Frailty and cardiovascular outcomes in the National Health and Aging Trends Study

The role of statin therapy in older adults: best practices and unmet challenges

INTRODUCTION

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is associated with significant morbidity, functional decline, and mortality in older adults. The role of statins for primary CVD prevention in older adults remains unclear, largely due to systematic exclusion of these individuals in trials that inform current practice guidelines, leading to conflicting national and international practice recommendations for statin use for primary prevention of CVD in adults aged 75 and older.

AREAS COVERED

In this narrative review, we performed a literature review utilizing PubMed, and ultimately focus on seven major national and international guidelines of lipid lowering therapy. Through the lens of two clinical cases, we review physiologic changes in lipid metabolism with aging, discuss the relationship between cholesterol and cardiovascular events in older adults, examine the national and international guidelines and the available evidence informing these guidelines for statin use in primary prevention of CVD in older adults. Finally we review practical clinical considerations for drug monitoring and deprescribing in this population.

EXPERT OPINION

Guidelines for the use of statins for primary CVD prevention in older adults is conflicting. Collectively, evidence to date suggests statin therapy may be beneficial for primary CVD prevention in older adults free of life-limiting comorbidities. Randomized controlled trials are currently underway to address current evidence gaps.

Mid-life plasma proteins associated with late-life prefrailty and frailty: a proteomic analysis

Physical frailty is a syndrome that typically manifests in later life, although the pathogenic process causing physical frailty likely begins decades earlier. To date, few studies have examined the biological signatures in mid-life associated with physical frailty later in life. Among 4,189 middle-aged participants (57.8 ± 5.0 years, 55.8% women) from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Community (ARIC) study, we evaluated the associations of 4,955 plasma proteins (log 2-transformed and standardized) measured using the SomaScan platform with their frailty status approximately 20 years later. Using multinomial logistic regression models adjusting for demographics, health behaviors, kidney function, total cholesterol, and comorbidities, 12 and 221 proteins were associated with prefrailty and frailty in later life, respectively (FDR p < 0.05). Top frailty-associated proteins included neurocan core protein (NCAN, OR = 0.66), fatty acid-binding protein heart (FABP3, OR = 1.62) and adipocyte (FABP4, OR = 1.65), as well proteins involved in the contactin-1 (CNTN1), toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5), and neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1 (NOTCH1) signaling pathway relevant to skeletal muscle regeneration, myelination, and inflammation. Pathway analyses suggest midlife dysregulation of inflammation, metabolism, extracellular matrix, angiogenesis, and lysosomal autophagy among those at risk for late-life frailty. After further adjusting for midlife body mass index (BMI) - an established frailty risk factor - only CNTN1 (OR = 0.75) remained significantly associated with frailty. Post-hoc analyses demonstrated that the top 41 midlife frailty-associated proteins mediate 32% of the association between mid-life BMI and late-life frailty. Our findings provide new insights into frailty etiology earlier in the life course, enhancing the potential for prevention.

Biological basis and treatment of frailty and sarcopenia

In an ageing society, the importance of maintaining healthy life expectancy has been emphasized. As a result of age-related decline in functional reserve, frailty is a state of increased vulnerability and susceptibility to adverse health outcomes with a serious impact on healthy life expectancy. The decline in skeletal muscle mass and function, also known as sarcopenia, is key in the development of physical frailty. Both frailty and sarcopenia are highly prevalent in patients not only with advanced age but also in patients with illnesses that exacerbate their progression like heart failure (HF), cancer, or dementia, with the prevalence of frailty and sarcopenia in HF patients reaching up to 50-75% and 19.5-47.3%, respectively, resulting in 1.5-3 times higher 1-year mortality. The biological mechanisms of frailty and sarcopenia are multifactorial, complex, and not yet fully elucidated, ranging from DNA damage, proteostasis impairment, and epigenetic changes to mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, and environmental factors, many of which are further linked to cardiac disease. Currently, there is no gold standard for the treatment of frailty and sarcopenia, however, growing evidence supports that a combination of exercise training and nutritional supplement improves skeletal muscle function and frailty, with a variety of other therapies being devised based on the underlying pathophysiology. In this review, we address the involvement of frailty and sarcopenia in cardiac disease and describe the latest insights into their biological mechanisms as well as the potential for intervention through exercise, diet, and specific therapies.

The impact of frailty on short-term prognosis in discharged adult stroke patients: A multicenter prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Frailty is commonly observed in stroke patients and it is associated with adverse outcomes. However, there remains a gap in longitudinal studies investigating the causal relationship between baseline frailty and short-term prognosis in discharged adult stroke patients.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the causal impact of frailty on non-elective readmission and major adverse cardiac and cerebral events, and investigate its associations with cognitive impairment and post-stroke disability.

DESIGN

A multicenter prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Two tertiary hospitals in Central and Northwest China.

PARTICIPANTS

667 adult stroke patients in stroke units were included from January 2022 to June 2022.

METHODS

Baseline frailty was assessed by the Frailty Scale. Custom-designed questions were utilized to assess non-elective readmission and major adverse cardiac and cerebral events as primary outcomes. Cognitive impairment, assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination Scale (MMSE), and post-stroke disability, measured with the Modified Rankin Scale (mRS), were considered secondary outcomes at a 3-month follow-up. The impact of baseline frailty on non-elective readmission and major adverse cardiac and cerebral events was examined using bivariate and multiple Cox regression analyses. Furthermore, associations between baseline frailty and cognitive impairment, or post-stroke disability, were investigated through generalized linear models.

RESULTS

A total of 5 participants died, 12 had major adverse cardiac and cerebral events, and 57 had non-selective readmission among 667 adult stroke patients. Frailty was an independent risk factor for non-selective readmission (hazard ratio [HR]: 2.71, 95 % confidence interval [CI]: 1.59, 4.62) and major adverse cardiac and cerebral events (HR: 3.77, 95 % CI: 1.07, 13.22) for stroke patients. Baseline frailty was correlated with cognitive impairment (regression coefficient [β]: -2.68, 95 % CI: -3.78, -1.58) adjusting for socio-demographic and clinical factors and follow-up interval. However, the relationship between frailty and cognitive impairment did not reach statistical significance when further adjusting for baseline MMSE (β: -0.39, 95 % CI: -1.43, 0.64). Moreover, baseline frailty was associated with post-stroke disability (β: 0.36, 95 % CI: 0.08, 0.65) adjusting for socio-demographic and clinical variables, follow-up interval, and baseline mRS.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding highlights the importance of assessing baseline frailty in discharged adult stroke patients, as it is significantly associated with non-elective readmission, major adverse cardiac and cerebral events, and post-stroke disability at 3 months. These results highlight the crucial role of screening and evaluating frailty status in improving short-term prognosis for adult stroke patients. Interventions should be developed to address baseline frailty and mitigate the short-term prognosis of stroke.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

Baseline frailty predicts non-elective readmission, major adverse cardiac and cerebral events, and post-stroke disability in adult stroke patients. @haiyanhexyyy.

Impact of frailty in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation undergoing catheter ablation

Background

The relationships between frailty and clinical outcomes in elderly Japanese patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) after catheter ablation (CA) have not been established. We evaluated the frailty rate of patients undergoing CA for NVAF, examined whether CA for NVAF improves frailty, and analyzed the CA outcomes of patients with and without frailty.

Methods

Elderly Japanese patients (≥65 years; mean age: 72.8 years) who participated in the real-world ablation therapy with anti-coagulants in management of atrial fibrillation registry and who responded to the frailty screening index survey were included (n = 213). Frailty and AF recurrence were assessed preoperatively and at 3 and 6 months after CA.

Results

Twenty-six patients (12.8%) were frail, 109 (53.7%) were pre-frail, and 68 (33.5%) were robust. Cardiovascular (frailty: 0.5%/person-year; pre-frailty: 0.1%/person-year; robust: 0.1%/person-year) and cardiac (frailty: 0.5%/person-year; pre-frailty: 0.1%/person-year; robust: 0.1%/person-year) events, as well as major bleeding (frailty: 0.3%/person-year; pre-frailty: 0.1%/person-year; robust: 0.1%/person-year), were numerically more frequent in the frailty group. No deaths from cardiovascular or stroke/systemic thromboembolic events occurred. A large proportion of patients did not experience 3-month (frailty: 96.2%; pre-frailty: 96.3%; robust: 88.2%) or 6-month (frailty: 88.5%; pre-frailty: 91.7%; robust: 86.8%) AF recurrence after CA. Weight loss, walking speed, and fatigue improved in the frailty and pre-frailty groups after CA.

Conclusion

Japanese patients aged ≥65 years with frailty or pre-frailty had improved frailty screening index components, such as weight loss, walking speed and fatigue, after CA. Therefore, elderly patients with frailty or pre-frailty may benefit from CA for NVAF.

Metabolic Syndrome and Positive Frailty Screening: A Cross-Sectional Study with Community-Dwelling Older Adults

Background

Metabolic Syndrome is a set of disorders that characterized by the association of three or more risk factors, like the obesity central, dyslipidemia, borderline blood pressure, hyperglycemia, and the increase of triglycerides. However, these factors also can be associated with pathophysiology of frailty.

Objectives

verifying whether the metabolic syndrome is associated to the positive frailty screening in the older people.

Design

Cross-sectional study. Participants: 443 older people living in Rio Branco, Brazil.

Setting

Data collection was carried out in two stages: a personal interview and blood collection.

Measurements

The diagnosis of metabolic syndrome was based on the criteria of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. The frailty screening was performed using subjective questions validated in a previous study. Descriptive statistics and multinomial logistic regression were used for data analyses.

Results

There was a predominance of female older people (69.07%), aged between 60 and 79 years (87.13%), with an income greater than or equal to one minimum wage (72.09%), no cognitive decline (75.94%) and depressive symptoms (63.31%), independent for BADL (86.46%) and dependent for IADL (51.69%). From the total sample, 56.88% of the older people were identified as frail, 34.09% pre-frail and 9.03% non frail. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 51.69%. After adjusting by the independent variables, an association between metabolic syndrome and pre-frailty was observed, and older people with metabolic syndrome were more likely to be prefrail (RRR=2.36; 95%CI=1.08-5.18).

Conclusion

The metabolic syndrome was associated to the increase chance of screening for prefrailty in the older people evaluated, which reinforces the needy to establish preventive measures in relation to the metabolic syndrome to avoid frailty in the older people.

Frailty and risk of systemic atherosclerosis: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Numerous observational studies have reported an association between frailty and atherosclerosis. However, the causal relationship between frailty and the occurrence of atherosclerosis in different anatomical sites remains unclear. we conducted a bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) study to evaluate the causal relationship between the frailty index (FI), and both systemic atherosclerosis and lipids.

METHODS

We obtained summary statistics from large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of various phenotypes, including frailty (n = 175,226), coronary atherosclerosis (n = 56,685), cerebral atherosclerosis (n = 150,765), peripheral arterial disease (PAD) (n = 361,194), atherosclerosis at other sites (n = 17,832), LDL-C (n = 201,678), HDL-C (n = 77,409), and triglycerides (n = 78,700). The primary MR analysis employed the inverse variance weighted (IVW) method. Furthermore, to assess reverse causality, we employed inverse MR and multivariate MR analysis.

RESULTS

Genetically predicted FI showed positive associations with the risk of coronary atherosclerosis (OR = 1.47, 95% CI 1.12-1.93) and cerebral atherosclerosis (OR = 1.99, 95% CI 1.05-3.78), with no significant association (p >0.05) applied to peripheral arterial disease and atherosclerosis at other sites. Genetically predicted FI was positively associated with the risk of triglycerides (OR = 1.31, 95% CI 1.08-1.59), negatively associated with the risk of LDL-C (OR = 0.87, 95% CI 0.78-0.97), and showed no significant association with the risk of HDL-C (p >0.05). Furthermore, both reverse MR and multivariate MR analyses demonstrated a correlation between systemic atherosclerosis, lipids, and increased FI.

CONCLUSION

Our study elucidated that genetically predicted FI is associated with the risk of coronary atherosclerosis and cerebral atherosclerosis by the MR analysis method, and they have a bidirectional causal relationship. Moreover, genetically predicted FI was causally associated with triglyceride and LDL-C levels. Further understanding of this association is crucial for optimizing medical practice and care models specifically tailored to frail populations.

The Association between Circadian Syndrome and Frailty in US adults: a cross-sectional study of NHANES Data from 2007 to 2018

PURPOSE

Frailty and Circadian Syndrome (CircS) are prevalent among the elderly, yet the link between them remains underexplored. This study aims to examine the association between CircS and frailty, particularly focusing on the impact of various CircS components on frailty.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) spanning 2007 to 2018. The 49-item Frailty Index (FI) was employed to assess frailty. To understand the prevalence of CircS in relation to frailty, we applied three multivariate logistic regression models. Additionally, subgroup and interaction analyses were performed to investigate potential modifying factors.

RESULTS

The study included 8,569 participants. In fully adjusted models, individuals with CircS showed a significantly higher risk of frailty compared to those without CircS (Odds Ratio [OR] = 2.18, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.91-2.49, p < 0.001). A trend of increasing frailty risk with greater CircS component was observed (trend test p < 0.001). Age (p = 0.01) and race (p = 0.02) interactions notably influenced this association, although the direction of effect was consistent across subgroups. Sensitivity analysis further confirmed the strength of this relationship.

CONCLUSION

This study identifies a strong positive correlation between CircS and frailty in the elderly. The risk of frailty escalates with an increasing number of CircS components. These findings highlight the intricate interplay between circadian syndrome and frailty in older adults, offering valuable insights for developing targeted prevention and intervention strategies.

Endothelial Dysfunction as a Key Link between Cardiovascular Disease and Frailty: A Systematic Review

Background: Frailty is increasingly recognized as a significant health concern, particularly due to its association with cardiovascular pathologies. This study aims to examine how vascular endothelial dysfunction, a known premorbid stage in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases, contributes to the link between cardiovascular illness and frailty. Methods: The inclusion criteria allowed us to focus on original clinical research articles published in English between January 2014 and January 2024, which reported quantitative assessments of the relationship between frailty and vascular endothelial dysfunction. Excluded from the study were systematic literature reviews, meta-analyses, editorials, conference articles, theses, methodological articles, and studies using animal or cell culture models. Searches were conducted of electronic databases, including Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Medline, up to 22 January 2024. The risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute's critical appraisal tools. The methods used to present and synthesize the results involved data extraction and categorization based on biomolecular and clinical findings of endothelial dysfunction. Results: Following the application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total of 29 studies were identified. Vascular endothelial dysfunction was associated with increased frailty phenotypes, and we also identified SGLT-2 inhibitors' potential role as an anti-fragility treatment that affects endothelial dysfunction. This study found that the physical and biomolecular markers of endothelial dysfunction are associated with frailty measures and have predictive value for incident frailty. Furthermore, some studies have shown inflammation to have an impact on endothelial dysfunction and frailty, and an innovative age-related chronic inflammation measure has been proven to predict frailty scores. Conclusions: The current evidence suggests an association between endothelial dysfunction and frailty, highlighting the need for further research to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Systolic and diastolic blood pressure time in target range and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with hypertension and pre-frailty or frailty status

In patients with hypertension and pre-frailty or frailty, the influence of systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) time in target range (TTR) on clinical outcomes is unclear. Thus, we conducted a post hoc analysis of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT). Classifying 4208 participants into frail and non-frail groups using a frailty index, the study calculated blood pressure time in target range (BP-TTR) for the first three months using the Rosendaal method. The primary endpoint included a composite of nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI), acute coronary syndromes, stroke, acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF), and cardiovascular death. Relationships between BP-TTR and outcomes were analyzed using Kaplan-Meier curves, Cox models, and restricted cubic spline curves, with subgroup analysis for further insights. In a median follow-up of 3.17 years, primary outcomes occurred in 6.7% of participants. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that a lower systolic blood pressure time in target range (SBP-TTR) (0%-25%) correlated with an increased cumulative incidence of the primary outcome (p < .001), nonfatal MI (P = .021), stroke (P = .004), and cardiovascular death (P = .002). A higher SBP-TTR (75%-<100%) was linked to a reduced risk of these outcomes. The restricted cubic spline (RCS) curve revealed a linear association between SBP-TTR and the primary outcome (non-linear P = .704). Similar patterns were observed for diastolic blood pressure time in target range (DBP-TTR). Subgroup analysis showed that the protective effect of higher SBP-TTR was less pronounced at low DBP-TTR levels (P for interaction = .023). In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of maintaining BP within the target range to mitigate cardiovascular risks in this population.

Chronic Coronary Disease in Older Adults

The number of older adults age ≥75 with chronic coronary disease (CCD) continues to rise. CCD is a major contributor to morbidity, mortality, and disability in older adults. Older adults are underrepresented in randomized controlled trials of CCD, which limits generalizability to older adults living with multiple chronic conditions and geriatric syndromes. This review discusses the presentation of CCD in older adults, reviews the guideline-directed medical and invasive therapies, and recommends a patient-centric approach to making treatment decisions.

Management of lipid variables in primary cardiovascular prevention: A position paper from the Heart, Vessels and Metabolism Group of the French Society of Cardiology

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol has been established as a powerful cardiovascular risk factor; its reduction provides a clinical benefit in primary cardiovascular prevention, irrespective of the characteristics of the patients treated. It is useful to tailor low-density lipoprotein cholesterol targets according to the magnitude of cardiovascular risk (low, high or very high) in order to reduce the cardiovascular risk as fully as possible. In order to provide a uniform approach, it is necessary to propose recommendations for good practice, defining strategies for reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. It is also necessary to know their merits, to analyse their practical limits and to propose adaptations, taking into account limitations and national specifics. This position paper aims to analyse the contribution and limits, as well as the adaptation to French practice, of 2019 and 2021 European Society of Cardiology recommendations for the management of lipid variables and cardiovascular prevention.

Chronological vs Biological Age in Interventional Cardiology: A Comprehensive Approach to Care for Older Adults: JACC Family Series

Aging is the gradual decline in physical and physiological functioning leading to increased susceptibility to stressors and chronic illnesses, including cardiovascular disease. With an aging global population, in which 1 in 6 individuals will be older than 60 years by 2030, interventional cardiologists are increasingly involved in providing complex care for older individuals. Although procedural aspects remain their main clinical focus, interventionalists frequently encounter age-associated risks that influence eligibility for invasive care, decision making during the intervention, procedural adverse events, and long-term management decisions. The unprecedented growth in transcatheter interventions, especially for structural heart diseases at extremes of age, have pushed age-related risks and implications for cardiovascular care to the forefront. In this JACC state-of-the-art review, the authors provide a comprehensive overview of the aging process as it relates to cardiovascular interventions, with special emphasis on the difference between chronological and biological aging. The authors also address key considerations to improve health outcomes for older patients during and after their invasive cardiovascular care. The role of "gerotherapeutics" in interventional cardiology, technological innovation in measuring biological aging, and the integration of patient-centered outcomes in the older adult population are also discussed.

Associations between healthy lifestyle and mortality across different social environments: a study among adults with frailty from the UK Biobank

BACKGROUND

Among people living with frailty, adherence to a healthy lifestyle may be a low-cost and effective strategy to decrease frailty-induced health risks across different social environments.

METHODS

We included 15 594 frail participants at baseline from the UK Biobank study. We used four lifestyle factors to create a composite healthy lifestyle score and 17 social factors to construct a polysocial score. We classified the lifestyle score into two levels (unhealthy and healthy) and the polysocial score into three levels (low, intermediate and high). We used Cox regression to determine the association of each lifestyle factor and lifestyle score with all-cause mortality, respectively. We also examined the associations across polysocial score categories. We evaluated the joint association of the lifestyle score and the categorical polysocial score with all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

During up to 14.41 follow-up years, we documented 3098 all-cause deaths. After multivariable adjustment, we found a significant association between not smoking and adequate physical activity with all-cause mortality across polysocial score categories, respectively. We also found a significant association between a healthy diet and all-cause mortality among frail participants living in an intermediate social environment. A healthy lifestyle was associated with a lower all-cause mortality risk across polysocial score categories, especially among those with a low polysocial score.

CONCLUSIONS

Adherence to a healthy lifestyle, particularly not smoking, adequate physical activity and a healthy diet, may provide a feasible solution to decreasing mortality risk among frail adults across different social environments, especially for those in the socially disadvantaged group.

Frailty and In-Hospital Outcomes for Management of Cardiogenic Shock without Acute Myocardial Infarction

(1) Background: Cardiogenic shock (CS) is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Frailty and cardiovascular diseases are intertwined, commonly sharing risk factors and exhibiting bidirectional relationships. The relationship of frailty and non-acute myocardial infarction with cardiogenic shock (non-AMI-CS) is poorly described. (2) Methods: We retrospectively analyzed the National Inpatient Sample from 2016 to 2020 and identified all hospitalizations for non-AMI-CS. We classified them into frail and non-frail groups according to the hospital frailty risk score cut-off of 5 and compared in-hospital outcomes. (3) Results: A total of 503,780 hospitalizations for non-AMI-CS were identified. Most hospitalizations involved frail adults (80.0%). Those with frailty had higher odds of in-hospital mortality (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.11, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.03-2.20, p < 0.001), do-not-resuscitate status, and discharge to a skilled nursing facility compared with those without frailty. They also had higher odds of in-hospital adverse events, such as acute kidney injury, delirium, and longer length of stay. Importantly, non-AMI-CS hospitalizations in the frail group had lower use of mechanical circulatory support but not rates of cardiac transplantation. (4) Conclusions: Frailty is highly prevalent among non-AMI-CS hospitalizations. Those accompanied by frailty are often associated with increased rates of morbidity and mortality compared to those without frailty.

Frailty in Older Adults with Dengue Fever

Background and objectives: Dengue is one of the most common epidemic infections around the world. Dengue infections in older adults are related to an atypical presentation and a high mortality. Frailty is associated with poor recovery from hospitalization due to infection. However, few studies describe frailty and functional decline after dengue infection. The current case series study aims to investigate the baseline frailty status, functional decline, and time to recovery in older adults after dengue infection. Method: We studied seven patients with post-dengue frailty who had been admitted to the geriatric ward in one tertiary medical center in Taiwan during the 2023 dengue fever outbreak. Result: The mean age was 82 years old. The clinical frailty scale worsened from a mean of 4.7 at baseline to 6.3 at dengue diagnosis. The mean Katz Index of independence in activities of daily living decreased from 10.6 at baseline to 4.7 with dengue, and it recovered to 6.7 one month after discharge. Conclusions: Our preliminary data suggest that there is indeed an increase in frailty in older adults due to dengue. Post-dengue frailty and functional decline might be profound and persistent. Acute geriatric care intervention rehabilitation for frailty after dengue may benefit this population.

Investigating the Neuroprotective and Cognitive-Enhancing Effects of Bacopa monnieri: A Systematic Review Focused on Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Apoptosis

The aging of the global population has increased the prevalence of neurodegenerative conditions. Bacopa monnieri (BM), an herb with active compounds, such as bacosides A and B, betulinic acid, loliolide, asiatic acid, and quercetin, demonstrates the potential for brain health. Limited research has been conducted on the therapeutic applications of BM in neurodegenerative conditions. This systematic review aims to project BM's beneficial role in brain disorders. BM has anti-apoptotic and antioxidant actions and can repair damaged neurons, stimulate kinase activity, restore synaptic function, improve nerve transmission, and increase neuroprotection. The included twenty-two clinical trials demonstrated that BM can reduce Nuclear Factor-κB phosphorylation, improve emotional function, cognitive functions, anhedonia, hyperactivity, sleep routine, depression, attention deficit, learning problems, memory retention, impulsivity, and psychiatric problems. Moreover, BM can reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress. Here, we highlight that BM provides notable therapeutic benefits and can serve as a complementary approach for the care of patients with neurodegenerative conditions associated with brain disorders. This review adds to the growing interest in natural products and their potential therapeutic applications by improving our understanding of the mechanisms underlying cognitive function and neurodegeneration and informing the development of new therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative diseases.

Fried Frailty Phenotype in Elderly Patients with Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Prevalence, Associated Factors, and Impact on Hospitalization

Purpose

To investigate the prevalence and factors associated with frailty and impact of frailty on hospitalization due to any cause in elderly patients with chronic coronary syndrome (CCS).

Patients and Methods

We conducted a study wherein we assessed frailty using Fried frailty phenotype for outpatients aged ≥60 years with CCS. Logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the factors associated with frailty. Frailty was adjusted for demographic and geriatric variables and comorbidities to assess its impact on hospitalization.

Results

Overall, 420 patients (median age 70 years [interquartile range, 65-77]; men, 74.5%) who completed the 3-month follow-up period were analyzed. Coronary revascularization for > 1 year was the most common clinical scenario for CCS (59.8%; n = 251). The prevalence of non-frail, pre-frail, and frail patients were 22.4% (n = 94), 49.7% (n = 209), and 27.9% (n = 117), respectively. In the adjusted model, three factors associated with frailty were age ≥ 75 years (odds ratio [OR] 2.29, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.39-3.75, P = 0.001), limitations in instrumental activity of daily living (OR 3.89, 95% CI 2.33-6.48, P < 0.001), and heart failure (OR 2.30, 95% CI 1.32-4.02, P = 0.003). The overall 3-month hospitalization rate was higher in frail patients than in non-frail patients (23.9% vs 13.5%, P = 0.012). Frailty was associated with hospitalization (OR 1.85, 95% CI 1.04-3.30, P = 0.037) but in a weak strength of association (r = 0.126).

Conclusion

The prevalence of frailty was 27.9% in the elderly patients with CCS. Age ≥ 75 years, limitations in functional status, and heart failure were associated with increased odds of frailty. Frailty was a predictor of 3-month all-cause hospitalization in these patients.

Claims-based Frailty Index in Japanese Older Adults: A Cohort Study Using LIFE Study Data

BACKGROUND

We aimed to assess whether the United States-developed Claims-based Frailty Index (CFI) can be implemented in Japanese older adults using claims data.

METHODS

We used the monthly claims data and certification of long-term care (LTC) insurance data of residents from 12 municipalities from April 2014 to March 2019. The 12 months from first recording was defined as the "baseline period," and the time thereafter as the "follow-up period". Participants aged ≥65 years were included, and those with no certified LTC insurance or who died at baseline were excluded. New certification of LTC insurance and all-cause mortality during the follow-up period were defined as outcome events. CFI categorization consisted of three steps including: 1) using 12 months deficit-accumulation approach that assigned different weights to each of the 52 items; 2) the accumulated score to derive the CFI; and 3) categorizing the CFI as "robust" (<0.15), "prefrail" (0.15-0.24), and "frail" (≥0.25). Kaplan-Meier survival curves and Cox proportional hazard models were used to determine the association between CFI and outcomes. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated.

RESULTS

There were 519,941 participants in total. After adjusting for covariates, the severe CFI category had a high risk of certification of LTC insurance (prefrail: HR 1.33; 95% CI, 1.27-1.39 and frail: HR 1.60; 95% CI, 1.53-1.68) and all-cause mortality (prefrail: HR 1.44; 95% CI, 1.29-1.60 and frail: HR 1.84; 95% CI, 1.66-2.05).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that CFI can be implemented in Japanese claims data to predict the certification of LTC insurance and mortality.

Preserved Ratio Impaired Spirometry and COPD Accelerate Frailty Progression: Evidence From a Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

COPD has been found to be associated with frailty. However, longitudinal evidence for associations of COPD with frailty progression is inadequate. Furthermore, recent studies revealed a new phenotype of lung function impairment: preserved ratio impaired spirometry (PRISm) findings. Associations of PRISm findings and their transitions with frailty progression are unclear.

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the associations of PRISm findings, transitions of PRISm findings, and COPD with frailty progression?

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

To analyze the associations of PRISm findings and COPD with frailty progression, 5,901 patients were included from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Patients were classified into three lung function patterns of normal spirometry (NS) findings, PRISm findings, and COPD. Frailty progression was assessed by repeated measurements of the frailty index (FI) during follow-up. Among these 5,901 patients, 3,765 patients were included to analyze the associations of PRISm findings transitions with frailty progression. PRISm findings transitions were assessed based on the changes of lung function patterns after a 4-year interval. Linear mixed-effect models were used for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

The median follow-up periods were 9.5 years for the analyses of PRISm findings and COPD with frailty progression and 5.8 years for PRISm findings transitions with frailty progression. When compared with participants with NS findings, patients with PRISm findings and COPD demonstrated accelerated FI progression with additional annual increases of 0.301 (95% CI, 0.211-0.392; P < .001) and 0.172 (95% CI, 0.102-0.242; P < .001), respectively. Patients who transitioned from NS findings to PRISm findings also demonstrated accelerated FI progression when compared with those with stable NS findings (β = 0.242; 95% CI, 0.008-0.476; P = .042). However, no accelerated FI progression was found in patients with PRISm findings who transitioned to NS findings (β = 0.119; 95% CI, -0.181 to 0.418; P = .438).

INTERPRETATION

Our findings indicate that PRISm findings and COPD are associated with accelerated frailty progression. Further studies are needed to elucidate the causality of the association of PRISm findings and COPD with frailty.

Role of Cognitive Frailty in Older Adults With Cardiovascular Disease

As the older adult population expands, an increasing number of patients affected by geriatric syndromes are seen by cardiovascular clinicians. One such syndrome that has been associated with poor outcomes is cognitive frailty: the simultaneous presence of cognitive impairment, without evidence of dementia, and physical frailty, which results in decreased cognitive reserve. Driven by common pathophysiologic underpinnings (eg, inflammation and neurohormonal dysregulation), cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment, and frailty also share the following risk factors: hypertension, diabetes, obesity, sedentary behavior, and tobacco use. Cardiovascular disease has been associated with the onset and progression of cognitive frailty, which may be reversible in early stages, making it essential for clinicians to diagnose the condition in a timely manner and prescribe appropriate interventions. Additional research is required to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the development of cognitive frailty, establish preventive and therapeutic strategies to address the needs of older patients with cardiovascular disease at risk for cognitive frailty, and ultimately facilitate targeted intervention studies.

Progression of Frailty and Cardiovascular Outcomes Among Medicare Beneficiaries

Background

Frailty is associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes independent of age and comorbidities, yet the independent influence of frailty progression remains uncertain.

Methods

Medicare Fee-for-service beneficiaries ≥ 65 years at cohort inception with continuous enrollment from 2003-2015 were included. Frailty trajectory was measured by annualized change in a validated claims-based frailty index (CFI) over a 5-year period. Linear mixed effects models, adjusting for baseline frailty, were used to estimate CFI change over a 5-year period. Survival analysis was used to evaluate associations of frailty progression and future health outcomes (major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events [MACCE], all-cause death, heart failure, myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, and days alive at home [DAH] within the following calendar year).

Results

26.4 million unique beneficiaries were included (mean age 75.4 ± 7.0 years, 57% female, 13% non-White). In total, 20% had frailty progression, 66% had no change in frailty, and 14% frailty regression over median follow-up of 2.4 years. Compared to those without a change in CFI, when adjusting for baseline frailty, those with frailty progression had significantly greater risk of incident MACCE (hazard ratio [HR] 2.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.30-2.31), all-cause mortality (HR 1.59, 95% CI 1.58-1.59), acute myocardial infarction (HR 1.78, 95% CI 1.77-1.79), heart failure (HR 2.78, 95% CI 2.77-2.79), and stroke (HR 1.78, 95% CI 1.77-1.79). There was also a graded increase in risk of each outcome with more rapid progression and significantly fewer DAH with the most rapid vs. the slowest progression group (270.4 ± 112.3 vs. 308.6 ± 93.0 days, rate ratio 0.88, 95% CI 0.87-0.88, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

In this large, nationwide sample of Medicare beneficiaries, frailty progression, independent of baseline frailty, was associated with fewer DAH and a graded risk of MACCE, all-cause mortality, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and stroke compared to those without progression.

New statin use, mortality, and first cardiovascular events in older US Veterans by frailty status

BACKGROUND

Statins are part of long-term medical regimens for many older adults. Whether frailty modifies the protective relationship between statins, mortality, and major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) is unknown.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study of US Veterans ≥65, without CVD or prior statin use seen in 2002-2012, followed through 2017. A 31-item frailty index was used. The co-primary endpoint was all-cause mortality or MACE (MI, stroke/TIA, revascularization, or cardiovascular death). Cox proportional hazards models were developed to evaluate the association of statin use with outcomes; propensity score overlap weighting accounted for confounding by indication.

RESULTS

We identified 710,313 Veterans (mean age (SD) 75.3(6.5), 98% male, 89% white); 86,327 (12.1%) were frail. Over mean follow-up of 8 (5) years, there were 48.6 and 72.6 deaths per 1000 person-years (PY) among non-frail statin-users vs nonusers (weighted Incidence Rate Difference (wIRD)/1000 person years (PY), -24.0[95% CI, -24.5 to -23.6]), and 90.4 and 130.4 deaths per 1000PY among frail statin-users vs nonusers (wIRD/1000PY, -40.0[95% CI, -41.8 to -38.2]). There were 51.7 and 60.8 MACE per 1000PY among non-frail statin-users vs nonusers (wIRD/1000PY, -9.1[95% CI, -9.7 to -8.5]), and 88.2 and 102.0 MACE per 1000PY among frail statin-users vs nonusers (wIRD/1000PY, -13.8[95% CI, -16.2 to -11.4]). There were no significant interactions by frailty for statin users vs non-users by either mortality or MACE outcomes, p-interaction 0.770 and 0.319, respectively. Statin use was associated with lower risk of all-cause mortality (HR, 0.61 (0.60-0.61)) and MACE (HR 0.86 (0.85-0.87)).

CONCLUSIONS

New statin use is associated with a lower risk of mortality and MACE, independent of frailty. These findings should be confirmed in a randomized clinical trial.

Changes in frailty and incident cardiovascular disease in three prospective cohorts

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Previous studies found that frailty was an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, previous studies only focused on baseline frailty status, not taking into consideration the changes in frailty status during follow-up. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations of changes in frailty status with incident CVD.

METHODS

This study used data of three prospective cohorts: China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), and Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Frailty status was evaluated by the Rockwood frailty index and classified as robust, pre-frail, or frail. Changes in frailty status were assessed by frailty status at baseline and the second survey which was two years after the baseline. Cardiovascular disease was ascertained by self-reported physician-diagnosed heart disease (including angina, heart attack, congestive heart failure, and other heart problems) or stroke. Cox proportional hazard models were used to calculate the hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) after adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

A total of 7116 participants from CHARLS (female: 48.6%, mean age: 57.4 years), 5303 from ELSA (female: 57.7%, mean age: 63.7 years), and 7266 from HRS (female: 64.9%, mean age: 65.1 years) were included according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. The median follow-up periods were 5.0 years in the CHARLS, 10.7 years in the ELSA, and 9.5 years in the HRS. Compared with stable robust participants, robust participants who progressed to pre-frail or frail status had increased risks of incident CVD (CHARLS, HR = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.54-2.21; ELSA, HR = 1.53, 95% CI: 1.25-1.86; HRS, HR = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.31-1.92). In contrast, frail participants who recovered to robust or pre-frail status presented decreased risks of incident CVD (CHARLS, HR = 0.62, 95% CI: 0.47-0.81; ELSA, HR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.34-0.69; HRS, HR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.55-0.89) when compared with stable frail participants. These decreased risks of incident CVD were also observed in pre-frail participants who recovered to robust status (CHARLS, HR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.52-0.83; ELSA, HR = 0.65, 95% CI: 0.49-0.85; HRS, HR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.56-0.91) when compared with stable pre-frail participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Different changes in frailty status are associated with different risks of incident CVD. Progression of frailty status increases incident CVD risks, while recovery of frailty status decreases incident CVD risks.

Machine learning-based prediction of composite risk of cardiovascular events in patients with stable angina pectoris combined with coronary heart disease: development and validation of a clinical prediction model for Chinese patients

Objective: To develop a risk score model for the occurrence of composite cardiovascular events (CVE) in patients with stable angina pectoris (SA) combined with coronary heart disease (CHD) by comparing the modeling effects of various machine learning (ML) algorithms. Methods: In this prospective study, 690 patients with SA combined with CHD attending the Department of Integrative Cardiology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, from October 2020 to October 2021 were included. The data set was randomly divided into a training group and a testing group in a 7:3 ratio in the per-protocol set (PPS). Model variables were screened using the least absolute shrinkage selection operator (LASSO) regression, univariate analysis, and multifactor logistic regression. Then, nine ML algorithms are integrated to build the model and compare the model effects. Individualized risk assessment was performed using the SHapley Additive exPlanation (SHAP) and nomograms, respectively. The model discrimination was evaluated by receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC), the calibration ability of the model was evaluated by calibration plot, and the clinical applicability of the model was evaluated by decision curve analysis (DCA). This study was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of China-Japan Friendship Hospital (2020-114-K73). Results: 690 patients were eligible to finish the complete follow-up in the PPS. After LASSO screening and multifactorial logistic regression analysis, physical activity level, taking antiplatelets, Traditional Chinese medicine treatment, Gensini score, Seattle Angina Questionnaire (SAQ)-exercise capacity score, and SAQ-anginal stability score were found to be predictors of the occurrence of CVE. The above predictors are modeled, and a comprehensive comparison of the modeling effectiveness of multiple ML algorithms is performed. The results show that the Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) model is the best model, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.95 (95% CI = 0.91-1.00) for the test set, Accuracy: 0.90, Sensitivity: 0.87, and Specificity: 0.96. Interpretation of the model using SHAP highlighted the Gensini score as the most important predictor. Based on the multifactorial logistic regression modeling, a nomogram, and online calculators have been developed for clinical applications. Conclusion: We developed the LightGBM optimization model and the multifactor logistic regression model, respectively. The model is interpreted using SHAP and nomogram. This provides an option for early prediction of CVE in patients with SA combined with CHD.

Assessment of relationships between frailty and chronic pain: a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomisation study

BACKGROUND

Previous observational studies have indicated a complex association between chronic pain and frailty. This study aimed to examine the bidirectional causal relationship between frailty and chronic pain and to quantify mediating effects of known modifiable risk factors.

METHODS

A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis was applied in this study. Summary genome-wide association statistics for frailty, as defined by both frailty index (FI) and Fried Frailty Score (FFS), pain at seven site-specific chronic pain (SSCP) (headache, facial, neck/shoulder, stomach/abdominal, back, hip and knee) and multisite chronic pain (MCP) were extracted from populations of European ancestry. Genetic instrumental variables strongly correlated with each exposure were selected. The inverse-variance-weighted method was the primary method used in the MR, supplemented by a range of sensitivity and validation analyses. Two-step MR analysis was undertaken to evaluate the mediating effects of several proposed confounders.

RESULTS

Genetically predicted higher FI and FFS were associated with an increased risk of MCP and specific types of SSCP, including neck/shoulder pain, stomach/abdominal pain, back pain, hip pain and knee pain. In the reverse direction analysis, genetic liability to MCP was found to be associated with increased FI and FFS. These results remained consistent across sensitivity and validation assessments. Two-step MR suggested a mediating role for body mass index, smoking initiation, physical inactivity, educational attainment and depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research provided genetic evidence that the association between frailty and chronic pain was bidirectional where the coexistence of both conditions will exacerbate each other.

Prevalence and correlates of frailty in older hypertensive outpatients according to different tools: the HYPER-FRAIL pilot study

OBJECTIVES

To date, few studies have investigated frailty in hypertensive individuals. This study aimed at identifying the prevalence of frailty in a sample of hypertensive older outpatients using six different identification tools. Clinical correlates of frailty and agreement between different frailty definitions were also investigated.

METHODS

The HYPER-FRAIL pilot study recruited hypertensive patients aged at least 75 years from two geriatric outpatient clinics of Careggi Hospital, Florence, Italy. Four frailty scales [Fried Frailty Phenotype, Frailty Index, Clinical Frailty Scale (CFS), Frailty Postal Score] and two physical performance tests [Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) and usual gait speed] were applied. The Cohen's kappa coefficient was calculated to assess agreement between measures. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify clinical features independently associated with frailty.

RESULTS

Among 121 participants (mean age 81, 60% women), frailty prevalence varied between 33 and 50% according to the tool used. Moderate agreement was observed between Fried Frailty Phenotype, Frailty Index and SPPB, and between Frailty Index and CFS. Agreement was minimal or weak between the remaining measures (K < 0.60). Use of walking aids and depressive symptoms were independently associated with frailty, regardless of the definition used. Frailty correlates also included dementia, disability and comorbidity burden, but not office and 24-h blood pressure values.

CONCLUSION

Frailty is highly prevalent among older hypertensive outpatients, but agreement between different frailty tools was moderate-to-weak. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess the prognostic role of different frailty tools and their clinical utility in the choice of antihypertensive treatment.

Effect of canakinumab on frailty: A post hoc analysis of the CANTOS trial

Although inflammation is strongly associated with frailty, whether medications that lower inflammation decrease frailty is unclear and randomized trial evidence is scant. We sought to test whether canakinumab, a therapeutic monoclonal antibody that inhibits IL-1β and reduces C-reactive protein (CRP), can lower frailty risk. This was a post hoc analysis of the Canakinumab ANti-inflammatory Thrombosis Outcome Study (CANTOS), a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of 10,061 stable postmyocardial infarction patients randomized to subcutaneous canakinumab once every 3 months. Incident frailty was measured using a 34-item cumulative-deficit Frailty Index (FI). Time-to-event analysis using intent to treat. A total of 9942 CANTOS participants had data to calculate a baseline FI. Median age was 61 (IQR 54-68); 74% were male, 12% Asian, 3% Black, 80% White, and 16% Hispanic/Latino. At baseline, mean FI score was 0.12 and 13% were frail using a cutoff of 0.2. Over 5 years, 1080 participants (12.5%) became frail and mean FI scores increased to 0.14. There was no effect on frailty incidence according to randomization to any canakinumab dose versus placebo over time, HR 1.03 (0.91-1.17), p = 0.63. Results were similar using phenotypic frailty. Additionally, the primary findings of CANTOS in terms of canakinumab-associated cardiovascular event reduction were unchanged in analyses stratified by baseline frailty. In conclusion, among stable adult patients with atherosclerosis, random allocation to interleukin-1b inhibition with canakinumab versus placebo did not lower risk of incident frailty over 5 years. More randomized data are needed to understand the role of targeted anti-inflammatory medications for frailty prevention in older adults.

Effect of blood pressure on mortality in patients with cognitive impairment: a prospective cohort study

Background

Cognitive impairment is a prevalent condition that substantially elevates mortality rates among the elderly. The impact of hypertension on mortality in older adults with cognitive impairment is a subject of contention. This study aims to examine the influence of hypertension on both all-cause and CVD-specific mortality in elderly individuals experiencing cognitive impairment within a prospective cohort.

Methods

This study encompassed 2,925 participants (weighted 53,086,905) aged 60 years or older from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) spanning 2011-2014. Incidence of all-cause and CVD-specific mortality was ascertained through linkage with National Death Index records until 31 December 2019. Survival was performed employing the Kaplan-Meier method. Hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated via Cox proportional hazards regression models.

Results

Over the follow-up period of up to 9.17 years [with a median (IQR) time to death of 6.58 years], equivalent to 18,731.56 (weighted 3.46 × 108) person-years, there were a total of 576 recorded deaths. Participants with CI exhibited a 1.96-fold higher risk of all-cause mortality (95% CI: 1.55-2.49; p < 0.01) and a 2.8-fold higher risk of CVD-specific mortality (95% CI: 1.83-4.29; p < 0.01) in comparison to participants without CI. Among participants with CI, concurrent hypertension comorbidity was linked to a 2.73-fold elevated risk of all-cause mortality (95% CI: 1.78-4.17; p < 0.01) and a 5.3-fold elevated risk of CVD-specific mortality (95% CI: 2.54-11.04; p < 0.01). Further stratified analyses revealed that the combined effects of hypertension and CI on all-cause and CVD-specific mortality were more pronounced in participants aged 60-69 years compared to those aged 70-80 years (p for interaction <0.01). The primary findings exhibited resilience across a series of sensitivity analyses.

Conclusions

Participants with CI exhibited a markedly elevated risk of all-cause and CVD-specific mortality when coexisting with hypertension. Appropriate management of hypertension in patients with CI may be helpful in reducing the excess risk of death.

Effect of Frailty on the Long-Term Prognosis of Elderly Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction

Background

To investigate the effect of frailty on the long-term prognosis of elderly patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

Methods

The data of 238 AMI patients (aged ≥75 years) were retrospectively reviewed. They were divided into two groups according to the Modified Frailty Index (mFI): frailty group (mFI≥0.27, n=143) and non-frailty group (mFI<0.27, n=95). The major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events (MACEs) and Kaplan-Meier survival curves of the two groups were compared. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was used to identify the risk factors for MACEs.

Results

The frailty group showed a significantly older age as well as a higher N-terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide level, Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events score, and CRUSADE bleeding score compared with the non-frailty group (P<0.05). A significantly greater proportion of patients with combined heart failure, atrial fibrillation, comorbidity, and activities of daily living score of <60 was also observed in the frailty group compared with the non-frailty group (P<0.05). At 36 months after AMI, the frailty group vs the non-frailty group showed a significantly poorer survival (log-rank P=0.005), higher incidence of MACEs (50.35 vs 29.47, P=0.001), higher overall mortality rate (20.98% vs 7.37%, P=0.006), higher 30-day mortality rate (13.99% vs 5.26%, P=0.033), higher major bleeding rate (14.69% vs 5.26, P=0.018), and lower repeat revascularization rate (2.10% vs 8.42%, P=0.03). Frailty, type 2 diabetes, and N-terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide ≥1800 pg/mL were independent risk factors for MACEs.

Conclusion

Frailty is an independent risk factor affecting the long-term prognosis of elderly patients with AMI.

Trends and disparities in China's cardiovascular disease burden from 1990 to 2019

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In order to find the exact strategies in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), it is necessary to assess their risk factors systematically. Here, we used the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) to review the long-term trends and epidemiological characteristics among Chinese.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We comprehensively analyzed the burden of CVD for the Chinese population using GBD 2019, including prevalence, incidence, mortality, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Then, we analyzed trends over time, and predicted mortality and morbidity, using joinpoint regression, age-period-cohort (APC) model, and Bayesian APC approach. Finally, we analyzed the attributable burden of CVD. In 2019, the prevalence of CVD in China was 120 million, representing a 140.02% increase since 1990. The number of DALYs attributed to CVD increased by 52.56% compared to 1990. Joinpoint showed a fluctuating incidence downward, while mortality significantly declined. The APC fitting results indicated that recent generations have a higher prevalence than the past, and the prevalence has increased among individuals of the same age group. The BAPC predicted that CVD's prevalence and mortality in the Chinese would stabilize and decline between 2020 and 2030, with a significant decline among males. The main CVD-attributable burdens in 2019 were metabolic risks, especially high blood pressure.

CONCLUSION

Given China's large and rapidly aging population, the burden of CVD is a major concern. Practical strategies to prevent and manage CVD are urgently needed to address this public health challenge.

Beyond MACE: a multidimensional approach to outcomes in clinical trials for older adults with stable ischemic heart disease

The global population of older adults is expanding rapidly resulting in a shift towards managing multiple chronic diseases that coexist and may be exacerbated by cardiovascular illness. Stable ischemic heart disease (SIHD) is a predominant contributor to morbidity and mortality in the older adult population. Although results from clinical trials demonstrate that chronological age is a predictor of poor health outcomes, the current management approach remains suboptimal due to insufficient representation of older adults in randomized trials and the inadequate consideration for the interaction between biological aging, concurrent geriatric syndromes, and patient preferences. A shift towards a more patient-centered approach is necessary for appropriately and effectively managing SIHD in the older adult population. In this review, we aim to demonstrate the distinctive needs of older adults who prioritize holistic health outcomes like functional capacity, cognitive abilities, mental health, and quality of life alongside the prevention of major adverse cardiovascular outcomes reported in cardiovascular clinical trials. An individualized, patient-centered approach that involves shared decision-making regarding outcome prioritization is needed when any treatment strategy is being considered. By prioritizing patients and addressing their unique needs for successful aging, we can provide more effective care to a patient population that exhibits the highest cardiovascular risks.

Association of estimated carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity with frailty in middle-aged and older adults with cardiometabolic disease

PURPOSE

The prevalence of frailty in individuals with cardiometabolic disease (CMD) has become a growing concern in public health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between estimated pulse wave velocity (ePWV) and frailty in middle-aged and older adults with CMD.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 23,313 non-institutionalized adults with CMD from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2018. Frailty status was determined using the frailty index, and logistic regression models were used to assess the association of ePWV with frailty risk. Multivariable logistic regression and propensity-score matching (PSM) were used to adjust for potential confounders. The restricted cubic spline regression model was used to evaluate the non-linear association between ePWV and frailty risk.

RESULTS

After adjusting for potential confounding factors, we found that each one m/s increase in ePWV was associated with a 15% higher risk of frailty (odds ratio [OR] = 1.15, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.12 to 1.18, P < 0.001). After PSM, the association remained significant (OR = 1.05, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.08, P < 0.001). The logistic models with restricted cubic splines showed a non-linear dose-response association, with the risk of frailty increasing more rapidly when ePWV exceeded 9.5 m/s.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest that a higher level of ePWV is associated with an increased risk of frailty in middle-aged and older adults with CMD, and may serve as a viable alternative to directly measured cfPWV.

Are assessment measures for components of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health reproducible for use on pre-frail and frail older adults? A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the internal consistency, reliability and measurement error of assessment measures for body structure and function (postural balance, muscle strength, cardiorespiratory function and physical fitness), activity (walking and mobility) and participation (quality of life and social reintegration) outcomes for use on pre-frail and frail older adults.

METHODS

Searches were performed in six databases (Medline, Embase, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library and Lilacs) and reproducibility studies were included. Cronbach's alpha and the classification proposed by Terwee et al. (2007) were used for the interpretation of internal consistency. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and the Munro classification were used for the determination of reliability. The standard error of measurement (SEM), minimal detectable change (MDC) as well as percentages of error (SEM%) and change (MDC%) were calculated. Methodological quality of the studies was appraised using Boxes 4, 6 and 7 of the COSMIN Risk of Bias checklist.

RESULTS

Six studies were included in the present systematic review, with a total of 835 (82.4 years; 582 women and 253 men) pre-frail and frail older adults analyzed. Seven measures were identified for the assessment of body structure and function, activity and participation outcomes (Hierarchical Assessment of Balance and Mobility, Self-Assessment of Physical Fitness, Sarcopenia Quality of Life, Reintegration to Normal Living Index, Two-Minute Walking test, Six-Minute Walking test and Ten-Meter Walking test). The following measurement properties were identified: internal consistency = 0.84 (mean Cronbach's alpha); reliability = 0.87 (mean ICC); SEM range = 0.06 to 10.10; MDC range = 0.13 to 28.10; SEM% range = 5.2 % to 9.5 %; and MDC% range = 10.7 % to 28.5 %.

CONCLUSION

The present systematic review found adequate internal consistency, high reliability and an acceptable measurement error for assessment measures of body structure and function, activity and participation outcomes for use on pre-frail and frail older adults.

Frailty as a predictor of mortality: a comparative cohort study of older adults in Costa Rica and the United States

BACKGROUND

Frailty is a common condition among older adults that results from aging-related declines in multiple systems. Frailty increases older adults' vulnerability to negative health outcomes, including loss of mobility, falls, hospitalizations, and mortality. The aim of this study is to examine the association between frailty and mortality in older adults from Costa Rica and the United States.

METHODS

This prospective cohort study uses secondary nationally-representative data of community-dwelling older adults from the Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study (CRELES, n = 1,790) and the National Health & Aging Trends Study (NHATS, n = 6,680). Frailty status was assessed using Physical Frailty Phenotype, which includes the following five criteria: shrinking, exhaustion, low physical activity, muscle weakness, and slow gait. We used Cox proportional hazard models to examine the association between frailty and all-cause mortality, including sociodemographic characteristics and health behaviors as covariates in the models. Mortality follow-up time was right censored at 8 years from the date at baseline interview.

RESULTS

The death hazard for frail compared to non-frail older adults was three-fold in Costa Rica (HR = 3.14, 95% CI: 2.13-4.62) and four-fold in the White US (HR = 4.02, 95% CI: 3.04-5.32). Older age, being male, and smoking increased mortality risk in both countries. High education was a protective factor in the US, whereas being married/in union was a protective factor in Costa Rica. In the US, White older adults had a lower risk of death compared to all other races and ethnicities.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate that frailty can have a differential impact on mortality depending on the country. Access to universal health care across the life course in Costa Rica and higher levels of stress and social isolation in the US may explain differences observed in end-of-life trajectories among frail older adults.

Initiation of SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists according to level of frailty in people with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in Denmark: a cross-sectional, nationwide study

BACKGROUND

Whether frailty influences the initiation of two cardioprotective diabetes drug therapies (ie, SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists) in people with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease is unknown. We aimed to assess rates of initiation of SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists according to frailty in people with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

METHODS

For this cross-sectional, nationwide study, all people with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in Denmark between Jan 1, 2015, and Dec 31, 2021, from six Danish health-data registers were identified. People younger than 40 years, with end-stage renal disease, with registered contraindications to SGLT2 inhibitors or GLP-1 receptor agonists, or with previous use of either drug therapy were excluded. The Hospital Frailty Risk Score was used to categorise people as either non-frail, moderately frail, or severely frail. Cox proportional hazards models were used to analyse the association between frailty and initiation of an SGLT2 inhibitor or a GLP-1 receptor agonist.

FINDINGS

Of 119 390 people with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, 103 790 were included. Median follow-up time was 4·5 years (IQR 2·7-6·1) and median age across the three frailty groups was 71 years (64-79). 65 959 (63·6%) of 103 790 people were male and 37 831 (36·5%) were female. At index date, 66 910 (64·5%) people were non-frail, 29 250 (28·2%) were moderately frail, and 7630 (7·4%) were severely frail. Frailty was associated with a significantly lower probability of initiating therapy with an SGLT2 inhibitor or a GLP-1 receptor agonist than in people who were non-frail (moderately frail hazard ratio 0·91, 95% CI 0·88-0·94, p<0·0001; severely frail 0·75, 0·70-0·80, p<0·0001). This association persisted after adjustment for age, sex, socioeconomic status, year of inclusion, duration of type 2 diabetes, duration of cardiovascular disease, polypharmacy, and comorbidity.

INTERPRETATION

In people with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in Denmark, frailty was associated with a significantly lower probability of SGLT2-inhibitor or GLP-1 receptor-agonist initiation, despite their benefits. Formulating clear and updated guidelines on the use of SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists in people who are frail with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease should be a priority.

FUNDING

Department of Cardiology, Herlev and Gentofte University Hospital.

TRANSLATION

For the Danish translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

The Effect of Frailty on the Efficacy and Safety of Intensive Blood Pressure Control: A Post Hoc Analysis of the SPRINT Trial

BACKGROUND

Frailty is associated with an increased risk of all-cause death and cardiovascular events. However, it is uncertain whether frailty modifies the efficacy and safety of intensive blood pressure control.

METHODS

Data from SPRINT (Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial) were used to construct a frailty index. Subgroup differences in intensive blood pressure control treatment effects and safety outcomes were measured on a relative and an absolute scale in patients with and without frailty (defined as a frailty index >0.21) using Cox proportional hazard models and generalized linear models, respectively. The primary outcome was a composite of myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome without myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and cardiovascular death.

RESULTS

A total of 9306 patients (mean age, 67.9±9.4 years), 2560 (26.7%) of whom had frailty, were included in our study. Over a median follow-up of 3.22 years, 561 primary outcomes were observed. Patients with frailty had a significantly higher risk of primary outcome in both the intensive and standard blood pressure control arms (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.10 [95% CI, 1.59-2.77] and 1.85 [95% CI, 1.46-2.35], respectively). Intensive treatment effects on primary and secondary outcomes were not significantly different on a relative scale (except for cardiovascular death [hazard ratio in patients with and without frailty, 0.91 (95% CI, 0.52-1.60) versus 0.30 (95% CI, 0.16-0.59), respectively; Pinteraction=0.01]) or absolute scale. There was no significant interaction between frailty and risks for serious adverse events with intensive treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Frailty status was a marker of high cardiovascular risk. Patients with frailty benefit similarly to other patients from intensive blood pressure control without an increased risk of serious adverse events.

Association of remnant cholesterol with frailty: findings from observational and Mendelian randomization analyses

BACKGROUND

Recent insights suggest that remnant cholesterol (RC) plays a role in cellular senescence, yet its specific contribution to frailty remains indeterminate. Through the integration of observational and mendelian randomization (MR) studies, this research explores the impact of elevated serum RC levels on frailty susceptibility.

METHODS

A dual-method approach, combining an observational study with an MR study, was employed to investigate the connection between RC and frailty. The observational study included 11,838 participants from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Multivariable logistic regression and propensity score matching were employed to control for potential confounders. The non-linear relationship was assessed using restricted cubic splines. To circumvent observational study limitations, a two-sample MR analysis was conducted using the inverse-variance weighted method, leveraging genome-wide association studies (GWAS) data.

RESULTS

After adjusting for potential confounding variables, the observational study identified a significant association between high serum RC levels and frailty in middle-aged and older adults (odds ratio [OR] = 1.67, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.20 to 2.33, P = 0.003), exhibiting a non-linear dose-response correlation (non-linear P = 0.011). This association persisted after propensity score matching (OR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.14 to 2.06, P = 0.005). The MR study echoed these results, demonstrating a causal association of RC with the frailty index (β = 0.059, 95% CI = 0.033 to 0.085, P = 1.05E-05), consistent with the observational findings (β = 0.017, 95% CI = 0.008 to 0.026, P = 4.51E-04).

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that higher RC levels amplify frailty risk in middle-aged and older adults, implying that the reduction of RC levels may present a promising strategy for frailty prevention and management.

Prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty and related factors in older adults with cardio-cerebral vascular disease in China: a national cross-sectional study

Objective

Frailty increases adverse clinical outcomes in older patients with cardio-cerebral vascular disease (CCVD). The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty in older adults with CCVD in China and the factors associated with it.

Research design and methods

In this cross-sectional study, we used data from the fourth Sample Survey of Aged Population in Urban and Rural China. We used the frailty index for frailty and pre-frailty assessment, and the diagnosis of CCVD in older adults was self-reported.

Results

A total of 53,668 older patients with CCVD were enrolled in the study. The age-standardized prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty in older patients with CCVD was 22.6% (95% CI 22.3-23.0%) and 60.1% (95% CI 59.7-60.5%). Multinomial logistic regression analyses showed that being female, increasing age, rural residence, illiteracy, widowhood, ethnic minority, living alone, no health screening during the last year, hospitalization during the last year, difficult financial status, comorbid chronic conditions, and disability in activities of daily living were associated with frailty and pre-frailty in older patients with CCVD.

Conclusion

CCVD is strongly associated with frailty and pre-frailty in older Chinese people, and assessment of frailty should become routine in the management of older CCVD patients. Appropriate public health prevention strategies should be developed based on identified risk factors for frailty in older CCVD patients, which can help prevent, ameliorate or reverse the development of frailty in CCVD in the older population.

Assessment and Management of Older Adults Undergoing PCI, Part 1: A JACC: Advances Expert Panel

As the population ages, older adults represent an increasing proportion of patients referred to the cardiac catheterization laboratory. Older adults are the highest-risk group for morbidity and mortality, particularly after complex, high-risk percutaneous coronary interventions. Structured risk assessment plays a key role in differentiating patients who are likely to derive net benefit vs those who have disproportionate risks for harm. Conventional risk assessment tools from national cardiovascular societies typically rely on 3 pillars: 1) cardiovascular risk; 2) physiologic and hemodynamic risk; and 3) anatomic and procedural risks. We propose adding a fourth pillar: geriatric syndromes, as geriatric domains can supersede all other aspects of risk.

The association between frailty and anxiety: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Previous systematic reviews show a clear relationship between frailty and depression, however the association with anxiety is much less frequently explored. Previous single studies indicate evidence is mixed. We completed a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify the relationship between frailty and anxiety.

METHODS

We searched five electronic databases for observational studies in older people in community, care home and outpatient settings with any/no health conditions that measured the association between anxiety and frailty using validated measures. Studies were screened by one reviewer with 10% checked by a second reviewer. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool was used to assess study quality. We used meta-analysis to aggregate study findings, with subgroup analyses to explore heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Out of 1272 references, a total of 20 cross-sectional and 1 longitudinal studies were eligible. Older adults with frailty were substantially more likely to display anxiety symptoms than robust populations, across both dichotomous and continuous data sets (n = 10, OR = 3.48, 95% CI: 2.08, 5.81, p < 0.0001, I²  = 94%; N = 5, SMD = 3.13, 95% CI: 1.06, 5.21, I²  = 98%). Similarly, pre-frail older adults were more likely to have anxiety symptoms than robust older adults but to a lesser extent (N = 6, OR = 1.95, 95% CI: 1.41, 2.71, I²  = 63%; N = 3, SMD = 1.70, 95% CI: 0.01, 3.38, I²  = 98%).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a clear association between pre-frailty/frailty and anxiety in older adults. However, data are heterogeneous and primarily from cross-sectional studies so causality cannot be determined. Future research should evaluate the effectiveness of anxiety screening and treatments in frail older adults.

Hierarchical Development of Physical Frailty and Cognitive Impairment and Their Association With Incident Cardiovascular Disease

BACKGROUND

Frailty and cognitive impairment (CI) are geriatric conditions that lead to poor health outcomes among older adults with cardiovascular disease. The association between their temporal patterns of development and cardiovascular risk is unknown.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to examine the 5-year cardiovascular outcomes by the pattern of development of frailty and CI in older adults without a history of coronary artery disease.

METHODS

We used the National Health and Aging Trends Study, linked to Medicare data. Frailty was measured using the physical frailty phenotype. CI was measured using the AD8 Dementia Screening Interview, measured cognitive performance, or self-report by patient or caregiver for a diagnosis given by a physician. The primary outcome was incident major adverse cardiovascular event at 5 years.

RESULTS

Of a total 2,189 study participants aged 65 and older, 38.5% were male. In this study population, 154 (7%) participants developed frailty first, 829 (38%) developed CI first, and 195 (9%) participants developed both simultaneously (frail-CI group). Those who developed frailty and CI simultaneously were older, more likely to be female, and had multiple chronic conditions. The frail-CI group had the highest risk of major adverse cardiovascular event (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.81; 95% CI: 1.47-2.23) followed by frail first (HR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.17-1.81) and CI first (HR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.15-1.50). Frailty first was associated with the greater risk of stroke (HR: 1.49; 95% CI: 1.06-2.09) compared to the intact group.

CONCLUSIONS

The simultaneous development of frailty and CI is associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes including death compared with the development of each syndrome alone. Diagnostics to detect frailty and CI are critical in assessment of cardiovascular risk in the older population.

The association between frailty and incident cardiovascular disease events in community-dwelling healthy older adults

Study objective

This study examined the association between frailty and incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) events, major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), and CVD-related mortality.

Design

Longitudinal cohort study.

Setting

The ASPirin in Reducing Events in the Elderly (ASPREE) clinical trial in Australia and the United States.

Participants

19,114 community-dwelling older adults (median age 74.0 years; 56.4 % females).

Interventions

Pre-frailty and frailty were assessed using a modified Fried phenotype and a deficit accumulation Frailty Index (FI) at baseline.

Main outcome measures

CVD was defined as a composite of CVD death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, and hospitalization for heart failure; MACE included all except heart failure. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to analyze the association between frailty and CVD outcomes over a median follow-up of 4.7 years.

Results

Baseline pre-frail and frail groups had a higher risk of incident CVD events (Hazard Ratio (HR): 1.31; 95 % Confidence Interval (CI): 1.14-1.50 for pre-frail and HR: 1.63; 95 % CI: 1.15-2.32 for frail) and MACE (pre-frail HR: 1.26; 95 % CI: 1.08-1.47 and frail HR: 1.51; 95 % CI: 1.00-2.29) than non-frail participants according to Fried phenotype after adjusting for traditional CVD risk factors. Effect sizes were similar or larger when frailty was assessed with FI; similar results for men and women.

Conclusion

Frailty increases the likelihood of developing CVD, including MACE, in community-dwelling older men and women without prior CVD events. Screening for frailty using Fried or FI method could help identify community-dwelling older adults without prior CVD events who are more likely to develop CVD, including MACE, and may facilitate targeted preventive measures to reduce their risk.

Can frailty scores predict the incidence of cancer? Results from two large population-based studies

While chronological age is the single biggest risk factor for cancer, it is less clear whether frailty, an age-related state of physiological decline, may also predict cancer incidence. We assessed the associations of frailty index (FI) and frailty phenotype (FP) scores with the incidence of any cancer and five common cancers (breast, prostate, lung, colorectal, melanoma) in 453,144 UK Biobank (UKB) and 36,888 Screening Across the Lifespan Twin study (SALT) participants, who aged 38-73 years and had no cancer diagnosis at baseline. During a median follow-up of 10.9 and 10.7 years, 53,049 (11.7%) and 4,362 (11.8%) incident cancers were documented in UKB and SALT, respectively. Using multivariable-adjusted Cox models, we found a higher risk of any cancer in frail vs. non-frail UKB participants, when defined by both FI (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.22; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.17-1.28) and FP (HR = 1.16; 95% CI = 1.11-1.21). The FI in SALT similarly predicted risk of any cancer (HR = 1.31; 95% CI = 1.15-1.49). Moreover, frailty was predictive of lung cancer in UKB, although this association was not observed in SALT. Adding frailty scores to models including age, sex, and traditional cancer risk factors resulted in little improvement in C-statistics for most cancers. In a within-twin-pair analysis in SALT, the association between FI and any cancer was attenuated within monozygotic but not dizygotic twins, indicating that it may partly be explained by genetic factors. Our findings suggest that frailty scores are associated with the incidence of any cancer and lung cancer, although their clinical utility for predicting cancers may be limited.

Aortic Stiffness: A Major Risk Factor for Multimorbidity in the Elderly

Multimorbidity, the coexistence of multiple health conditions in an individual, has emerged as one of the greatest challenges facing health services, and this crisis is partly driven by the aging population. Aging is associated with increased aortic stiffness (AoStiff), which in turn is linked with several morbidities frequently affecting and having disastrous consequences for the elderly. These include hypertension, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, chronic kidney disease, anemia, ischemic stroke, and dementia. Two or more of these disorders (multimorbidity) often coexist in the same elderly patient and the specific multimorbidity pattern depends on several factors including sex, ethnicity, common morbidity routes, morbidity interactions, and genomics. Regular exercise, salt restriction, statins in patients at high atherosclerotic risk, and stringent blood pressure control are interventions that delay progression of AoStiff and most likely decrease multimorbidity in the elderly.

Correlation between frailty and cardiac structure and function in echocardiography in elderly patients with normal ejection fraction

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to accurately evaluate the cardiac structure and function of the frail population in elderly patients with normal ejection fraction (EF) using the 3D volume quantification and speckle tracking of echocardiography, to explore the correlation between frailty and cardiac structure and function.

METHODS

A total of 350 elderly aged 65 and above in-patients, excluding those with congenital heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and severe valvular heart disease, were included in the study. Patients were divided into non-frail, pre-frail, and frail group. Echocardiography techniques including speckle tracking and 3D volume quantification, were used to analyze the cardiac structure and function of the study subjects. Comparative analysis was statistically significant if P < 0.05.

RESULTS

The cardiac structure of the frail group was different compared with non-frail patients, the frail group demonstrated increased left ventricular myocardial mass index (LVMI), but decreased stroke volume. Cardiac function was also impaired in the frail group: reservoir strain and conduit strain of left atrium, strain of right ventricular (RV) free wall, strain of RV septum, 3D EF of RV, and global longitudinal strain of LV were significantly decreased. Frailty was significantly and independently associated with LV hypertrophy (OR 1.889; 95% CI 1.240,2.880; P = 0.003), LV diastolic dysfunction (OR 1.496; 95% CI 1.016,2.203; P = 0.041), left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LVGLS) reduction (OR 1.697; 95% CI 1.192, 2.416; P = 0.003), and reduced RV systolic function (OR 2.200; 95% CI 1.017, 4.759; P = 0.045).

CONCLUSION

Frailty is closely associated with several heart structural and functional alterations, which not only manifested as LV hypertrophy and reduced LV systolic function, but also decreased LV diastolic function, RV systolic function, and left atrial systolic function. Frailty is an independent risk factor for LV hypertrophy, LV diastolic dysfunction, LVGLS reduction, and reduced RV systolic function.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ChiCTR2000033419. Date of registration: May 31, 2020.