The UPF3B gene, implicated in intellectual disability, autism, ADHD and childhood onset schizophrenia regulates neural progenitor cell behaviour and neuronal outgrowth

Post-transcriptional mechanisms controlling neurogenesis and direct neuronal reprogramming

Neurogenesis is a tightly regulated process in time and space both in the developing embryo and in adult neurogenic niches. A drastic change in the transcriptome and proteome of radial glial cells or neural stem cells towards the neuronal state is achieved due to sophisticated mechanisms of epigenetic, transcriptional, and post-transcriptional regulation. Understanding these neurogenic mechanisms is of major importance, not only for shedding light on very complex and crucial developmental processes, but also for the identification of putative reprogramming factors, that harbor hierarchically central regulatory roles in the course of neurogenesis and bare thus the capacity to drive direct reprogramming towards the neuronal fate. The major transcriptional programs that orchestrate the neurogenic process have been the focus of research for many years and key neurogenic transcription factors, as well as repressor complexes, have been identified and employed in direct reprogramming protocols to convert non-neuronal cells, into functional neurons. The post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression during nervous system development has emerged as another important and intricate regulatory layer, strongly contributing to the complexity of the mechanisms controlling neurogenesis and neuronal function. In particular, recent advances are highlighting the importance of specific RNA binding proteins that control major steps of mRNA life cycle during neurogenesis, such as alternative splicing, polyadenylation, stability, and translation. Apart from the RNA binding proteins, microRNAs, a class of small non-coding RNAs that block the translation of their target mRNAs, have also been shown to play crucial roles in all the stages of the neurogenic process, from neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation, neuronal differentiation and migration, to functional maturation. Here, we provide an overview of the most prominent post-transcriptional mechanisms mediated by RNA binding proteins and microRNAs during the neurogenic process, giving particular emphasis on the interplay of specific RNA binding proteins with neurogenic microRNAs. Taking under consideration that the molecular mechanisms of neurogenesis exert high similarity to the ones driving direct neuronal reprogramming, we also discuss the current advances in in vitro and in vivo direct neuronal reprogramming approaches that have employed microRNAs or RNA binding proteins as reprogramming factors, highlighting the so far known mechanisms of their reprogramming action.

Multitask Learning for Joint Diagnosis of Multiple Mental Disorders in Resting-State fMRI

Facing the increasing worldwide prevalence of mental disorders, the symptom-based diagnostic criteria struggle to address the urgent public health concern due to the global shortfall in well-qualified professionals. Thanks to the recent advances in neuroimaging techniques, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has surfaced as a new solution to characterize neuropathological biomarkers for detecting functional connectivity (FC) anomalies in mental disorders. However, the existing computer-aided diagnosis models for fMRI analysis suffer from unstable performance on large datasets. To address this issue, we propose an efficient multitask learning (MTL) framework for joint diagnosis of multiple mental disorders using resting-state fMRI data. A novel multiobjective evolutionary clustering algorithm is presented to group regions of interests (ROIs) into different clusters for FC pattern analysis. On the optimal clustering solution, the multicluster multigate mixture-of-expert model is used for the final classification by capturing the highly consistent feature patterns among related diagnostic tasks. Extensive simulation experiments demonstrate that the performance of the proposed framework is superior to that of the other state-of-the-art methods. Moreover, the potential for practical application of the framework is also validated in terms of limited computational resources, real-time analysis, and insufficient training data. The proposed model can identify the remarkable interpretative biomarkers associated with specific mental disorders for clinical interpretation analysis.

Expanding the phenotype of UPF3B-related disorder: Case reports and literature review

UPF3B encodes the Regulator of nonsense transcripts 3B protein, a core-member of the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay pathway, protecting the cells from the potentially deleterious actions of transcripts with premature termination codons. Hemizygous variants in the UPF3B gene cause a spectrum of neuropsychiatric issues including intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia/childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS). The number of patients reported to date is very limited, often lacking an extensive phenotypical and neuroradiological description of this ultra-rare syndrome. Here we report three subjects harboring UPF3B variants, presenting with variable clinical pictures, including cognitive impairment, central hypotonia, and syndromic features. Patients 1 and 2 harbored novel UPF3B variants-the p.(Lys207*) and p.(Asp429Serfs*27) ones, respectively-while the p.(Arg225Lysfs*229) variant, identified in Patient 3, was already reported in the literature. Novel features in our patients are represented by microcephaly, midface hypoplasia, and brain malformations. Then, we reviewed pertinent literature and compared previously reported subjects to our cases, providing possible insights into genotype-phenotype correlations in this emerging condition. Overall, the detailed phenotypic description of three patients carrying UPF3B variants is useful not only to expand the genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of UPF3B-related disorders, but also to ameliorate the clinical management of affected individuals.

MicroRNA-mediated regulation of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay factors: Insights into microRNA prediction tools and profiling techniques

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) stands out as a prominent RNA surveillance mechanism within eukaryotes, meticulously overseeing both RNA abundance and integrity by eliminating aberrant transcripts. These defective transcripts are discerned through the concerted efforts of translating ribosomes, eukaryotic release factors (eRFs), and trans-acting NMD factors, with Up-Frameshift 3 (UPF3) serving as a noteworthy component. Remarkably, in humans, UPF3 exists in two paralogous forms, UPF3A (UPF3) and UPF3B (UPF3X). Beyond its role in quality control, UPF3 wields significant influence over critical cellular processes, including neural development, synaptic plasticity, and axon guidance. However, the precise regulatory mechanisms governing UPF3 remain elusive. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) emerge as pivotal post-transcriptional gene regulators, exerting substantial impact on diverse pathological and physiological pathways. This comprehensive review encapsulates our current understanding of the intricate regulatory nexus between NMD and miRNAs, with particular emphasis on the essential role played by UPF3B in neurodevelopment. Additionally, we bring out the significance of the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) as the molecular bridge connecting NMD and miRNA-mediated gene regulation. Furthermore, we provide an in-depth exploration of diverse computational tools tailored for the prediction of potential miRNA targets. To complement these computational approaches, we delineate experimental techniques designed to validate predicted miRNA-mRNA interactions, empowering readers with the knowledge necessary to select the most appropriate methodology for their specific research objectives.

Physiological Consequences of Nonsense-Mediated Decay and Its Role in Adaptive Responses

The evolutionarily conserved nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway is a quality control mechanism that degrades aberrant mRNA containing one or more premature termination codons (PTCs). Recent discoveries indicate that NMD also differentially regulates mRNA from wild-type protein-coding genes despite lacking PTCs. Together with studies showing that NMD is involved in development and adaptive responses that influence health and longevity, these findings point to an expanded role of NMD that adds a new layer of complexity in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. However, the extent of its control, whether different types of NMD play different roles, and the resulting physiological outcomes remain unclear and need further elucidation. Here, we review different branches of NMD and what is known of the physiological outcomes associated with this type of regulation. We identify significant gaps in the understanding of this process and the utility of genetic tools in accelerating progress in this area.

Identifying tumor type and cell type-specific gene expression alterations in pediatric central nervous system tumors

Central nervous system (CNS) tumors are the leading cause of pediatric cancer death, and these patients have an increased risk for developing secondary neoplasms. Due to the low prevalence of pediatric CNS tumors, major advances in targeted therapies have been lagging compared to other adult tumors. We collect single nuclei RNA-seq data from 84,700 nuclei of 35 pediatric CNS tumors and three non-tumoral pediatric brain tissues and characterize tumor heterogeneity and transcriptomic alterations. We distinguish cell subpopulations associated with specific tumor types including radial glial cells in ependymomas and oligodendrocyte precursor cells in astrocytomas. In tumors, we observe pathways important in neural stem cell-like populations, a cell type previously associated with therapy resistance. Lastly, we identify transcriptomic alterations among pediatric CNS tumor types compared to non-tumor tissues, while accounting for cell type effects on gene expression. Our results suggest potential tumor type and cell type-specific targets for pediatric CNS tumor treatment. Here we address current gaps in understanding single nuclei gene expression profiles of previously under-investigated tumor types and enhance current knowledge of gene expression profiles of single cells of various pediatric CNS tumors.

Epistatic interactions between NMD and TRP53 control progenitor cell maintenance and brain size

Mutations in human nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) factors are enriched in neurodevelopmental disorders. We show that deletion of key NMD factor Upf2 in mouse embryonic neural progenitor cells causes perinatal microcephaly but deletion in immature neurons does not, indicating NMD's critical roles in progenitors. Upf2 knockout (KO) prolongs the cell cycle of radial glia progenitor cells, promotes their transition into intermediate progenitors, and leads to reduced upper-layer neurons. CRISPRi screening identified Trp53 knockdown rescuing Upf2KO progenitors without globally reversing NMD inhibition, implying marginal contributions of most NMD targets to the cell cycle defect. Integrated functional genomics shows that NMD degrades selective TRP53 downstream targets, including Cdkn1a, which, without NMD suppression, slow the cell cycle. Trp53KO restores the progenitor cell pool and rescues the microcephaly of Upf2KO mice. Therefore, one physiological role of NMD in the developing brain is to degrade selective TRP53 targets to control progenitor cell cycle and brain size.

ADNP dysregulates methylation and mitochondrial gene expression in the cerebellum of a Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome autopsy case

BACKGROUND

Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which patients present with autism, intellectual disability, and frequent extra-neurological features such as feeding and gastrointestinal problems, visual impairments, and cardiac abnormalities. All patients exhibit heterozygous de novo nonsense or frameshift stop mutations in the Activity-Dependent Neuroprotective Protein (ADNP) gene, accounting for a prevalence of 0.2% of all autism cases worldwide. ADNP fulfills an essential chromatin remodeling function during brain development. In this study, we investigated the cerebellum of a died 6-year-old male patient with the c.1676dupA/p.His559Glnfs*3 ADNP mutation.

RESULTS

The clinical presentation of the patient was representative of the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome. During his lifespan, he underwent two liver transplantations after which the child died because of multiple organ failure. An autopsy was performed, and various tissue samples were taken for further analysis. We performed a molecular characterization of the cerebellum, a brain region involved in motor coordination, known for its highest ADNP expression and compared it to an age-matched control subject. Importantly, epigenome-wide analysis of the ADNP cerebellum identified CpG methylation differences and expression of multiple pathways causing neurodevelopmental delay. Interestingly, transcription factor motif enrichment analysis of differentially methylated genes showed that the ADNP binding motif was the most significantly enriched. RNA sequencing of the autopsy brain further identified downregulation of the WNT signaling pathway and autophagy defects as possible causes of neurodevelopmental delay. Ultimately, label-free quantification mass spectrometry identified differentially expressed proteins involved in mitochondrial stress and sirtuin signaling pathways amongst others. Protein-protein interaction analysis further revealed a network including chromatin remodelers (ADNP, SMARCC2, HDAC2 and YY1), autophagy-related proteins (LAMP1, BECN1 and LC3) as well as a key histone deacetylating enzyme SIRT1, involved in mitochondrial energy metabolism. The protein interaction of ADNP with SIRT1 was further biochemically validated through the microtubule-end binding proteins EB1/EB3 by direct co-immunoprecipitation in mouse cerebellum, suggesting important mito-epigenetic crosstalk between chromatin remodeling and mitochondrial energy metabolism linked to autophagy stress responses. This is further supported by mitochondrial activity assays and stainings in patient-derived fibroblasts which suggest mitochondrial dysfunctions in the ADNP deficient human brain.

CONCLUSION

This study forms the baseline clinical and molecular characterization of an ADNP autopsy cerebellum, providing novel insights in the disease mechanisms of the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome. By combining multi-omic and biochemical approaches, we identified a novel SIRT1-EB1/EB3-ADNP protein complex which may contribute to autophagic flux alterations and impaired mitochondrial metabolism in the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome and holds promise as a new therapeutic target.

Messenger RNA Surveillance: Current Understanding, Regulatory Mechanisms, and Future Implications

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is an evolutionarily conserved surveillance mechanism in eukaryotes primarily deployed to ensure RNA quality control by eliminating aberrant transcripts and also involved in modulating the expression of several physiological transcripts. NMD, the mRNA surveillance pathway, is a major form of gene regulation in eukaryotes. NMD serves as one of the most significant quality control mechanisms as it primarily scans the newly synthesized transcripts and differentiates the aberrant and non-aberrant transcripts. The synthesis of truncated proteins is restricted, which would otherwise lead to cellular dysfunctions. The up-frameshift factors (UPFs) play a central role in executing the NMD event, largely by recognizing and recruiting multiple protein factors that result in the decay of non-physiological mRNAs. NMD exhibits astounding variability in its ability across eukaryotes in an array of pathological and physiological contexts. The detailed understanding of NMD and the underlying molecular mechanisms remains blurred. This review outlines our current understanding of NMD, in regulating multifaceted cellular events during development and disease. It also attempts to identify unanswered questions that deserve further investigation.

Compromised transcription-mRNA export factor THOC2 causes R-loop accumulation, DNA damage and adverse neurodevelopment

We implicated the X-chromosome THOC2 gene, which encodes the largest subunit of the highly-conserved TREX (Transcription-Export) complex, in a clinically complex neurodevelopmental disorder with intellectual disability as the core phenotype. To study the molecular pathology of this essential eukaryotic gene, we generated a mouse model based on a hypomorphic Thoc2 exon 37-38 deletion variant of a patient with ID, speech delay, hypotonia, and microcephaly. The Thoc2 exon 37-38 deletion male (Thoc2Δ/Y) mice recapitulate the core phenotypes of THOC2 syndrome including smaller size and weight, and significant deficits in spatial learning, working memory and sensorimotor functions. The Thoc2Δ/Y mouse brain development is significantly impacted by compromised THOC2/TREX function resulting in R-loop accumulation, DNA damage and consequent cell death. Overall, we suggest that perturbed R-loop homeostasis, in stem cells and/or differentiated cells in mice and the patient, and DNA damage-associated functional alterations are at the root of THOC2 syndrome.

Neuronal potassium channel activity triggers initiation of mRNA translation through binding of translation regulators

Neuronal activity stimulates mRNA translation crucial for learning and development. While FMRP (Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein) and CYFIP1 (Cytoplasmic FMR1 Interacting Protein 1) regulate translation, the mechanism linking translation to neuronal activity is not understood. We now find that translation is stimulated when FMRP and CYFIP1 translocate to the potassium channel Slack (KCNT1, Slo2.2). When Slack is activated, both factors are released from eIF4E (Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 4E), where they normally inhibit translation initiation. A constitutively active Slack mutation and pharmacological stimulation of the wild-type channel both increase binding of FMRP and CYFIP1 to the channel, enhancing the translation of a reporter for β-actin mRNA in cell lines and the synthesis of β-actin in neuronal dendrites. Slack activity-dependent translation is abolished when both FMRP and CYFIP1 expression are suppressed. The effects of Slack mutations on activity-dependent translation may explain the severe intellectual disability produced by these mutations in humans.

HIGHLIGHTS

Activation of Slack channels triggers translocation of the FMRP/CYFIP1 complexSlack channel activation regulates translation initiation of a β-actin reporter constructA Slack gain-of-function mutation increases translation of β-actin reporter construct and endogenous cortical β-actinFMRP and CYFIP1 are required for Slack activity-dependent translation.

IN BRIEF

Malone et al . show that the activation of Slack channels triggers translocation of the FMRP/CYFIP1 complex from the translation initiation factor eIF4E to the channel. This translocation releases eIF4E and stimulates mRNA translation of a reporter for β-actin and cortical β-actin mRNA, elucidating the mechanism that connects neuronal activity with translational regulation.

Molecular consequences of PQBP1 deficiency, involved in the X-linked Renpenning syndrome

Mutations in the PQBP1 gene (polyglutamine-binding protein-1) are responsible for a syndromic X-linked form of neurodevelopmental disorder (XL-NDD) with intellectual disability (ID), named Renpenning syndrome. PQBP1 encodes a protein involved in transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. To investigate the consequences of PQBP1 loss, we used RNA interference to knock-down (KD) PQBP1 in human neural stem cells (hNSC). We observed a decrease of cell proliferation, as well as the deregulation of the expression of 58 genes, comprising genes encoding proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases, playing a role in mRNA regulation or involved in innate immunity. We also observed an enrichment of genes involved in other forms of NDD (CELF2, APC2, etc). In particular, we identified an increase of a non-canonical isoform of another XL-NDD gene, UPF3B, an actor of nonsense mRNA mediated decay (NMD). This isoform encodes a shorter protein (UPF3B_S) deprived from the domains binding NMD effectors, however no notable change in NMD was observed after PQBP1-KD in fibroblasts containing a premature termination codon. We showed that short non-canonical and long canonical UPF3B isoforms have different interactomes, suggesting they could play distinct roles. The link between PQBP1 loss and increase of UPF3B_S expression was confirmed in mRNA obtained from patients with pathogenic variants in PQBP1, particularly pronounced for truncating variants and missense variants located in the C-terminal domain. We therefore used it as a molecular marker of Renpenning syndrome, to test the pathogenicity of variants of uncertain clinical significance identified in PQPB1 in individuals with NDD, using patient blood mRNA and HeLa cells expressing wild-type or mutant PQBP1 cDNA. We showed that these different approaches were efficient to prove a functional effect of variants in the C-terminal domain of the protein. In conclusion, our study provided information on the pathological mechanisms involved in Renpenning syndrome, but also allowed the identification of a biomarker of PQBP1 deficiency useful to test variant effect.

Translation-coupled mRNA quality control mechanisms

mRNA surveillance pathways are essential for accurate gene expression and to maintain translation homeostasis, ensuring the production of fully functional proteins. Future insights into mRNA quality control pathways will enable us to understand how cellular mRNA levels are controlled, how defective or unwanted mRNAs can be eliminated, and how dysregulation of these can contribute to human disease. Here we review translation-coupled mRNA quality control mechanisms, including the non-stop and no-go mRNA decay pathways, describing their mechanisms, shared trans-acting factors, and differences. We also describe advances in our understanding of the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway, highlighting recent mechanistic findings, the discovery of novel factors, as well as the role of NMD in cellular physiology and its impact on human disease.

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay in neuronal physiology and neurodegeneration

The processes of mRNA export from the nucleus and subsequent mRNA translation in the cytoplasm are of particular relevance in eukaryotic cells. In highly polarised cells such as neurons, finely-tuned molecular regulation of these processes serves to safeguard the spatiotemporal fidelity of gene expression. Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a cytoplasmic translation-dependent quality control process that regulates gene expression in a wide range of scenarios in the nervous system, including neurodevelopment, learning, and memory formation. Moreover, NMD dysregulation has been implicated in a broad range of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. We discuss how NMD and related aspects of mRNA translation regulate key neuronal functions and, in particular, we focus on evidence implicating these processes in the molecular pathogenesis of neurodegeneration. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic potential and challenges of targeting mRNA translation and NMD across the spectrum of largely untreatable neurological diseases.

Phosphorylated Upstream Frameshift 1-dependent Nonsense-mediated μ-Opioid Receptor mRNA Decay in the Spinal Cord Contributes to the Development of Neuropathic Allodynia-like Behavior in Rats

BACKGROUND

Nonsense-mediated messenger RNA (mRNA) decay increases targeted mRNA degradation and has been implicated in the regulation of gene expression in neurons. The authors hypothesized that nonsense-mediated μ-opioid receptor mRNA decay in the spinal cord is involved in the development of neuropathic allodynia-like behavior in rats.

METHODS

Adult Sprague-Dawley rats of both sexes received spinal nerve ligation to induce neuropathic allodynia-like behavior. The mRNA and protein expression contents in the dorsal horn of animals were measured by biochemical analyses. Nociceptive behaviors were evaluated by the von Frey test and the burrow test.

RESULTS

On Day 7, spinal nerve ligation significantly increased phosphorylated upstream frameshift 1 (UPF1) expression in the dorsal horn (mean ± SD; 0.34 ± 0.19 in the sham ipsilateral group vs. 0.88 ± 0.15 in the nerve ligation ipsilateral group; P < 0.001; data in arbitrary units) and drove allodynia-like behaviors in rats (10.58 ± 1.72 g in the sham ipsilateral group vs. 1.19 ± 0.31 g in the nerve ligation ipsilateral group, P < 0.001). No sex-based differences were found in either Western blotting or behavior tests in rats. Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A3 (eIF4A3) triggered SMG1 kinase (0.06 ± 0.02 in the sham group vs. 0.20 ± 0.08 in the nerve ligation group, P = 0.005, data in arbitrary units)-mediated UPF1 phosphorylation, leading to increased nonsense-mediated mRNA decay factor SMG7 binding and µ-opioid receptor mRNA degradation (0.87 ± 0.11-fold in the sham group vs. 0.50 ± 0.11-fold in the nerve ligation group, P = 0.002) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord after spinal nerve ligation. Pharmacologic or genetic inhibition of this signaling pathway in vivo ameliorated allodynia-like behaviors after spinal nerve ligation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that phosphorylated UPF1-dependent nonsense-mediated μ-opioid receptor mRNA decay is involved in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain.

EDITOR’S PERSPECTIVE

Stress decreases spermatozoa quality and induces molecular alterations in zebrafish progeny

BACKGROUND

Chronic stress can produce a severe negative impact on health not only in the exposed individuals but also in their offspring. Indeed, chronic stress may be contributing to the current worldwide scenario of increasing infertility and decreasing gamete quality in human populations. Here, we evaluate the effect of chronic stress on behavior and male reproductive parameters in zebrafish. Our goal is to provide information on the impact that chronic stress has at molecular, histological, and physiological level in a vertebrate model species.

RESULTS

We evaluated the effects of a 21-day chronic stress protocol covering around three full waves of spermatogenesis in Danio rerio adult males. The induction of chronic stress produced anxiety-like behavior in stressed males as assessed by a novel tank test. At a molecular level, the induction of chronic stress consistently resulted in the overexpression of two genes related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the brain. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of testes suggested a dysregulation of the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway, which was also confirmed on qPCR analysis. Histological analysis of the testicle did not show significant differences in terms of the relative proportions of each germ-cell type; however, the quality of sperm from stressed males was compromised in terms of motility. RNA-seq analysis in stress-derived larval progenies revealed molecular alterations, including those predicted to affect translation initiation, DNA repair, cell cycle control, and response to stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Induction of chronic stress during a few cycles of spermatogenesis in the vertebrate zebrafish model affects behavior, gonadal gene expression, final gamete quality, and progeny. The NMD surveillance pathway (a key cellular mechanism that regulates the stability of both normal and mutant transcripts) is severely affected in the testes by chronic stress and therefore the control and regulation of RNAs during spermatogenesis may be affected altering the molecular status in the progeny.

SMG6 localizes to the chromatoid body and shapes the male germ cell transcriptome to drive spermatogenesis

Nonsense-mediated RNA decay (NMD) is a highly conserved and selective RNA turnover pathway that depends on the endonuclease SMG6. Here, we show that SMG6 is essential for male germ cell differentiation in mice. Germ-cell conditional knockout (cKO) of Smg6 induces extensive transcriptome misregulation, including a failure to eliminate meiotically expressed transcripts in early haploid cells, and accumulation of NMD target mRNAs with long 3' untranslated regions (UTRs). Loss of SMG6 in the male germline results in complete arrest of spermatogenesis at the early haploid cell stage. We find that SMG6 is strikingly enriched in the chromatoid body (CB), a specialized cytoplasmic granule in male germ cells also harboring PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) and the piRNA-binding protein PIWIL1. This raises the possibility that SMG6 and the piRNA pathway function together, which is supported by several findings, including that Piwil1-KO mice phenocopy Smg6-cKO mice and that SMG6 and PIWIL1 co-regulate many genes in round spermatids. Together, our results demonstrate that SMG6 is an essential regulator of the male germline transcriptome, and highlight the CB as a molecular platform coordinating RNA regulatory pathways to control sperm production and fertility.

Progression of the pluripotent epiblast depends upon the NMD factor UPF2

Nonsense-mediated RNA decay (NMD) is a highly conserved RNA turnover pathway that degrades RNAs harboring in-frame stop codons in specific contexts. Loss of NMD factors leads to embryonic lethality in organisms spanning the phylogenetic scale, but the mechanism remains unknown. Here, we report that the core NMD factor, UPF2, is required for expansion of epiblast cells within the inner cell mass of mice in vivo. We identify NMD target mRNAs in mouse blastocysts - both canonical and alternatively processed mRNAs - including those encoding cell cycle arrest and apoptosis factors, raising the possibility that NMD is essential for embryonic cell proliferation and survival. In support, the inner cell mass of Upf2-null blastocysts rapidly regresses with outgrowth and is incompetent for embryonic stem cell derivation in vitro. In addition, we uncovered concordant temporal- and lineage-specific regulation of NMD factors and mRNA targets, indicative of a shift in NMD magnitude during peri-implantation development. Together, our results reveal developmental and molecular functions of the NMD pathway in the early embryo.

De novo variants in genes regulating stress granule assembly associate with neurodevelopmental disorders

Stress granules (SGs) are cytoplasmic assemblies in response to a variety of stressors. We report a new neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) with common features of language problems, intellectual disability, and behavioral issues caused by de novo likely gene-disruptive variants in UBAP2L, which encodes an essential regulator of SG assembly. Ubap2l haploinsufficiency in mouse led to social and cognitive impairments accompanied by disrupted neurogenesis and reduced SG formation during early brain development. On the basis of data from 40,853 individuals with NDDs, we report a nominally significant excess of de novo variants within 29 genes that are not implicated in NDDs, including 3 essential genes (G3BP1, G3BP2, and UBAP2L) in the core SG interaction network. We validated that NDD-related de novo variants in newly implicated and known NDD genes, such as CAPRIN1, disrupt the interaction of the core SG network and interfere with SG formation. Together, our findings suggest the common SG pathology in NDDs.

The role of altered translation in intellectual disability and epilepsy

A very high proportion of cases of intellectual disability are genetic in origin and are associated with the occurrence of epileptic seizures during childhood. These two disorders together effect more than 5% of the world's population. One feature linking the two diseases is that learning and memory require the synthesis of new synaptic components and ion channels, while maintenance of overall excitability also requires synthesis of similar proteins in response to altered neuronal stimulation. Many of these disorders result from mutations in proteins that regulate mRNA processing, translation initiation, translation elongation, mRNA stability or upstream translation modulators. One theme that emerges on reviewing this field is that mutations in proteins that regulate changes in translation following neuronal stimulation are more likely to result in epilepsy with intellectual disability than general translation regulators with no known role in activity-dependent changes. This is consistent with the notion that activity-dependent translation in neurons differs from that in other cells types in that the changes in local cellular composition, morphology and connectivity that occur generally in response to stimuli are directly coupled to local synaptic activity and persist for months or years after the original stimulus.

Human UPF3A and UPF3B enable fault-tolerant activation of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay

The paralogous human proteins UPF3A and UPF3B are involved in recognizing mRNAs targeted by nonsense‐mediated mRNA decay (NMD). UPF3B has been demonstrated to support NMD, presumably by bridging an exon junction complex (EJC) to the NMD factor UPF2. The role of UPF3A has been described either as a weak NMD activator or an NMD inhibitor. Here, we present a comprehensive functional analysis of UPF3A and UPF3B in human cells using combinatory experimental approaches. Overexpression or knockout of UPF3A as well as knockout of UPF3B did not substantially change global NMD activity. In contrast, the co‐depletion of UPF3A and UPF3B resulted in a marked NMD inhibition and a transcriptome‐wide upregulation of NMD substrates, demonstrating a functional redundancy between both NMD factors. In rescue experiments, UPF2 or EJC binding‐deficient UPF3B largely retained NMD activity. However, combinations of different mutants, including deletion of the middle domain, showed additive or synergistic effects and therefore failed to maintain NMD. Collectively, UPF3A and UPF3B emerge as fault‐tolerant, functionally redundant NMD activators in human cells.

The Physiological Roles of the Exon Junction Complex in Development and Diseases

The exon junction complex (EJC) becomes an increasingly important regulator of early gene expression in the central nervous system (CNS) and other tissues. The EJC is comprised of three core proteins: RNA-binding motif 8A (RBM8A), Mago homolog (MAGOH), eukaryotic initiation factor 4A3 (EIF4A3), and a peripheral EJC factor, metastatic lymph node 51 (MLN51), together with various auxiliary factors. The EJC is assembled specifically at exon-exon junctions on mRNAs, hence the name of the complex. The EJC regulates multiple levels of gene expression, from splicing to translation and mRNA degradation. The functional roles of the EJC have been established as crucial to the normal progress of embryonic and neurological development, with wide ranging implications on molecular, cellular, and organism level function. Dysfunction of the EJC has been implicated in multiple developmental and neurological diseases. In this review, we discuss recent progress on the EJC’s physiological roles.

Gene Variants Involved in Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay Suggest a Role in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition with unclear etiology. Many genes have been associated with ASD risk, but the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. An important post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism that plays an essential role during neurodevelopment, the Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay (NMD) pathway, may contribute to ASD risk. In this study, we gathered a list of 46 NMD factors and regulators and investigated the role of genetic variants in these genes in ASD. By conducting a comprehensive search for Single Nucleotide Variants (SNVs) in NMD genes using Whole Exome Sequencing data from 1828 ASD patients, we identified 270 SNVs predicted to be damaging in 28.7% of the population. We also analyzed Copy Number Variants (CNVs) from two cohorts of ASD patients (N = 3570) and discovered 38 CNVs in 1% of cases. Importantly, we discovered 136 genetic variants (125 SNVs and 11 CNVs) in 258 ASD patients that were located within protein domains required for NMD. These gene variants are classified as damaging using in silico prediction tools, and therefore may interfere with proper NMD function in ASD. The discovery of NMD genes as candidates for ASD in large patient genomic datasets provides evidence supporting the involvement of the NMD pathway in ASD pathophysiology.

Cell Type-Specific Role of RNA Nuclease SMG6 in Neurogenesis

SMG6 is an endonuclease, which cleaves mRNAs during nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD), thereby regulating gene expression and controling mRNA quality. SMG6 has been shown as a differentiation license factor of totipotent embryonic stem cells. To investigate whether it controls the differentiation of lineage-specific pluripotent progenitor cells, we inactivated Smg6 in murine embryonic neural stem cells. Nestin-Cre-mediated deletion of Smg6 in mouse neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) caused perinatal lethality. Mutant mice brains showed normal structure at E14.5 but great reduction of the cortical NPCs and late-born cortical neurons during later stages of neurogenesis (i.e., E18.5). Smg6 inactivation led to dramatic cell death in ganglionic eminence (GE) and a reduction of interneurons at E14.5. Interestingly, neurosphere assays showed self-renewal defects specifically in interneuron progenitors but not in cortical NPCs. RT-qPCR analysis revealed that the interneuron differentiation regulators Dlx1 and Dlx2 were reduced after Smg6 deletion. Intriguingly, when Smg6 was deleted specifically in cortical and hippocampal progenitors, the mutant mice were viable and showed normal size and architecture of the cortex at E18.5. Thus, SMG6 regulates cell fate in a cell type-specific manner and is more important for neuroprogenitors originating from the GE than for progenitors from the cortex.

Wnt/β-catenin pathway and cell adhesion deregulation in CSDE1-related intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders

Among the genetic factors playing a key role in the etiology of intellectual disabilities (IDs) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), several encode RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). In this study, we deciphered the molecular and cellular bases of ID-ASD in a patient followed from birth to the age of 21, in whom we identified a de novo CSDE1 (Cold Shock Domain-containing E1) nonsense variation. CSDE1 encodes an RBP that regulates multiple cellular pathways by monitoring the translation and abundance of target transcripts. Analyses performed on the patient's primary fibroblasts showed that the identified CSDE1 variation leads to haploinsufficiency. We identified through RNA-seq assays the Wnt/β-catenin signaling and cellular adhesion as two major deregulated pathways. These results were further confirmed by functional studies involving Wnt-specific luciferase and substrate adhesion assays. Additional data support a disease model involving APC Down-Regulated-1 (APCDD1) and cadherin-2 (CDH2), two components of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, CDH2 being also pivotal for cellular adhesion. Our study, which relies on both the deep phenotyping and long-term follow-up of a patient with CSDE1 haploinsufficiency and on ex vivo studies, sheds new light on the CSDE1-dependent deregulated pathways in ID-ASD.

Exon junction complex dependent mRNA localization is linked to centrosome organization during ciliogenesis

Exon junction complexes (EJCs) mark untranslated spliced mRNAs and are crucial for the mRNA lifecycle. An imbalance in EJC dosage alters mouse neural stem cell (mNSC) division and is linked to human neurodevelopmental disorders. In quiescent mNSC and immortalized human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE1) cells, centrioles form a basal body for ciliogenesis. Here, we report that EJCs accumulate at basal bodies of mNSC or RPE1 cells and decline when these cells differentiate or resume growth. A high-throughput smFISH screen identifies two transcripts accumulating at centrosomes in quiescent cells, NIN and BICD2. In contrast to BICD2, the localization of NIN transcripts is EJC-dependent. NIN mRNA encodes a core component of centrosomes required for microtubule nucleation and anchoring. We find that EJC down-regulation impairs both pericentriolar material organization and ciliogenesis. An EJC-dependent mRNA trafficking towards centrosome and basal bodies might contribute to proper mNSC division and brain development.

Exon junction complexes (EJCs) that mark untranslated mRNA are involved in transport, translation and nonsense-mediated mRNA decay. Here the authors show centrosomal localization of EJCs which appears to be required for both the localization of NIN mRNA around centrosomes and ciliogenesis.

Neurodevelopmental signatures of narcotic and neuropsychiatric risk factors in 3D human-derived forebrain organoids

It is widely accepted that narcotic use during pregnancy and specific environmental factors (e.g., maternal immune activation and chronic stress) may increase risk of neuropsychiatric illness in offspring. However, little progress has been made in defining human-specific in utero neurodevelopmental pathology due to ethical and technical challenges associated with accessing human prenatal brain tissue. Here we utilized human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to generate reproducible organoids that recapitulate dorsal forebrain development including early corticogenesis. We systemically exposed organoid samples to chemically defined "enviromimetic" compounds to examine the developmental effects of various narcotic and neuropsychiatric-related risk factors within tissue of human origin. In tandem experiments conducted in parallel, we modeled exposure to opiates (μ-opioid agonist endomorphin), cannabinoids (WIN 55,212-2), alcohol (ethanol), smoking (nicotine), chronic stress (human cortisol), and maternal immune activation (human Interleukin-17a; IL17a). Human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids were consequently analyzed via an array of unbiased and high-throughput analytical approaches, including state-of-the-art TMT-16plex liquid chromatography/mass-spectrometry (LC/MS) proteomics, hybrid MS metabolomics, and flow cytometry panels to determine cell-cycle dynamics and rates of cell death. This pipeline subsequently revealed both common and unique proteome, reactome, and metabolome alterations as a consequence of enviromimetic modeling of narcotic use and neuropsychiatric-related risk factors in tissue of human origin. However, of our 6 treatment groups, human-derived organoids treated with the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 exhibited the least convergence of all groups. Single-cell analysis revealed that WIN 55,212-2 increased DNA fragmentation, an indicator of apoptosis, in human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. We subsequently confirmed induction of DNA damage and apoptosis by WIN 55,212-2 within 3D human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. Lastly, in a BrdU pulse-chase neocortical neurogenesis paradigm, we identified that WIN 55,212-2 was the only enviromimetic treatment to disrupt newborn neuron numbers within human-derived dorsal forebrain organoids. Cumulatively this study serves as both a resource and foundation from which human 3D biologics can be used to resolve the non-genomic effects of neuropsychiatric risk factors under controlled laboratory conditions. While synthetic cannabinoids can differ from naturally occurring compounds in their effects, our data nonetheless suggests that exposure to WIN 55,212-2 elicits neurotoxicity within human-derived developing forebrain tissue. These human-derived data therefore support the long-standing belief that maternal use of cannabinoids may require caution so to avoid any potential neurodevelopmental effects upon developing offspring in utero.

UPF2 leads to degradation of dendritically targeted mRNAs to regulate synaptic plasticity and cognitive function

Synaptic plasticity requires a tight control of mRNA levels in dendrites. RNA translation and degradation pathways have been recently linked to neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric diseases, suggesting a role for RNA regulation in synaptic plasticity and cognition. While the local translation of specific mRNAs has been implicated in synaptic plasticity, the tightly controlled mechanisms that regulate local quantity of specific mRNAs remain poorly understood. Despite being the only RNA regulatory pathway that is associated with multiple mental illnesses, the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway presents an unexplored regulatory mechanism for synaptic function and plasticity. Here, we show that neuron-specific disruption of UPF2, an NMD component, in adulthood attenuates learning, memory, spine density, synaptic plasticity (L-LTP), and potentiates perseverative/repetitive behavior in mice. We report that the NMD pathway operates within dendrites to regulate Glutamate Receptor 1 (GLUR1) surface levels. Specifically, UPF2 modulates the internalization of GLUR1 and promotes its local synthesis in dendrites. We identified neuronal Prkag3 mRNA as a mechanistic substrate for NMD that contributes to the UPF2-mediated regulation of GLUR1 by limiting total GLUR1 levels. These data establish that UPF2 regulates synaptic plasticity, cognition, and local protein synthesis in dendrites, providing fundamental insight into the neuron-specific function of NMD within the brain.

Full function of exon junction complex factor, Rbm8a, is critical for interneuron development

The formation of the nervous system requires a balance between proliferation, differentiation, and migration of neural progenitors (NPs). Mutations in genes regulating development impede neurogenesis and lead to neuropsychiatric diseases, including autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and schizophrenia (SZ). Recently, mutations in nonsense-mediated mRNA decay genes have been associated with ASDs, intellectual disability (ID), and SZ. Here, we examine the function of a gene in the exon junction complex, Rbm8a, in the cortical development. When Rbm8a is selectively knocked out in neural stem cells, the resulting mice exhibit microcephaly, early postnatal lethality, and altered distribution of excitatory neurons in the neocortex. Moreover, Rbm8a haploinsufficiency in the central nervous system decreases cell proliferation in the ganglionic eminences. Parvalbumin+ and neuropeptide Y+ interneurons in the cortex are significantly reduced, and distribution of interneurons are altered. Consistently, neurons in the cortex of conditional knockout (cKO) mice show a significant decrease in GABA frequency. Transcriptomic analysis revealed differentially expressed genes enriched in telencephalon development and mitosis. To further investigate the role of Rbm8a in interneuron differentiation, conditional KO of Rbm8a in NKX2.1 interneuron progenitor cells reduces progenitor proliferation and alters interneuron distributions. Taken together, these data reveal a critical role of Rbm8a in interneuron development, and establish that perturbation of this gene leads to profound cortical deficits.

Functional roles of human Up-frameshift suppressor 3 (UPF3) proteins: From nonsense-mediated mRNA decay to neurodevelopmental disorders

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a post-transcriptional quality control mechanism that eradicates aberrant transcripts from cells. Aberrant transcripts are recognized by translating ribosomes, eRFs, and trans-acting NMD factors leading to their degradation. The trans-factors are conserved among eukaryotes and consist of UPF1, UPF2, and UPF3 proteins. Intriguingly, in humans, UPF3 exists as paralog proteins, UPF3A, and UPF3B. While UPF3 paralogs are traditionally known to be involved in the NMD pathway, there is a growing consensus that there are other critical cellular functions beyond quality control that are dictated by the UPF3 proteins. This review presents the current knowledge on the biochemical functions of UPF3 paralogs in diverse cellular processes, including NMD, translation, and genetic compensation response. We also discuss the contribution of the UPF3 paralogs in development and function of the central nervous system and germ cells. Furthermore, significant advances in the past decade have provided new perspectives on the implications of UPF3 paralogs in neurodevelopmental diseases. In this regard, genome- and transcriptome-wide sequencing analysis of patient samples revealed that loss of UPF3B is associated with brain disorders such as intellectual disability, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. Therefore, we further aim to provide an insight into the brain diseases associated with loss-of-function mutations of UPF3B.

The Branched Nature of the Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay Pathway

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a conserved translation-coupled quality control mechanism in all eukaryotes that regulates the expression of a significant fraction of both the aberrant and normal transcriptomes. In vertebrates, NMD has become an essential process owing to expansion of the diversity of NMD-regulated transcripts, particularly during various developmental processes. Surprisingly, however, some core NMD factors that are essential for NMD in simpler organisms appear to be dispensable for vertebrate NMD. At the same time, numerous NMD enhancers and suppressors have been identified in multicellular organisms including vertebrates. Collectively, the available data suggest that vertebrate NMD is a complex, branched pathway wherein individual branches regulate specific mRNA subsets to fulfill distinct physiological functions.

A synonymous UPF3B variant causing a speech disorder implicates NMD as a regulator of neurodevelopmental disorder gene networks

Loss-of-function mutations of the X-chromosome gene UPF3B cause male neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) via largely unknown mechanisms. We investigated initially by interrogating a novel synonymous UPF3B variant in a male with absent speech. In silico and functional studies using cell lines derived from this individual show altered UPF3B RNA splicing. The resulting mRNA species encodes a frame-shifted protein with a premature termination codon (PTC) predicted to elicit degradation via nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD). UPF3B mRNA was reduced in the cell line, and no UPF3B protein was produced, confirming a loss-of-function allele. UPF3B is itself involved in the NMD mechanism which degrades both PTC-bearing mutant transcripts and also many physiological transcripts. RNAseq analysis showed that ~1.6% of mRNAs exhibited altered expression. These mRNA changes overlapped and correlated with those we identified in additional cell lines obtained from individuals harbouring other UPF3B mutations, permitting us to interrogate pathogenic mechanisms of UPF3B-associated NDDs. We identified 102 genes consistently deregulated across all UPF3B mutant cell lines. Of the 51 upregulated genes, 75% contained an NMD-targeting feature, thus identifying high-confidence direct NMD targets. Intriguingly, 22 of the dysregulated genes encoded known NDD genes, suggesting UPF3B-dependent NMD regulates gene networks critical for cognition and behaviour. Indeed, we show that 78.5% of all NDD genes encode a transcript predicted to be targeted by NMD. These data describe the first synonymous UPF3B mutation in a patient with prominent speech and language disabilities and identify plausible mechanisms of pathology downstream of UPF3B mutations involving the deregulation of NDD-gene networks.

The role of the NMD factor UPF3B in olfactory sensory neurons

The UPF3B-dependent branch of the nonsense-mediated RNA decay (NMD) pathway is critical for human cognition. Here, we examined the role of UPF3B in the olfactory system. Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) analysis demonstrated considerable heterogeneity of olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) cell populations in wild-type (WT) mice, and revealed that UPF3B loss influences specific subsets of these cell populations. UPF3B also regulates the expression of a large cadre of antimicrobial genes in OSNs, and promotes the selection of specific olfactory receptor (Olfr) genes for expression in mature OSNs (mOSNs). RNA-seq and Ribotag analyses identified classes of mRNAs expressed and translated at different levels in WT and Upf3b-null mOSNs. Integrating multiple computational approaches, UPF3B-dependent NMD target transcripts that are candidates to mediate the functions of NMD in mOSNs were identified in vivo. Together, our data provides a valuable resource for the olfactory field and insights into the roles of NMD in vivo.

Functions and Clinical Significance of UPF3a Expression in Human Colorectal Cancer

Background

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) can degrade mRNAs with a premature termination codon (PTC), and undegraded mRNAs with PTC mutations can induce a genetic compensation response (GCR) by upregulating its compensatory genes. UPF3a refers to up-frame shift 3A (UPF3a) participating in NMD pathway and GCR. It inhibits the NMD pathway while it stimulates GCR. Notably, the role of UPF3a in cancer remains unclear.

Purpose

The identification and discovery of prognostic markers for colorectal cancer (CRC) are of great clinical significance. The aim of this study was to investigate clinical significance of UPF3a expression in CRC.

Materials and Methods

UPF3a expression was examined in fresh CRC tissues and pared distant metastatic tissues using quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry staining. Tissue microarray immunohistochemical staining was used to study the relationship of UPF3a with clinicopathological features in 158 CRC patient samples collected from January 2008 to December 2012, and prognosis of CRC was analyzed.

Results

The expression of UPF3a was higher in metastatic tissues than that in primary sites. Moreover, high expression of UPF3a was significantly associated with TNM stage (p=0.009), liver metastasis and recurrence (p<0.001) in CRC patients. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database showed the same trend. In CRC cells, knockdown of UPF3a led to a decline in the migration potential. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis revealed that high UPF3a expression, TNM stage were significantly associated (all P<0.01) with poor prognosis for patients. Furthermore, univariate and multivariate Cox analysis revealed that high UPF3a expression was independent risk factor for both overall survival and disease-free survival of CRC patients (all P<0.01).

Conclusion

Results showed that high levels of UPF3a could lead to aggressiveness and poor CRC prognosis. Targeted UPF3a can act as a novel and effective gene therapy for CRC patients to make a better prognosis.

Role of ANKHD1/LINC00346/ZNF655 Feedback Loop in Regulating the Glioma Angiogenesis via Staufen1-Mediated mRNA Decay

Accumulating evidence shows that long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) dysregulation plays a critical role in tumor angiogenesis. Glioma is characterized by abundant angiogenesis. Herein, we investigated the expression and function of LINC00346 in the regulation of glioma angiogenesis. The present study first demonstrated that ANKHD1 (ankyrin repeat and KH domain-containing protein 1) and LINC00346 were significantly increased in glioma-associated endothelial cells (GECs), whereas ZNF655 (zinc finger protein 655) was decreased in GECs. Meanwhile, ANKHD1 inhibition, LINC00346 inhibition, or ZNF655 overexpression impeded angiogenesis of GECs. Moreover, ANKHD1 targeted LINC00346 and enhanced the stability of LINC00346. In addition, LINC00346 bound to ZNF655 mRNA through their Alu elements so that LINC00346 facilitated the degradation of ZNF655 mRNA via a STAU1 (Staufen1)-mediated mRNA decay (SMD) mechanism. Futhermore, ZNF655 targeted the promoter region of ANKHD1 and formed an ANKHD1/LINC00346/ZNF655 feedback loop that regulated glioma angiogenesis. Finally, knockdown of ANKHD1 and LINC00346, combined with overexpression of ZNF655, resulted in a significant decrease in new vessels and hemoglobin content in vivo. The results identified an ANKHD1/LINC00346/ZNF655 feedback loop in the regulation of glioma angiogenesis that may provide new targets and strategies for targeted therapy against glioma.

Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay: Pathologies and the Potential for Novel Therapeutics

Nonsense-mediated messenger RNA (mRNA) decay (NMD) is a surveillance pathway used by cells to control the quality mRNAs and to fine-tune transcript abundance. NMD plays an important role in cell cycle regulation, cell viability, DNA damage response, while also serving as a barrier to virus infection. Disturbance of this control mechanism caused by genetic mutations or dys-regulation of the NMD pathway can lead to pathologies, including neurological disorders, immune diseases and cancers. The role of NMD in cancer development is complex, acting as both a promoter and a barrier to tumour progression. Cancer cells can exploit NMD for the downregulation of key tumour suppressor genes, or tumours adjust NMD activity to adapt to an aggressive immune microenvironment. The latter case might provide an avenue for therapeutic intervention as NMD inhibition has been shown to lead to the production of neoantigens that stimulate an immune system attack on tumours. For this reason, understanding the biology and co-option pathways of NMD is important for the development of novel therapeutic agents. Inhibitors, whose design can make use of the many structures available for NMD study, will play a crucial role in characterizing and providing diverse therapeutic options for this pathway in cancer and other diseases.

Quality and quantity control of gene expression by nonsense-mediated mRNA decay

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is one of the best characterized and most evolutionarily conserved cellular quality control mechanisms. Although NMD was first found to target one-third of mutated, disease-causing mRNAs, it is now known to also target ~10% of unmutated mammalian mRNAs to facilitate appropriate cellular responses - adaptation, differentiation or death - to environmental changes. Mutations in NMD genes in humans are associated with intellectual disability and cancer. In this Review, we discuss how NMD serves multiple purposes in human cells by degrading both mutated mRNAs to protect the integrity of the transcriptome and normal mRNAs to control the quantities of unmutated transcripts.

How to get away with nonsense: Mechanisms and consequences of escape from nonsense-mediated RNA decay

Nonsense-mediated RNA decay (NMD) is an evolutionarily conserved RNA quality control process that serves both as a mechanism to eliminate aberrant transcripts carrying premature stop codons, and to regulate expression of some normal transcripts. For a quality control process, NMD exhibits surprising variability in its efficiency across transcripts, cells, tissues, and individuals in both physiological and pathological contexts. Whether an aberrant RNA is spared or degraded, and by what mechanism, could determine the phenotypic outcome of a disease-causing mutation. Hence, understanding the variability in NMD is not only important for clinical interpretation of genetic variants but also may provide clues to identify novel therapeutic approaches to counter genetic disorders caused by nonsense mutations. Here, we discuss the current knowledge of NMD variability and the mechanisms that allow certain transcripts to escape NMD despite the presence of NMD-inducing features. This article is categorized under: RNA Turnover and Surveillance > Turnover/Surveillance Mechanisms RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in Disease RNA Turnover and Surveillance > Regulation of RNA Stability.

Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia and Early-onset Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: An Update

The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of childhood-onset schizophrenia may represent a more homogeneous group. Positive symptoms in children are necessary for the diagnosis, and hallucinations are more often multimodal. In healthy children and children with a variety of other psychiatric illnesses, hallucinations are not uncommon and diagnosis should not be based on these alone. Childhood-onset schizophrenia is an extraordinarily rare illness that is poorly understood but seems continuous with the adult-onset disorder. Once a diagnosis is confirmed, aggressive medication treatment combined with family education and individual counseling may prevent further deterioration.

Genetics of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: 2019 Update

The genetic architecture of schizophrenia is complex and highly polygenic. This article discusses key findings from genetic studies of childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS) and the more common adult-onset schizophrenia (AOS), including studies of familial aggregation and common, rare, and copy number variants. Extant literature suggests that COS is a rare variant of AOS involving greater familial aggregation of schizophrenia spectrum disorders and a potentially higher occurrence of pathogenic copy number variants. The direct utility of genetics to clinical practice for COS is currently limited; however, identifying common pathways through which risk genes affect brain function offers promise for novel interventions.

Nonsense-mediated RNA decay in the brain: emerging modulator of neural development and disease

Steady-state RNA levels are controlled by the balance between RNA synthesis and RNA turnover. A selective RNA turnover mechanism that has received recent attention in neurons is nonsense-mediated RNA decay (NMD). NMD has been shown to influence neural development, neural stem cell differentiation decisions, axon guidance and synaptic plasticity. In humans, NMD factor gene mutations cause some forms of intellectual disability and are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, including schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Impairments in NMD are linked to neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. We discuss these findings, their clinical implications and challenges for the future.

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay: a 'nonsense' pathway makes sense in stem cell biology

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a highly conserved post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism of gene expression in eukaryotes. Originally, NMD was identified as an RNA surveillance machinery in degrading 'aberrant' mRNA species with premature termination codons. Recent studies indicate that NMD regulates the stability of natural gene transcripts that play significant roles in cell functions. Although components and action modes of the NMD machinery in degrading its RNA targets have been extensively studied with biochemical and structural approaches, the biological roles of NMD remain to be defined. Stem cells are rare cell populations, which play essential roles in tissue homeostasis and hold great promises in regenerative medicine. Stem cells self-renew to maintain the cellular identity and differentiate into somatic lineages with specialized functions to sustain tissue integrity. Transcriptional regulations and epigenetic modulations have been extensively implicated in stem cell biology. However, post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, such as NMD, in stem cell regulation are largely unknown. In this paper, we summarize the recent findings on biological roles of NMD factors in embryonic and tissue-specific stem cells. Furthermore, we discuss the possible mechanisms of NMD in regulating stem cell fates.

Choice of Alternative Polyadenylation Sites, Mediated by the RNA-Binding Protein Elavl3, Plays a Role in Differentiation of Inhibitory Neuronal Progenitors

Alternative polyadenylation (APA) is a widespread mechanism involving about half of the expressed genes, resulting in varying lengths of the 3′ untranslated region (3′UTR). Variations in length and sequence of the 3′UTR may underlie changes of post-transcriptional processing, localization, miRNA targeting and stability of mRNAs. During embryonic development a large array of mRNAs exhibit APA, with a prevalence of the longer 3′UTR versions in differentiating cells. Little is known about polyA+ site usage during differentiation of mammalian neural progenitors. Here we exploit a model of adherent neural stem (ANS) cells, which homogeneously and efficiently differentiate into GABAergic neurons. RNAseq data shows a global trend towards lengthening of the 3′UTRs during differentiation. Enriched expression of the longer 3′UTR variants of Pes1 and Gng2 was detected in the mouse brain in areas of cortical and subcortical neuronal differentiation, respectively, by two-probes fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Among the coding genes upregulated during differentiation of ANS cells we found Elavl3, a neural-specific RNA-binding protein homologous to Drosophila Elav. In the insect, Elav regulates polyA+ site choice while interacting with paused Pol-II promoters. We tested the role of Elavl3 in ANS cells, by silencing Elavl3 and observed consistent changes in 3′UTR length and delayed neuronal differentiation. These results indicate that choice of the polyA+ site and lengthening of 3′UTRs is a possible additional mechanism of posttranscriptional RNA modification involved in neuronal differentiation.

LIMK2-1 is a Hominidae-Specific Isoform of LIMK2 Expressed in Central Nervous System and Associated with Intellectual Disability

LIMK2 is involved in neuronal functions by regulating actin dynamics. Different isoforms of LIMK2 are described in databanks. LIMK2a and LIMK2b are the most characterized. A few pieces of evidence suggest that LIMK2 isoforms might not have overlapping functions. In this study, we focused our attention on a less studied human LIMK2 isoform, LIMK2-1. Compared to the other LIMK2 isoforms, LIMK2-1 contains a supplementary C-terminal phosphatase 1 inhibitory domain (PP1i). We found out that this isoform was hominidae-specific and showed that it was expressed in human fetal brain and faintly in adult brain. Its coding sequence was sequenced in 173 patients with sporadic non-syndromic intellectual disability (ID), and we observed an association of a rare missense variant in the PP1i domain (rs151191437, p.S668P) with ID. Our results also suggest an implication of LIMK2-1 in neurite outgrowth and neurons arborization which appears to be affected by the p.S668P variation. Therefore our results suggest that LIMK2-1 plays a role in the developing brain, and that a rare variation of this isoform is a susceptibility factor in ID.

ALS mutations of FUS suppress protein translation and disrupt the regulation of nonsense-mediated decay

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an incurable neurodegenerative disease characterized by preferential motor neuron death. Approximately 15% of ALS cases are familial, and mutations in the fused in sarcoma (FUS) gene contribute to a subset of familial ALS cases. FUS is a multifunctional protein participating in many RNA metabolism pathways. ALS-linked mutations cause a liquid-liquid phase separation of FUS protein in vitro, inducing the formation of cytoplasmic granules and inclusions. However, it remains elusive what other proteins are sequestered into the inclusions and how such a process leads to neuronal dysfunction and degeneration. In this study, we developed a protocol to isolate the dynamic mutant FUS-positive cytoplasmic granules. Proteomic identification of the protein composition and subsequent pathway analysis led us to hypothesize that mutant FUS can interfere with protein translation. We demonstrated that the ALS mutations in FUS indeed suppressed protein translation in N2a cells expressing mutant FUS and fibroblast cells derived from FUS ALS cases. In addition, the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway, which is closely related to protein translation, was altered by mutant FUS. Specifically, NMD-promoting factors UPF1 and UPF3b increased, whereas a negative NMD regulator, UPF3a, decreased, leading to the disruption of NMD autoregulation and the hyperactivation of NMD. Alterations in NMD factors and elevated activity were also observed in the fibroblast cells of FUS ALS cases. We conclude that mutant FUS suppresses protein biosynthesis and disrupts NMD regulation, both of which likely contribute to motor neuron death.

A Upf3b-mutant mouse model with behavioral and neurogenesis defects

Nonsense-mediated RNA decay (NMD) is a highly conserved and selective RNA degradation pathway that acts on RNAs terminating their reading frames in specific contexts. NMD is regulated in a tissue-specific and developmentally controlled manner, raising the possibility that it influences developmental events. Indeed, loss or depletion of NMD factors have been shown to disrupt developmental events in organisms spanning the phylogenetic scale. In humans, mutations in the NMD factor gene, UPF3B, cause intellectual disability (ID) and are strongly associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and schizophrenia (SCZ). Here, we report the generation and characterization of mice harboring a null Upf3b allele. These Upf3b-null mice exhibit deficits in fear-conditioned learning, but not spatial learning. Upf3b-null mice also have a profound defect in prepulse inhibition (PPI), a measure of sensorimotor gating commonly deficient in individuals with SCZ and other brain disorders. Consistent with both their PPI and learning defects, cortical pyramidal neurons from Upf3b-null mice display deficient dendritic spine maturation in vivo. In addition, neural stem cells from Upf3b-null mice have impaired ability to undergo differentiation and require prolonged culture to give rise to functional neurons with electrical activity. RNA sequencing (RNAseq) analysis of the frontal cortex identified UPF3B-regulated RNAs, including direct NMD target transcripts encoding proteins with known functions in neural differentiation, maturation and disease. We suggest Upf3b-null mice serve as a novel model system to decipher cellular and molecular defects underlying ID and neurodevelopmental disorders.

What can Cortical Development in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Teach us About the Early Developmental Mechanisms Involved?

Studies of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have shown developmental changes in the cortical mantle. Different dimensions of cortical morphology, such as surface area and thickness, relate to different neurodevelopmental mechanisms. As such, studying multiple dimensions may inform us about the developmental origins of ADHD. Furthermore, results from existing longitudinal samples await replication. Therefore, we conducted a longitudinal study of multiple cortical dimensions in a sizable, independent ADHD sample. We analyzed 297 anatomical MRI scans from two matched groups of 94 subjects with ADHD and 94 controls, aged 6-28 years. We estimated the developmental trajectories of cortical volume, surface, thickness and gyrification for 68 regions using mixed-effects regression analysis. Subjects with ADHD had smaller overall cortical volume, predominantly driven by decreases in frontal lobe volume that were associated with reduced surface area and gyrification. Nearly all decreases were stable across development. Only a few decreases survived stringent Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, with the smallest detectable Cohen's d |0.43|. There were no between-group differences in cortical thickness, or in subcortical volumes. Our results suggest that ADHD is associated with developmentally persistent reductions in frontal cortical volume, surface area, and gyrification. This may implicate early neurodevelopmental mechanisms regulating cortical expansion and convolution in ADHD.

Translating molecular advances in Down syndrome and Fragile X syndrome into therapies

Ongoing treatments for genetic developmental disorders of the central nervous system are mostly symptomatic and do not correct the genetic cause. Recent identification of common mechanisms between diseases has suggested that new therapeutic targets could be applied across intellectual disabilities with potential disease-modifying properties. The European Down syndrome and other genetic developmental disorders (DSG2D) network joined basic and clinical scientists to foster this research and carry out clinical trials. Here we discuss common mechanisms between several intellectual disabilities from genetic origin including Down's and Fragile X syndromes: i) how to model these complex diseases using neuronal cells and brain organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells; ii) how to integrate genomic, proteomic and interactome data to help defining common mechanisms and boundaries between diseases; iii) how to target common pathways for designing clinical trials and assessing their efficacy; iv) how to bring new neuro-therapies, such as noninvasive brain stimulations and cognitive training to clinical research. The basic and translational research efforts of the last years have utterly transformed our understanding of the molecular pathology of these diseases but much is left to be done to bring them to newborn babies and children to improve their quality of life.

PCDH19 regulation of neural progenitor cell differentiation suggests asynchrony of neurogenesis as a mechanism contributing to PCDH19 Girls Clustering Epilepsy

PCDH19-Girls Clustering Epilepsy (PCDH19-GCE) is a childhood epileptic encephalopathy characterised by a spectrum of neurodevelopmental problems. PCDH19-GCE is caused by heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the X-chromosome gene, Protocadherin 19 (PCDH19) encoding a cell-cell adhesion molecule. Intriguingly, hemizygous males are generally unaffected. As PCDH19 is subjected to random X-inactivation, heterozygous females are comprised of a mosaic of cells expressing either the normal or mutant allele, which is thought to drive pathology. Despite being the second most prevalent monogeneic cause of epilepsy, little is known about the role of PCDH19 in brain development. In this study we show that PCDH19 is highly expressed in human neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) and investigate its function in vitro in these cells of both mouse and human origin. Transcriptomic analysis of mouse NSPCs lacking Pcdh19 revealed changes to genes involved in regulation of neuronal differentiation, and we subsequently show that loss of Pcdh19 causes increased NSPC neurogenesis. We reprogramed human fibroblast cells harbouring a pathogenic PCDH19 mutation into human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) and employed neural differentiation of these to extend our studies into human NSPCs. As in mouse, loss of PCDH19 function caused increased neurogenesis, and furthermore, we show this is associated with a loss of human NSPC polarity. Overall our data suggests a conserved role for PCDH19 in regulating mammalian cortical neurogenesis and has implications for the pathogenesis of PCDH19-GCE. We propose that the difference in timing or "heterochrony" of neuronal cell production originating from PCDH19 wildtype and mutant NSPCs within the same individual may lead to downstream asynchronies and abnormalities in neuronal network formation, which in-part predispose the individual to network dysfunction and epileptic activity.