosaic of land-use types, which may exert differential physiological effects on elephants that occupy and traverse them. Understanding behavioral and physiological states of wild African elephants in response to the challenges of living in human-dominated landscapes is therefore important for conservation managers to evaluate risks imposed by elephants to humans and vice versa. Several conservation physiology tools have been developed to assess how animals respond to both natural and anthropogenic changes, and determine biological impacts. This study investigated how migratory and avoidance behavioral to vehicle presence, and vegetation quality affected fecal glucocorticoid (GC) metabolite (FGM) concentrations in African elephants at Mpala Ranch, Laikipia County, Kenya. METHODS The study compared adrenal glucocorticoid activity of resident elephants that live within Mpala (n = 57) and non-resident elephants whose space use patterns overlap several ranches (n = 99) in Laikipia County, Kenya. Fecal samples were collected for a 4-month period between April and August for analysis of FGM concentrations. Behavioral reactions to research vehicles and body condition also were assessed. Satellite images from Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging (MODIS MOD13Q1) were downloaded and processed using Google Earth Engine to calculate a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a measure of vegetation quality. RESULTS As expected, there was a positive correlation between avoidance behavior to vehicle presence and FGM concentrations in both resident and non-resident elephants, whereas there was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and NDVI values. Our study also found a positive influence of age on the FGM concentrations, but there were no relationships between FGM and sex, social group type, herd size, and body condition. However, contrary to our expectations, resident elephants had higher FGM concentrations than non-residents. DISCUSSION Findings reveal elephants with stronger avoidance responses to research vehicles and resident elephants with relatively smaller home ranges exhibited higher FGM concentrations within the Mpala Ranch, Kenya and surrounding areas. Higher vegetative quality within the ranges occupied by non-resident elephants in Laikipia may be one reason for lower FGM, and an indication that the non-residents are tracking better forage quality to improve energy balance and reduce overall GC output. Additionally, our study found a positive influence of age, but no other demographic variables on FGM concentrations. Finally, adrenal glucocorticoid activity was inversely related to vegetative quality. Our findings can help conservation managers better understand how behavior and environment influences the physiological states of African elephants, and how management intervention might mitigate negative human-elephant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandy Oduor
- Research, Mpala Research Centre, Nanyuki, Laikipia, Kenya
| | - Janine Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Geoffrey M. Macharia
- Department of Environmental Science, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nicole Boisseau
- Endocrine Lab, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Suzan Murray
- Global Health Program, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Paul Obade
- Department of Environmental Science, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
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Toin P, Brown JL, Punyapornwithaya V, Bansiddhi P, Somgird C, Thitaram C. Reproductive performance of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in large tourist camps in Thailand. Anim Reprod Sci 2020; 222:106606. [PMID: 33007578 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2020.106606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In Thailand, many elephants are used in tourism, with populations sustained by breeding of animals that are in captive habitats. Even though there are programs to promote breeding, there is not success in all camps. In this study, there was summarization of reproductive performance data of 407 elephants (150 males, 257 females) at seven tourist camps based on 4-21 years of breeding records. Age pyramid structures for elephants varied among camps. Reproductive rates averaged 21.6 ± 6.17% and varied among camps (2.8-45.0%). Based on parity, 77.4% of elephants were nulliparous, 8.2% produced one calf, and 14.3% were multiparous, with there being camp differences. There were 1.10 ± 0.46 (range, 0.03-3.55) births per year, with a total of 19.6 ± 9.3 (1-71) calves per camp. Age at first calving was 19.2 ± 1.1 years (range, 8-40 years), mean inter-birth interval was 4.4 ± 0.2 years (range, 1.8-7.9 years), and average gestation length was 653.9 ± 6.9 days (range, 578-743 days). Rates of abortions/stillbirths averaged 12.4% and ranged from 3.5%-66.7%. There were no obvious differences in management (e.g., number of males, estrous detection methods, work activities) that when evaluated explained the range in breeding success, although lack of male interest in females was a common problem. While informative and useful for designing future studies, results of this study indicate there is a lack of precise breeding records that makes it difficult to evaluate effects of management practices on reproductive performance of captive elephants in Thailand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patiparn Toin
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Master's Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety Centre for Asia Pacific, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
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Dierenfeld ES, Han YAM, Mar KU, Aung A, Soe AT, Lummaa V, Lahdenperä M. Milk Composition of Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10040725. [PMID: 32331387 PMCID: PMC7222762 DOI: 10.3390/ani10040725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The nutritional content of milk from free-living Asian elephants has not previously been reported, despite being vital for better management of captive populations. This study analyzed both milk composition and consumed plant species of Asian elephants managed in their natural environment in Myanmar. Longitudinal samples (n = 36) were obtained during both the wet and the dry season from six mature females in mid to late lactation in 2016 and 2017. Milk composition averaged 82.44% water, with 17.56% total solids containing 5.23% protein, 15.10% fat, 0.87% ash, and 0.18 µg/mL vitamin E. Solids and protein increased with lactation month. Total protein in milk was higher during the wet vs. the dry season. Observed factors linked with maternal (age, parity, size and origin) and calf traits (sex) had significant associations with milk nutrient levels. Primary forages consumed contained moderate protein and fiber. Higher dietary protein during the wet season (11-25%) compared to the dry season (6-19%) may be linked with increased milk protein observed. Our results call for further field studies of milk and diet composition, over entire seasons/lactation periods, and across maternal and calf traits, to improve feeding management, with an overall goal of maximized health and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen S. Dierenfeld
- Ellen S. Dierenfeld, LLC, St. Louis, MO 63128, USA
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell NG25 0QF, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-314-717-3885
| | - Yadana A. M. Han
- Department of Medical Research (Pyin-Oo-Lwin Branch), Pyin-Oo-Lwin 05081, Myanmar;
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin 05282, Myanmar;
| | - Khyne U. Mar
- Veterinarians International, One Penn Plaza, Suite 6337, New York, NY 10119, USA;
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Aung Aung
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin 05282, Myanmar;
| | - Aung Thura Soe
- Extraction Department, Magway Region, Myanma Timber Enterprise, Magwe 0411, Myanmar;
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland;
| | - Mirkka Lahdenperä
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20520 Turku, Finland;
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Seltmann MW, Ukonaho S, Reichert S, Dos Santos D, Nyein UK, Htut W, Lummaa V. Faecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites and H/L Ratio are Related Markers of Stress in Semi-Captive Asian Timber Elephants. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10010094. [PMID: 31935980 PMCID: PMC7023510 DOI: 10.3390/ani10010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animals are kept in captivity for various reasons worldwide. Throughout its range countries, the Asian elephant is used for various purposes, with a significant proportion of the remaining population working as draft and transport animals in the timber industry. However, captivity can also lead to compromises in welfare that need to be quantified for successful intervention. A key way of assessing an animal’s well-being in wildlife and zoo biology is to measure its stress. Previous studies have found positive, negative, or no relationship between two commonly used measures of stress: stress hormones and the ratio of two types of white blood cells—heterophils to lymphocytes. Our study is one of the first to show a positive and consistent link between these two measures in semi-captive Asian elephants from Myanmar, irrespective of sex, age, or environmental context. Our results show that using the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio from blood smears on-site may offer a potentially cheaper and faster way to determine stress than measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in the laboratory. Abstract Animals are kept in captivity for various reasons, but species with a slower pace of life may adapt to captive environments less easily, leading to welfare concerns and the need to assess stress reliably in order to develop effective interventions. Our aim was to assess welfare of semi-captive timber elephants from Myanmar by investigating the relationship between two physiological markers of stress commonly used as proxies for welfare, faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (FGM) and heterophil/lymphocyte ratios (H/L), and link these measures to changes in body condition (determined by body weight). We further assessed how robustly these two markers of stress performed in animals of different age or sex, or in different ecological contexts. We measured FGM concentrations and H/L ratios between 2016 and 2018 from 316 samples of 75 females and 49 males ranging in age from 4 to 68. We found a positive and consistent link between FGMs and H/L ratios in Asian elephants, irrespective of their sex, age, or ecological context. Our results will help to inform managers of (semi-) captive elephants about using heterophil/lymphocyte ratio data from blood smears on site as a potentially cheaper and faster alternative to determining stress than measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin W. Seltmann
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland; (S.U.); (S.R.); (D.D.S.); (V.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Susanna Ukonaho
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland; (S.U.); (S.R.); (D.D.S.); (V.L.)
| | - Sophie Reichert
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland; (S.U.); (S.R.); (D.D.S.); (V.L.)
| | - Diogo Dos Santos
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland; (S.U.); (S.R.); (D.D.S.); (V.L.)
| | - U Kyaw Nyein
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; (U.K.N.); (W.H.)
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; (U.K.N.); (W.H.)
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland; (S.U.); (S.R.); (D.D.S.); (V.L.)
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Mahout Perspectives on Asian Elephants and Their Living Conditions. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9110879. [PMID: 31671818 PMCID: PMC6912500 DOI: 10.3390/ani9110879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Mahouts, often known as elephant handlers, or by other terms, such as oozie in Myanmar, work closely with captive Asian elephants in elephant range countries. This work usually involves taking responsibility for just one elephant. The daily tasks of mahouts can include feeding, cleaning or bathing elephants, treating minor medical conditions, participating in training, and riding elephants in order for them to achieve specific tasks, such as transportation of materials, religious functions, or tourism activities. Because of their close interactions with elephants, mahouts have knowledge of elephants that stretches from the cultural to the behavioral and ecological. In this study, I interviewed mahouts in their own languages with a translator, using a mix of short and open-ended questions. The second kind of questions allowed mahouts to elaborate in as much detail as they wanted on their experience. The methods allowed me to collect perspectives on welfare and the associations with elephants in Nepal. I also asked questions about how long they had worked with elephants and how many elephants they worked with. The mahouts were not a uniform group, with differences in age, experience, and perspectives. The mahouts gave their most extensive comments when discussing elephant welfare, particularly on the use of fenced enclosures versus chains, elephant diet, and interactions with domestic animals. The input of mahouts could be useful for proposing and implementing plans for elephant welfare in range countries. Abstract The skills, knowledge, and expertise of mahouts have been recognized by organizations and individual managers who are responsible for captive elephants and by academics, where they have been a source of studies from the ethnographic to animal behavior research. In this study, I used semi-structured interviews in local languages to explore individual experiences of mahouts in Nepal. I also investigated perspectives on elephant welfare, including the use of corral (fenced) enclosures. I undertook a further key informant interview in English to gain more discursive perspectives on the topics. Our results revealed that mahouts at the study site are unlikely to come from multi-generational families of mahouts. All mahouts referenced the religious significance of elephants in their country when describing broader local perspectives. Many mahouts explained both positive and negative implications for differing strategies in housing captive elephants, often balanced the competing interests of elephant welfare with their own need for elephants to follow verbal communication, and their responsibility for the safety of the elephants, other staff, and tourists. The fine-balancing perspectives of mahouts, taking both humans and elephants into account, underlines their role as an important source of knowledge of captive Asian elephants in range countries, and their potential role as co-producers of research linked to welfare. This approach could also be of relevance to the welfare of ex-situ Asian elephants.
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Bansiddhi P, Brown JL, Khonmee J, Norkaew T, Nganvongpanit K, Punyapornwithaya V, Angkawanish T, Somgird C, Thitaram C. Management factors affecting adrenal glucocorticoid activity of tourist camp elephants in Thailand and implications for elephant welfare. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221537. [PMID: 31574099 PMCID: PMC6771993 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations and camp management factors (work routine, walking, restraint, rest area, foraging), and to other welfare indicators (stereotypic behaviors, body condition, foot health, and skin wounds). Data were obtained on 84 elephants (18 males and 66 females) from 15 elephant camps over a 1-year period. Elephants were examined every 3 months and assigned a body condition score, foot score, and wound score. Fecal samples were collected twice monthly for FGM analysis. Contrary to some beliefs, elephants in the observation only program where mahouts did not carry an ankus for protection had higher FGM concentrations compared to those at camps that offered riding with a saddle and shows. Elephants that were tethered in the forest at night had lower FGM concentrations compared to elephants that were kept in open areas inside the camps. There was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and occurrence of stereotypy, which was not anticipated. Thus, assessing adrenal activity via monitoring of FGM concentrations can provide important information on factors affecting the well-being of elephants. Results suggest that more naturalistic housing conditions and providing opportunities to exercise may be good for elephants under human care in Thailand, and that a no riding, no hook policy does not necessarily guarantee good welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States of America
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Treepradab Norkaew
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Excellent Center of Veterinary Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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Brown JL. Update on Comparative Biology of Elephants: Factors Affecting Reproduction, Health and Welfare. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1200:243-273. [PMID: 31471800 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-23633-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants serve as important keystone, umbrella and flagship species. Despite that, population numbers are declining, due mainly to poaching and habitat destruction. Understanding reproductive mechanisms is vital to effective management, particularly insurance populations in captivity, and to that end, long-term biological databases are key to understanding how intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect reproductive function at individual and population levels. Through decades of hormonal and ultrasonographic monitoring, many unique aspects of zoo elephant reproduction have been identified, including differences in luteal steroidogenic activity, follicular maturation, pituitary gonadotropin secretion, fetal development and reproductive tract anatomy. Reproductive problems also hamper captive propagation efforts, particularly those related to abnormal or lack of ovarian cyclicity. Recent large-scale, multi-institutional studies and use of epidemiological approaches have identified factors important for good welfare and reproduction, which include enrichment, feeding diversity, good elephant-keeper relations, social compatibility, exercise, and not being obese. There are notable differences in reproductive mechanisms between Asian and African elephants, as well as the factors that influence reproduction and welfare, suggesting species-targeted management approaches are needed to maximize fitness. In the first edition, we discussed reproductive function in male and female elephants. Since then, a number of significant advances have been made primarily in female elephants, which will be the focus of this updated review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine L Brown
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA, USA.
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Brown JL, Carlstead K, Bray JD, Dickey D, Farin C, Ange-van Heugten K. Individual and environmental risk factors associated with fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in zoo-housed Asian and African elephants. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217326. [PMID: 31483790 PMCID: PMC6726191 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A recent large-scale welfare study in North America involving 106 Asian (Elephas maximus) and 131 African (Loxodonta africana) elephants at 64 accredited facilities identified links (i.e., risk factors) between zoo environmental factors and a number of welfare outcomes (stereotypic behavior, ovarian acyclicity, hyperprolactinemia, walking and recumbence, body condition, health status, serum cortisol). For this population of elephants, we used the same epidemiological methods to examine associations between those risk factors and two additional welfare outcomes, mean concentration and individual variability (CV) of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (FGM) as indicators of stress. Results indicate that African elephants are more responsive to social stressors than Asians, and that poor joint health is a stress-related welfare problem for Asian, but not African elephants in the North American population. For both species, higher FGM concentrations were associated with zoos located at more northern latitudes, whereas lower FGM concentrations were associated with having free access to indoor/outdoor spaces, and spending more time in managed interactions with staff. Also important for captive management, elephants having diverse enrichment options and belonging to compatible social groups exhibited reduced intra-individual variability in FGM concentrations. Our findings show that aspects of the zoo environment can be potential sources of stress for captive elephants, and that there are management activities that may facilitate coping with zoo conditions. Given species differences in factors that affected FGM, targeted, species-specific management approaches likely are needed to ensure good welfare for all elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kathy Carlstead
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Jessica D. Bray
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - David Dickey
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Charlotte Farin
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kimberly Ange-van Heugten
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
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Kumar V, Pradheeps M, Kokkiligadda A, Niyogi R, Umapathy G. Non-Invasive Assessment of Physiological Stress in Captive Asian Elephants. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9080553. [PMID: 31416158 PMCID: PMC6720305 DOI: 10.3390/ani9080553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations, both in the wild and in captivity, have been continually declining over the decades. The present study examined the physiological stress response of captive Asian elephants in relation to body condition score and different working conditions. A total of 870 dung samples of 37 captive elephants (24 males and 13 females) from four facilities were collected to examine fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (fGCM). The elephants in forest camps with exposure to natural habitats had a higher body condition score than those in more confined spaces. Wild born elephants and females (except in one case) had higher concentrations of fGCM than captive born elephants and males, respectively. Elephants engaged in the Dussehra festival had elevated fGCM concentrations than their counterparts at Mysore zoo. We recommend a few management practices for the long-term survival of rapidly declining captive elephant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinod Kumar
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India
| | - Muthulingam Pradheeps
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India
- Tamil Nadu State Disaster Management Authority, Chennai 400001, India
| | - Adiseshu Kokkiligadda
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India
| | - Rajashekhar Niyogi
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India
| | - Govindhaswamy Umapathy
- Laboratory for the Conservation of Endangered Species, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500007, India.
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Shave JR, Derocher AE, Cherry SG, Thiemann GW. Chronic stress and body condition of wolf-killed prey in Prince Albert National Park, Saskatchewan. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 7:coz037. [PMID: 31308948 PMCID: PMC6618025 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Chronic stress and poor body condition can cause adverse physiological and behavioural responses and may make animals more vulnerable to predation. We examined hair cortisol concentration (HCC) and marrow lipid content, as bioindicators of chronic stress and body condition, respectively, of bison (Bison bison bison), moose (Alces alces) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) killed by wolves (Canis lupus) in Prince Albert National Park (PANP), Saskatchewan, Canada. The Sturgeon River plains bison population in PANP is one of only a few wild populations of plains bison in their historical range in Canada and has experienced a decline of around 50% since 2005. We expected wolf-killed bison to have elevated HCC compared to human-harvested bison and that there would be a negative relationship between HCC and marrow lipids among wolf-killed animals. We compared HCC between different mortality sources for bison (wolf-killed n = 20 or human-harvested n = 23) and found that HCC was significantly elevated in wolf-killed bison (¯ = 7.56 ± 1.35 pg/mg). We found that HCC, species, sex and snow depth were all significant predictor variables of marrow lipid content of bison (n = 14), moose (n = 11) and deer (n = 27). Bison displayed the strongest negative correlation between HCC and marrow lipid content (r2 = 0.31). Our results suggest that chronic stress and poor body condition make prey more vulnerable to predation by wolves. HCC and marrow lipid content can provide reliable indicators of the physiological response of animals to stressors and may provide information on expected predator success that can be used to predict predator population dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Shave
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Andrew E Derocher
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - Gregory W Thiemann
- Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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29
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Bansiddhi P, Brown JL, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Nganvongpanit K. Elephant Tourism in Thailand: A Review of Animal Welfare Practices and Needs. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2019; 23:164-177. [PMID: 30689409 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2019.1569522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Elephant tourism in Thailand has developed into an important socio-economic factor after a logging ban initiated in 1989 resulted in thousands of out-of-work elephants. However, the welfare of captive elephants has been a topic of intense debate among tourists, scientists and stakeholders because of the range of working conditions and management practices to which they are exposed. The aim of this paper is to summarize the current state of knowledge on captive elephant welfare, with an emphasis on tourist elephants in Thailand, and highlight information gaps and recommendations for future directions. Tourist-oriented elephant camps could improve the welfare of elephants through better management practices that take into account physiological and psychological needs of individual animals, including meeting social and nutritional requirements, providing good health care, and maintaining adequate facilities. Our goal is to develop science-based guidelines that government agencies can use to develop an enforceable set of practical regulations to ensure good management of tourist elephants in Thailand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Excellent Center of Veterinary Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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30
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Norkaew T, Brown JL, Bansiddhi P, Somgird C, Thitaram C, Punyapornwithaya V, Punturee K, Vongchan P, Somboon N, Khonmee J. Body condition and adrenal glucocorticoid activity affects metabolic marker and lipid profiles in captive female elephants in Thailand. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204965. [PMID: 30278087 PMCID: PMC6168167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies in western zoo elephants have found relationships between body condition and physiological function, and identified mitigating management strategies to optimize health and welfare. A similar methodological approach was used in this study, which evaluated a body condition score (BCS; 1 = thinnest, 5 = fattest) every other month and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations twice monthly in 33 tourist camp elephants in Thailand for a 1-year period to assess seasonal variations, and determine how lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic parameters [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] related to measures of body condition and adrenal function. The most prevalent BCS was 3-3.5 (60.6%), with 27.3% at BCS = 4 (overweight) and 12.1% at BCS = 4.5-5 (very overweight); no elephants had a BCS <2. BCSs were higher in rainy and winter seasons compared to summer, with FGM, TG, HDL, LDL, and insulin also higher in the rainy and/or winter seasons (p<0.05). By contrast, TC and glucose were lowest in the rainy season. FGM measures were negatively associated with two environmental factors: temperature and rainfall, but not humidity. Positive correlations were found between BCS and TC, LDL, and HDL, and between FGM and TC, HDL, glucose, and insulin (p<0.05), whereas BCS and FGM were both negatively associated with the G:I (p<0.05). However, there was no relationship between BCS and FGM among the camp elephants. Using BCS and FGM measures as outcome variables in separate regression models, this study found high BCS and elevated FGM concentrations were associated with altered lipid profiles and metabolic status in elephants. Furthermore, more work hours/day was associated with better body condition and health measures. Thus, being overweight and exposed to factors that increase adrenal activity could adversely affect health status, requiring alterations in management for some individuals, whereas exercise appears to have a protective effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Treepradab Norkaew
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Veterinary Public Health Centre for Asia Pacific, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Khanittha Punturee
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Preeyanat Vongchan
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Nopphamas Somboon
- Small Animal Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jaruwan Khonmee
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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31
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Hufenus R, Schiffmann C, Hatt JM, Müller DWH, Lackey LB, Clauss M, Zerbe P. Seasonality of reproduction in Asian elephantsElephas maximusand African elephantsLoxodonta africana: underlying photoperiodic cueing? Mamm Rev 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rahel Hufenus
- Clinic for Zoo Animals; Exotic Pets and Wildlife; Vetsuisse Faculty; University of Zurich; Winterthurerstr. 260 8057 Zurich Switzerland
| | - Christian Schiffmann
- Clinic for Zoo Animals; Exotic Pets and Wildlife; Vetsuisse Faculty; University of Zurich; Winterthurerstr. 260 8057 Zurich Switzerland
| | - Jean-Michel Hatt
- Clinic for Zoo Animals; Exotic Pets and Wildlife; Vetsuisse Faculty; University of Zurich; Winterthurerstr. 260 8057 Zurich Switzerland
| | | | - Laurie Bingaman Lackey
- World Association of Zoos and Aquariums; IUCN Conservation Centre; Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland Switzerland
| | - Marcus Clauss
- Clinic for Zoo Animals; Exotic Pets and Wildlife; Vetsuisse Faculty; University of Zurich; Winterthurerstr. 260 8057 Zurich Switzerland
| | - Philipp Zerbe
- Clinic for Zoo Animals; Exotic Pets and Wildlife; Vetsuisse Faculty; University of Zurich; Winterthurerstr. 260 8057 Zurich Switzerland
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32
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Wild-captive interactions and economics drive dynamics of Asian elephants in Laos. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14800. [PMID: 29093478 PMCID: PMC5665948 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13907-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between wild and captive populations of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) persist in most countries of the species distribution, notably through the reproduction between captive females and wild males. However, these complex interactions have been poorly studied, despite their relevance for conservation of this endangered species. Laos has a centuries-long tradition of raising Asian elephants. Besides being cultural icons, captive elephants are inextricably linked to economics through their work in forestry. Using an ecological-economic model, we investigated the effect of socio-economic strategies on fecundity of the Lao population whose dynamics is shaped by human practices. We demonstrated that fecundity is impacted by: i) the dynamics of the wild elephant pool through mating of captive females by wild males, and ii) the financial incentive of elephant owners to breed their animals. As a result, we expect fecundity to rise in response to increases in elephant prices. The captive population will tend towards an asymptotic limit determined by the wild pool growth rate. However, the population will tend to extinction if exports continue. Our ecological-economic approach, by accounting for economic incentives, allows us to predict new equilibria that can serve as a baseline for designing sustainable management strategies for the species.
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33
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Pokharel SS, Seshagiri PB, Sukumar R. Assessment of season-dependent body condition scores in relation to faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in free-ranging Asian elephants. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 5:cox039. [PMID: 28721215 PMCID: PMC5508666 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/cox039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We studied seasonal and annual changes in visual body condition scores (BCSs), and assessed how these scores were related to levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) in free-ranging Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the seasonally dry tropical forests of the Mysore and Nilgiri Elephant Reserves in southern India. We assessed the animals' BCS visually on a scale of 1 to 5; where 1 represents a very thin and 5 represents a very fat elephant. To understand the influence of seasonality on BCS, we sampled the population during dry (n = 398) and wet seasons (n = 255) of 2013 and 2015 while, for annual changes in BCS, we sampled nine free-ranging adult females from different family groups that had been repeatedly sighted over seven years. To evaluate the influence of body condition on fGCM, 307 faecal samples were collected from 261 different elephants and were analysed. As a parameter of adrenocortical activity, and thus stress, fGCM was measured (μg/g) in the ethanol-extracted samples using a group-specific 11-oxoaetiocholanolone EIA (antibody raised against 11-oxoaetiocholanolone-17-CMO:BSA and biotinylated-11-oxoaetiocholanolone as a label). Effect of age and season on BCS in relation to fGCM was also studied. A seasonal shift in BCS was observed as expected, i.e. individuals with low BCS were more frequent during the dry season when compared with the wet season. Concentrations of fGCM were highest in individuals with lowest BCS (BCS 1) and then significantly declined till BCS 3. fGCM levels were almost comparable for BCS 3, 4 and 5. This pattern was more conspicuous in female than in male elephants. Season-dependent BCS, hence, reflect the stress status as measured by fGCM, especially in female Asian elephants. This could be used as an important non-invasive approach to monitor the physiological health of free-ranging elephant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Polani B. Seshagiri
- Department of Molecular Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Raman Sukumar
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
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34
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Hing S, Northover AS, Narayan EJ, Wayne AF, Jones KL, Keatley S, Thompson RCA, Godfrey SS. Evaluating Stress Physiology and Parasite Infection Parameters in the Translocation of Critically Endangered Woylies (Bettongia penicillata). ECOHEALTH 2017; 14:128-138. [PMID: 28213652 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1214-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Translocation can be stressful for wildlife. Stress may be important in fauna translocation because it has been suggested that it can exacerbate the impact of infectious disease on translocated wildlife. However, few studies explore this hypothesis by measuring stress physiology and infection indices in parallel during wildlife translocations. We analysed faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentration and endoparasite parameters (nematodes, coccidians and haemoparasites) in a critically endangered marsupial, the woylie (Bettongia penicillata), 1-3 months prior to translocation, at translocation, and 6 months later. FCM for both translocated and resident woylies was significantly higher after translocation compared to before or at translocation. In addition, body condition decreased with increasing FCM after translocation. These patterns in host condition and physiology may be indicative of translocation stress or stress associated with factors independent of the translocation. Parasite factors also influenced FCM in translocated woylies. When haemoparasites were detected, there was a significant negative relationship between strongyle egg count and FCM. This may reflect the influence of glucocorticoids on the immune response to micro- and macro-parasites. Our results indicate that host physiology and infection patterns can change significantly during translocation, but further investigation is required to determine how these patterns influence translocation success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Hing
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia.
| | - Amy S Northover
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Edward J Narayan
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2650, Australia
| | - Adrian F Wayne
- Science and Conservation Division, Department of Parks and Wildlife, Manjimup, WA, 6258, Australia
| | - Krista L Jones
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Sarah Keatley
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - R C Andrew Thompson
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Stephanie S Godfrey
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
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35
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Hing S, Narayan EJ, Thompson RCA, Godfrey SS. Identifying factors that influence stress physiology of the woylie, a critically endangered marsupial. J Zool (1987) 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Hing
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences Murdoch University Murdoch WA Australia
| | - E. J. Narayan
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences Charles Sturt University Wagga Wagga NSW Australia
| | - R. C. A. Thompson
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences Murdoch University Murdoch WA Australia
| | - S. S. Godfrey
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences Murdoch University Murdoch WA Australia
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36
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Chapman SN, Mumby HS, Crawley JAH, Mar KU, Htut W, Thura Soe A, Aung HH, Lummaa V. How Big Is It Really? Assessing the Efficacy of Indirect Estimates of Body Size in Asian Elephants. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150533. [PMID: 26938085 PMCID: PMC4777392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Information on an organism’s body size is pivotal in understanding its life history and fitness, as well as helping inform conservation measures. However, for many species, particularly large-bodied wild animals, taking accurate body size measurements can be a challenge. Various means to estimate body size have been employed, from more direct methods such as using photogrammetry to obtain height or length measurements, to indirect prediction of weight using other body morphometrics or even the size of dung boli. It is often unclear how accurate these measures are because they cannot be compared to objective measures. Here, we investigate how well existing estimation equations predict the actual body weight of Asian elephants Elephas maximus, using body measurements (height, chest girth, length, foot circumference and neck circumference) taken directly from a large population of semi-captive animals in Myanmar (n = 404). We then define new and better fitting formulas to predict body weight in Myanmar elephants from these readily available measures. We also investigate whether the important parameters height and chest girth can be estimated from photographs (n = 151). Our results show considerable variation in the ability of existing estimation equations to predict weight, and that the equations proposed in this paper predict weight better in almost all circumstances. We also find that measurements from standardised photographs reflect body height and chest girth after applying minor adjustments. Our results have implications for size estimation of large wild animals in the field, as well as for management in captive settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon N. Chapman
- Department of Animal and Plant Science, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah S. Mumby
- Department of Animal and Plant Science, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Jennie A. H. Crawley
- Department of Animal and Plant Science, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Khyne U. Mar
- Department of Animal and Plant Science, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Extraction Department, Ministry for Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Aung Thura Soe
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Extraction Department, Ministry for Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Htoo Htoo Aung
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Extraction Department, Ministry for Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, FIN-20014, Turku, Finland
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37
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Narayan EJ, Gramapurohit NP. Sexual dimorphism in baseline urinary corticosterone metabolites and their association with body-condition indices in a peri-urban population of the common Asian toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus). Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2015; 191:174-179. [PMID: 26478192 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Field endocrinology research through the quantification of glucocorticoids or stress hormones in free-living wildlife is crucial for assessing their physiological responses towards pervasive environmental changes. Urinary corticosterone metabolite (UCM) enzyme-immunoassay (EIA) has been validated for numerous amphibian species as a non-invasive measure of physiological stress. Body-condition indices (BCIs) have also been widely used in amphibians as an indirect measure of animal health. Field endocrinology research on amphibian species in Asia is limited. In this study, we validated a UCM EIA in a peri-urban sub-population of the common Asian toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) in Pune, Maharashtra, India. We determined the baseline levels of UCMs in male (n=39) and female (n=19) toads. Secondly, we used a standard capture handling protocol to quantify changes in UCMs during short-term captivity. We also determined BCIs in the male and female toads using Fulton's index (K) and residual condition index (RCI). The results showed that mean baseline levels of UCMs were significantly higher in male toads than in females. There was no significant change in mean levels of UCMs of males and females between capture and captivity (0-12h). This highlights plausible habituation of the species to the peri-urban environment. Associations between UCMs with BCIs (K and R) were positive in male toads but negative in females. In conclusion, our UCMs EIA can be applied with BCIs to assess health of the Asian toads. We also suggest that direct fitness parameters such as sperm and oocyte quality, reproductive ecology and immunocompetence measurements should be applied in combination with these conservation physiology tools to quantify the fitness consequences of pervasive environmental changes on native amphibians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J Narayan
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
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38
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Mumby HS, Mar KU, Hayward AD, Htut W, Htut-Aung Y, Lummaa V. Elephants born in the high stress season have faster reproductive ageing. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13946. [PMID: 26365592 PMCID: PMC4568471 DOI: 10.1038/srep13946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Senescent declines in reproduction and survival are found across the tree of life, but little is known of the factors causing individual variation in reproductive ageing rates. One contributor may be variation in early developmental conditions, but only a few studies quantify the effects of early environment on reproductive ageing and none concern comparably long-lived species to humans. We determine the effects of ‘stressful’ birth conditions on lifetime reproduction in a large semi-captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). We categorise birth month into stressful vs. not-stressful periods based on longitudinal measures of glucocorticoid metabolites in reproductive-aged females, which peak during heavy workload and the start of the monsoon in June-August. Females born in these months exhibit faster reproductive senescence in adulthood and have significantly reduced lifetime reproductive success than their counterparts born at other times of year. Improving developmental conditions could therefore delay reproductive ageing in species as long-lived as humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah S Mumby
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Khyne U Mar
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Adam D Hayward
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom.,Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, United Kingdom
| | - Win Htut
- Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Myanma Timber Enterprise, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Ye Htut-Aung
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Yezin University, Myanmar
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
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