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Espira LM, Gessese B, Kassa BA, Wu CC, Riley J, Bedru S, Sahilu G, Desta A, Baye K, Jones AD, Love NG, Eisenberg JNS. Multiscalar Evaluation of the Water Distribution System and Diarrheal Disease Risk in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:13313-13324. [PMID: 37642551 PMCID: PMC10501120 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Despite growing urbanization, our understanding of the impacts of water and sanitation on human health has largely come from studies in rural sectors. To this end, we collected data at both regional (water quality measures from water treatment systems) and community (cross-sectional surveys) scales to examine determinants of enteric pathogen infection and diarrheal disease among infants in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Regionally, the Legedadi water treatment plant had significantly lower heterotrophic plate counts, total coliform counts, and fecal coliform counts compared with the Gefersa water treatment plant. The number of pathogen types in infant stool also differed by plant. Decreases in chlorine levels and increases in the relative abundance of Gammaproteobacteria with distance from treatment plants suggest a compromised water distribution system. In communities, infants in households that obtained water from yard pipes or public taps had significantly lower odds of diarrhea compared to households that had water piped into their dwellings (OR = 0.35, 95% CI 0.16, 0.76, and OR = 0.39, 95% CI 0.15, 1.00, respectively). Similarly, infants in households that boiled or filtered water had significantly lower odds of diarrhea compared to households that did not treat water (OR = 0.40, 95% CI 0.19, 0.86 and OR = 0.23, 95% CI 0.06, 0.84, respectively). Integrating multiscalar data better informs the health impacts of water in urban settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon M. Espira
- Department
of Epidemiology, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Brook Gessese
- Ethiopian
Institute of Water Resources, Addis Ababa
University, Addis
Ababa 150461, Ethiopia
| | - Bayable A. Kassa
- Institute
of Biotechnology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1176, Ethiopia
| | - Chia-Chen Wu
- Institute
of Environmental Engineering, National Yang
Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan
| | - Joshua Riley
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Seifedin Bedru
- School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Addis
Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1176, Ethiopia
| | - Geremew Sahilu
- School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Addis
Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1176, Ethiopia
| | - Adey Desta
- Department
of Microbial and Cellular Biology, Addis
Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1176, Ethiopia
| | - Kaleab Baye
- Center
for
Food Science and Nutrition, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1176, Ethiopia
| | - Andrew D. Jones
- Department
of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Nancy G. Love
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Joseph N. S. Eisenberg
- Department
of Epidemiology, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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Rothenberg SE, Furrer JM, Ingram LA, Ashford-Carroll TS, Foster SA, Hystad P, Hynes DM, Navab-Daneshmand T, Branscum AJ, Kruearat P. Sanitary sewage overflows, boil water advisories, and emergency room and urgent care visits for gastrointestinal illness: a case-crossover study in South Carolina, USA, 2013-2017. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2023; 33:102-110. [PMID: 36376586 PMCID: PMC9851942 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-022-00498-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sanitary sewage overflows (SSOs) release raw sewage, which may contaminate the drinking water supply. Boil water advisories (BWAs) are issued during low or negative pressure events, alerting customers to potential contamination in the drinking water distribution system. OBJECTIVE We evaluated the associations between SSOs and BWAs and diagnoses of gastrointestinal (GI) illness in Columbia, South Carolina, and neighboring communities, 2013-2017. METHODS A symmetric bi-directional case-crossover study design was used to assess the role of SSOs and BWAs on Emergency Room and Urgent Care visits with a primary diagnosis of GI illness. Cases were considered exposed if an SSO or BWA occurred 0-4 days, 5-9 days, or 10-14 days prior to the diagnosis, within the same residential zip code. Effect modification was explored via stratification on participant-level factors (e.g., sex, race, age) and season (January-March versus April-December). RESULTS There were 830 SSOs, 423 BWAs, and 25,969 cases of GI illness. Highest numbers of SSOs, BWAs and GI cases were observed in a zip code where >80% of residents identified as Black or African-American. SSOs were associated with a 13% increase in the odds of a diagnosis for GI illness during the 0-4 day hazard period, compared to control periods (Odds Ratio: 1.13, 95% Confidence Interval: 1.09, 1.18), while no associations were observed during the other hazard periods. BWAs were not associated with increased or decreased odds of GI illness during all three hazard periods. However, in stratified analyses BWAs issued between January-March were associated with higher odds of GI illness, compared to advisories issued between April-December, in all three hazard periods. SIGNIFICANCE SSOs (all months) and BWAs (January-March) were associated with increased odds of a diagnosis of GI illness. Future research should examine sewage contamination of the drinking water distribution system, and mechanisms of sewage intrusion from SSOs. IMPACT Sewage contains pathogens, which cause gastrointestinal (GI) illness. In Columbia, South Carolina, USA, between 2013-2017, there were 830 sanitary sewage overflows (SSOs). There were also 423 boil water advisories, which were issued during negative pressure events. Using case-crossover design, SSOs (all months) and boil water advisories (January-March) were associated with increased odds of Emergency Room and Urgent Care diagnoses of GI illness, potentially due to contamination of the drinking water distribution system. Lastly, we identified a community where >80% of residents identified as Black or African-American, which experienced a disproportionate burden of sewage exposure, compared to the rest of Columbia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Rothenberg
- Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| | - Jessica M Furrer
- Benedict College, Department of Computer Science, Physics, and Engineering, Columbia, SC, 29204, USA
| | - Lucy A Ingram
- University of South Carolina, Arnold School of Public Health, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | | | - Stephanie A Foster
- Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Perry Hystad
- Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Denise M Hynes
- Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
- Oregon State University, Center for Quantitative Life Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
- US Department of Veterans Affairs, VA Portland Health Care System, Center to Improve Veteran Involvement in Care, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | | | - Adam J Branscum
- Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Pemika Kruearat
- Oregon State University, College of Public Health and Human Sciences, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
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Zhang H, Xia Y, Chang Q, Zhang X, Zhao Y. Association between water source and chronic gastrointestinal diseases in Chinese: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Front Public Health 2022; 10:992462. [PMID: 36438297 PMCID: PMC9685615 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.992462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gastrointestinal health is closely associated with the quality of the water supply. However, long-term associations between the water supply type and chronic gastrointestinal disease (CGD) are unclear. Method The water supply was categorized as "tap-water" or "non-tap water" use. Changes in water source use were categorized into four types: "non-tap water both at baseline and in follow-ups," "non-tap water at baseline and tap-water in follow-ups," "tap-water at baseline and non-tap water in follow-ups," or "tap-water at baseline and in follow-ups." We explored the association between tap-water use (and changes therein) and the risk of CGD in a cross-sectional and longitudinal population study based on national cohort data from 2011 to 2018. Results After the inclusion and exclusion process, 13,332 and 9,688 participants were included in the cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, respectively. Tap-water use was associated with fewer CGD cases at baseline (OR = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.90, 1.07). Tap-water use at baseline was associated with significantly lower incidence of CGD in follow-ups (HR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.70, 0.90). Compared with consistent non-tap water use in both baseline and follow-ups, switching from non-tap water to tap-water use in follow-ups was associated with a lower risk of CGD (HR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.64, 0.97), tap water use at both baseline and in follow-ups was associated with a lower risk of CGD (HR = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.59, 0.88). The decreased risk of CGD followed a linear trend (P fortrend < 0.01). Adjustment for indoor solid fuel use and outdoor air pollution exposure to PM2.5 did not change the association between tap water use and CGD. Conclusion Tap water use was associated with a reduced risk of incident CGD. The results from this study should aid in effect assessment for water purification strategies and public decision support for gastrointestinal health management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hehua Zhang
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yang Xia
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Qing Chang
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xiangsu Zhang
- International Education School, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yuhong Zhao
- Clinical Research Center, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China,Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China,*Correspondence: Yuhong Zhao ;
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Viñas V, Sokolova E, Malm A, Bergstedt O, Pettersson TJR. Cross-connections in drinking water distribution networks: Quantitative microbial risk assessment in combination with fault tree analysis and hydraulic modelling. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 831:154874. [PMID: 35358515 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Deficiencies in drinking water distribution networks, such as cross-connections, may lead to contamination of the drinking water and pose a serious health risk to consumers. Cross-connections and backflows are considered among the most severe public health risks in distribution networks. The aim of this paper was to provide a framework for estimating the risk of infection from cross-connection and backflow events. Campylobacter, norovirus, and Cryptosporidium were chosen as reference pathogens for this study. The theoretical framework was constructed based on the fault tree analysis methodology. National aggregated cross-connection incident data was used to calculate the probability of a contamination event occurring in Swedish networks. Three risk cases were evaluated: endemic, elevated, and extreme. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was used to assess daily risk of infection for average national estimates. The framework was also evaluated using local data from the Gothenburg network. The daily risk of infection from cross-connection and backflow events in Swedish networks was generally above an acceptable target level of 10-6 for all reference pathogens and modelled cases; the exception was for the Gothenburg system where the risk was lower than 10-7. An outbreak case study was used to validate the framework results. For the outbreak case study, contaminant transport in the network was simulated using hydraulic modelling (EPANET), and risk estimates were calculated using QMRA. The outbreak simulation predicted between 97 and 148 symptomatic infections, while the epidemiological survey conducted during the outbreak reported 179 cases of illness. The fault tree analysis framework was successfully validated using an outbreak case study, though it was shown on the example of Gothenburg that local data is still needed for well-performing systems. The framework can help inform microbial risk assessments for drinking water suppliers, especially ones with limited resources and expertise in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Viñas
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Water Environment Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Ekaterina Sokolova
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Water Environment Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Annika Malm
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Water Environment Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; Kungsbacka Municipality, Kungsbacka, Sweden
| | - Olof Bergstedt
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Water Environment Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; Sustainable Waste and Water, City of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Thomas J R Pettersson
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Water Environment Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
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Lee D, Calendo G, Kopec K, Henry R, Coutts S, McCarthy D, Murphy HM. The Impact of Pipe Material on the Diversity of Microbial Communities in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:779016. [PMID: 34992587 PMCID: PMC8724538 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.779016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
As many cities around the world face the prospect of replacing aging drinking water distribution systems (DWDS), water utilities must make careful decisions on new pipe material (e.g., cement-lined or PVC) for these systems. These decisions are informed by cost, physical integrity, and impact on microbiological and physicochemical water quality. Indeed, pipe material can impact the development of biofilm in DWDS that can harbor pathogens and impact drinking water quality. Annular reactors (ARs) with cast iron and cement coupons fed with chloraminated water from a municipal DWDS were used to investigate the impact of pipe material on biofilm development and composition over 16 months. The ARs were plumbed as closely as possible to the water main in the basement of an academic building to simulate distribution system conditions. Biofilm communities on coupons were characterized using 16S rRNA sequencing. In the cast iron reactors, β-proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and α-proteobacteria were similarly relatively abundant (24.1, 22.5, and 22.4%, respectively) while in the cement reactors, α-proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were more relatively abundant (36.3 and 35.2%, respectively) compared to β-proteobacteria (12.8%). Mean alpha diversity (estimated with Shannon H and Faith's Phylogenetic Difference indices) was greater in cast iron reactors (Shannon: 5.00 ± 0.41; Faith's PD: 15.40 ± 2.88) than in cement reactors (Shannon: 4.16 ± 0.78; Faith's PD: 13.00 ± 2.01). PCoA of Bray-Curtis dissimilarities indicated that communities in cast iron ARs, cement ARs, bulk distribution system water, and distribution system pipe biofilm were distinct. The mean relative abundance of Mycobacterium spp. was greater in the cement reactors (34.8 ± 18.6%) than in the cast iron reactors (21.7 ± 11.9%). In contrast, the mean relative abundance of Legionella spp. trended higher in biofilm from cast iron reactors (0.5 ± 0.7%) than biofilm in cement reactors (0.01 ± 0.01%). These results suggest that pipe material is associated with differences in the diversity, bacterial composition, and opportunistic pathogen prevalence in biofilm of DWDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie Lee
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Laboratory (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Gennaro Calendo
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Laboratory (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Kristin Kopec
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Laboratory (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Rebekah Henry
- Environmental and Public Health Microbiology Laboratory (EPHM Lab), Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Scott Coutts
- Micromon, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - David McCarthy
- Environmental and Public Health Microbiology Laboratory (EPHM Lab), Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Heather M. Murphy
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Laboratory (WHAM Lab), Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Laboratory (WHAM Lab), Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Hyllestad S, Kjørsvik SS, Veneti L, Amato E. Identifying challenges in drinking water supplies: assessment of boil water advisories in Norway (2008-2019). JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2021; 19:872-884. [PMID: 34665779 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2021.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The issuing of boil water advisories (BWAs) is a widely used response to microbiological contamination events in drinking water supply systems, and may therefore serve as an indicator for the access to safe drinking water. To supplement data source on the overall status of water supply systems (WSSs) in Norway, we analysed public media reports published in Norway to assess trends, causes, geographical and seasonal distribution of BWAs issued during the period 2008-2019. We identified 1,108 BWA events increasingly reported over the study period but characterised by a decreasing trend in time with respect to duration. The two main frequent causes for BWA were detection of faecal indicator bacteria (42.6%) and risk of contaminants intrusion in the distribution system (21%). We observed higher reporting rates in summer and autumn compared with winter, and higher reporting rates in Northern and Eastern Norwegian regions compared with the Central region. The results of this study could serve as supplementary information to better understand the overall status among WSSs in Norway, particularly in case of recurrent BWA's events, as well as suggest the relevance of BWAs' monitoring in identifying risk factors and planning targeted interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Svanhild Schipper Kjørsvik
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Lamprini Veneti
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Ettore Amato
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
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System-wide joint-dynamic-response approach to water quality evaluation in distribution networks with multiple service reservoirs and pumps. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-021-04410-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractRigorous system-wide aggregated water quality performance indices for water distribution networks are lacking in the literature due to complexities associated with high dimensional spatial and temporal water quality data. Water quality considerations unavoidably increase performance evaluation difficulties considerably. The formulation developed in this article addresses the post-extended period simulation high-dimensional data challenges. A system-wide joint-dynamic-response approach to water quality evaluation is introduced that accounts for spatial and temporal variations in nodal demands and the respective time-varying hydraulic and water quality properties of multiple service reservoirs. Effective comparisons of the water quality response of service reservoirs and their effects were achieved. This includes individual reservoirs and the combined effects of multiple reservoirs. Service reservoirs and the nodes they supply were particularly vulnerable from the standpoint of water quality. The role of the network’s topology considering water quality risks was revealed also. The correlation between the medians and flow-weighted daily means of the water quality parameters was very strong (R2 ≥ 0.994) for the service reservoirs considered. Thus, the median could be useful as a practical performance surrogate in design optimization procedures. Finally, there seems to be an association between the flow-weighted daily means and overall hydraulic effectiveness of service reservoirs.
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Hyllestad S, Iversen A, MacDonald E, Amato E, Borge BÅS, Bøe A, Sandvin A, Brandal LT, Lyngstad TM, Naseer U, Nygård K, Veneti L, Vold L. Large waterborne Campylobacter outbreak: use of multiple approaches to investigate contamination of the drinking water supply system, Norway, June 2019. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 25. [PMID: 32885779 PMCID: PMC7472686 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.35.2000011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
On 6 June 2019, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health was notified of more than 50 cases of gastroenteritis in Askøy. A reservoir in a water supply system was suspected as the source of the outbreak because of the acute onset and geographical distribution of cases. We investigated the outbreak to confirm the source, extent of the outbreak and effect of control measures. A case was defined as a person in a household served by Water Supply System A (WSS-A) who had gastroenteritis for more than 24 h between 1 and 19 June 2019. We conducted pilot interviews, a telephone survey and an SMS-based cohort study of residents served by WSS-A. System information of WSS-A was collected. Whole genome sequencing on human and environmental isolates was performed. Among 6,108 individuals, 1,573 fulfilled the case definition. Residents served by the reservoir had a 4.6× higher risk of illness than others. Campylobacter jejuni isolated from cases (n = 24) and water samples (n = 4) had identical core genome MLST profiles. Contamination through cracks in the reservoir most probably occurred during heavy rainfall. Water supply systems are susceptible to contamination, particularly to certain weather conditions. This highlights the importance of water safety planning and risk-based surveillance to mitigate risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- University of Oslo, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Emily MacDonald
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ettore Amato
- European Programme for Public Health Microbiology Training (EUPHEM), European Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | | | - Lin T Brandal
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trude Marie Lyngstad
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Umaer Naseer
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Karin Nygård
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lamprini Veneti
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Line Vold
- Department of Zoonoses, Food- and Waterborne Diseases, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Verhougstraete M, Reynolds KA, Pearce-Walker J, Gerba C. Cost-benefit analysis of point-of-use devices for health risks reduction from pathogens in drinking water. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:968-982. [PMID: 33328368 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Microbial contamination of drinking water post-municipal treatment is difficult to predict as a risk factor for human health. One method to reduce morbidity or mortality from unpredictable exposures is through point-of-use (POU) treatment devices. The goal of this project was to assess the cost-benefit of POU water treatment at the tap in terms of protection from microbes in drinking water. This project estimated: (1) incidence of acute illness (AI), sequela, and mortality associated with waterborne pathogens; (2) illness reduction rates from using POU devices; and (3) healthcare cost reductions associated with POU devices. Infection rates and costs associated with 10 of the most common waterborne pathogens were identified and used to calculate national annual costs. We estimated 9M AI, 0.6M sequela, and 1,400 mortality cases that occur annually in the USA from these pathogens. The greatest cost-benefit was seen when considering the totality of disease burden reduction (AI, sequela, and mortality) including all pathogens at a national level and applying a 35% infection reduction, resulting in a total cost per averted disease case of $1,815. This study suggests that it is cost-beneficial to prevent water-related illness using POU devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Verhougstraete
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA E-mail:
| | - Kelly A Reynolds
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA E-mail:
| | - Jennifer Pearce-Walker
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA E-mail:
| | - Charles Gerba
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA
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Franer K, Meijerink H, Hyllestad S. Compliance with a boil water advisory after the contamination of a municipal drinking water supply system in Norway. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:1084-1090. [PMID: 33328377 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Boil-water advisories (BWAs) are one of the several methods to prevent the spread of infectious diseases through contaminated water. However, for BWAs to be effective, consumers need to be aware of, understand and comply with the advisories. Although BWAs are a widely used preventive public health measure, compliance with BWAs is rarely examined. In Norway, only one previous study on compliance with BWAs has been conducted. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional study to estimate consumers' perception of and compliance with a BWA following a contamination incident at an elevated reservoir in Konnerud (population 10,314), Norway. In total, 2,451 of the 9,312 (26.3%) invited residents responded to the questionnaire. Among the respondents, 97.6% remembered receiving the BWA, of whom 94.6% complied with the advice. Effective compliance with the BWA was thus 92.3%. Only 130 (5.4%) respondents did not comply with the BWA. The main reason for non-compliance was perceived low or no risk of getting sick from the water (34.2%). Our study revealed high awareness of and compliance with the BWA, but the people who did not comply maintained several misconceptions about waterborne infections and transmission. The findings can be used by local health authorities to improve future BWAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Franer
- Department of Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail: ; European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hinta Meijerink
- Department of Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
| | - Susanne Hyllestad
- Department of Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway E-mail:
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Norovirus waterborne outbreak in Chalkidiki, Greece, 2015: detection of GI.P2_GI.2 and GII.P16_GII.13 unusual strains. Epidemiol Infect 2020; 147:e227. [PMID: 31364530 PMCID: PMC6625189 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268819000852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Noroviruses, along with rotaviruses, are among the leading causes of gastroenteritis worldwide and novel strains are periodically emerging. In August 2015, an unusual increase of gastroenteritis cases occurred in a touristic district in Kassandra peninsula, Chalkidiki, Northern Greece. Seven stool specimens from cases were tested positive for norovirus. Molecular investigation and phylogenetic analysis identified that there was co-circulation of norovirus GI.P2_GI.2 and the recombinant strain GII.P16_GII.13. A 1:1 case–control study conducted and showed that tap water consumption significantly associated with developing symptoms of gastroenteritis (odds ratio = 36.9, P = 0.018). The results of the epidemiological investigation, the co-circulation of two different norovirus strains, the information of a pipeline breakage at the water supply system before the onset of cases, and reports on flooded wells and sewage overflow, indicated the possibility of water contamination by sewage during the pipeline breakage leading to a large outbreak with a peak at 10 August and a possible secondary person-to-person transmission after the 16th of August. Norovirus GI.P2_GI.2 strains are rarely reported in Europe, while it is the first time that infection from the recombinant strain GII.P16_GII.13 is recorded in Greece.
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Säve-Söderbergh M, Åkesson A, Simonsson M, Toljander J. Endemic gastrointestinal illness and change in raw water source and drinking water production - A population-based prospective study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105575. [PMID: 32086079 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
There are indications that drinking water may contribute to endemic gastrointestinal illness (GII) even when the drinking water quality meets current standards, but the knowledge is limited. In this population-based prospective study, we assessed if changes in municipal drinking water production affected the GII incidence, by collecting self-reported GII episodes among the population in two municipalities during calendar time-specific inter-annual periods. About 2600 adults in central Sweden and 2600 adults (including 700 households with children aged 0-9 years) in Southwest Sweden, were followed during a baseline and a follow-up period in 2012-2016. Monthly reports of episodes and symptoms of GII were collected by SMS. The following drinking water related changes were assessed: Change 1 (adults); a municipality with a groundwater treatment, changed to a different groundwater source with UV treatment; Change 2 (adults); a municipality with a surface water treatment changed to a groundwater source with UV treatment; and Change 3a (adults) and 3b (children): a municipality with a surface water treatment changed to a new surface water source, having a treatment with a higher pathogen reduction. We observed no evidence that changes in raw water source and/or improved pathogen removal in the drinking water treatment affected the risk of GII among adults. Among children aged 0-9 years participating in Change 3b, we observed a 24% relative risk reduction in GII incidence. These results suggest that improved water treatment may reduce the disease burden of GII in children even in settings in which water treatment efficacy meets current quality standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melle Säve-Söderbergh
- Science Division, Swedish Food Agency, 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden; Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Agneta Åkesson
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Magnus Simonsson
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Foodborne Viruses, Swedish Food Agency, 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonas Toljander
- Science Division, Swedish Food Agency, 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
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Bigham T, Dooley JS, Ternan NG, Snelling WJ, Héctor Castelán M, Davis J. Assessing microbial water quality: Electroanalytical approaches to the detection of coliforms. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2019.115670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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14
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Lin CJ, Richardson DB, Hilborn ED, Weinberg H, Larry S. E, Timothy J. W. Emergency Department Visits for Acute Gastrointestinal Illness After a Major Water Pipe Break in 2010. Epidemiology 2019; 30:893-900. [PMID: 31430266 PMCID: PMC10615350 DOI: 10.1097/ede.0000000000001083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND When a water pipe breaks, contaminants can enter the drinking water system and cause waterborne illnesses such as acute gastrointestinal illness. In May 2010, a major water pipe broke near Boston, MA, and a boil water order was issued to nearly two million residents. METHODS Using a case-crossover study design, we examined the association between the water pipe break and subsequent emergency department visits for acute gastrointestinal illness. We identified cases of illness according to ICD-9-CM diagnosis codes and selected control dates 2 weeks before and after each case. We estimated the risk of visiting the emergency department during the 0-3 and 4-7 days after the water pipe break using conditional logistic regression models. RESULTS Our analysis included 5,726 emergency department visits for acute gastrointestinal illness from 3 April 2010 to 5 June 2010. Overall, there was a 1.3-fold increased odds for visiting the emergency department for acute gastrointestinal illness during the 0-3 days after the water pipe break (odds ratio [OR] = 1.3; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.1, 1.4) compared with referent dates selected 2 weeks before and after. During the 4-7 days after the break, the association diminished overall (OR = 1.1; 95% CI = 0.96, 1.2). However, in communities over 12 miles from the break, the 4- to 7-day association was elevated (OR = 1.4; 95% CI = 1.1, 1.8). CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that a major water pipe break was associated with emergency department visits for acute gastrointestinal illness, particularly during the 0-3 days after the break, when a boil water order was in effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia J. Lin
- UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC
| | | | | | - Howard Weinberg
- UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Engle Larry S.
- UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Wade Timothy J.
- US EPA, Environmental Public Health Division, Chapel Hill, NC
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Hyllestad S, Veneti L, Bugge AB, Rosenberg TG, Nygård K, Aavitsland P. Compliance with water advisories after water outages in Norway. BMC Public Health 2019; 19:1188. [PMID: 31464621 PMCID: PMC6716804 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-7504-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Water advisories, especially those concerning boiling drinking water, are widely used to reduce risks of infection from contaminants in the water supply. Since the effectiveness of boil water advisories (BWAs) depends on public compliance, monitoring the public response to such advisories is essential for protecting human health. However, assessments of public compliance with BWAs remain sparse. Thus, this study was aimed at investigating awareness and compliance among residents who had received BWAs in Baerum municipality in Norway. Method We conducted a cross-sectional study among 2764 residents who had received water advisories by SMS in the municipality of Baerum between January and September 2017. We analysed data from two focus group discussions and an online survey sent to all residents who had received an advisory. We conducted descriptive analyses and calculated odds ratios (OR) using logistic regression to identify associations of compliance and awareness with demographic characteristics. Results Of the 611 respondents, 67% reported that they had received a water advisory notification. Effective compliance rate with safe drinking water practices, either by storing clean drinking water or boiling tap water, after a water outage was 72% among those who remembered receiving a notification. Compliance with safe drinking water advisories was lower among men than women (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.29–0.96), but was independent of age, education and household type. The main reason for respondents’ non-compliance with safe water practices was that they perceived the water to be safe to drink after letting it flush through the tap until it became clear. Conclusions Awareness of advisories was suboptimal among residents who had received notifications, but compliance was high. The present study highlights the need to improve the distribution, phrasing and content of water advisory notifications to achieve greater awareness and compliance. Future studies should include hard-to-reach groups with adequate data collection approaches and examine the use of BWAs in a national context to inform future policies on BWAs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-7504-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- Department of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway. .,Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Lamprini Veneti
- Department of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Karin Nygård
- Department of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Preben Aavitsland
- Department of Zoonotic, Food- and Waterborne Infections, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Nilsen V, Christensen E, Myrmel M, Heistad A. Spatio-temporal dynamics of virus and bacteria removal in dual-media contact-filtration for drinking water. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 156:9-22. [PMID: 30897546 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Microorganism removal efficiencies in deep bed filters vary with time and depth in the filter bed as the filter collects particles. Improved knowledge of such dynamics is relevant for the design, operation and microbial risk assessment of filtration processes for drinking water treatment. Here we report on a high-resolution spatio-temporal characterization of virus and bacteria removal in a pilot-scale dual-media filter, operated in contact-filtration mode. Microorganisms investigated were bacteriophage Salmonella typhimurium 28B (plaque assay, n=154)), fRNA phage MS2 (plaque assay/RT-qPCR, n=87) and E. coli (Colilert-18, n=73). Microscopic and macroscopic filtration models were used to investigate and characterize the removal dynamics. Results show that ripening/breakthrough fronts for turbidity, viruses and E. coli migrated in a wave-like manner across the depth of the filter. Virus removal improved continuously throughout the filter cycle and viruses broke through almost simultaneously with turbidity. Ripening for E. coli took longer than ripening for turbidity, but the bacteria broke through before turbidity breakthrough. Instantaneous log-removal peaked at 3.2, 3.0 and 4.5 for 28B, MS2 and E. coli, respectively. However, true average log-removal during the period of stable effluent turbidity was significantly lower at 2.5, 2.3 and 3.6, respectively. Peak observed filter coefficients λ were higher than predicted by ideal filtration theory. This study demonstrates the importance of carefully designed sampling regimes when characterizing microorganism removal efficiencies of deep bed filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vegard Nilsen
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O.Box 5003, N-1432, Ås, Norway.
| | - Ekaterina Christensen
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O.Box 8146 Dep, N-0033, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mette Myrmel
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O.Box 8146 Dep, N-0033, Oslo, Norway
| | - Arve Heistad
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O.Box 5003, N-1432, Ås, Norway
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Efficacy of Flushing and Chlorination in Removing Microorganisms from a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System. WATER 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/w11050903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
To ensure delivery of microbiologically safe drinking water, the physical integrity of the distribution system is an important control measure. During repair works or an incident the drinking water pipe is open and microbiologically contaminated water or soil may enter. Before taking the pipe back into service it must be cleaned. The efficacy of flushing and shock chlorination was tested using a model pipe-loop system with a natural or cultured biofilm to which a microbial contamination (Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens spores and phiX174) was added. On average, flushing removed 1.5–2.7 log microorganisms from the water, but not the biofilm. In addition, sand added to the system was not completely removed. Flushing velocity (0.3 or 1.5 m/s) did not affect the efficacy. Shock chlorination (10 mg/L, 1–24 h) was very effective against E. coli and phiX174, but C. perfringens spores were partly resistant. Chlorination was slightly more effective in pipes with a natural compared to a cultured biofilm. Flushing alone is thus not sufficient after high risk repair works or incidents, and shock chlorination should be considered to remove microorganisms to ensure microbiologically safe drinking water. Prevention via hygienic working procedures, localizing and isolating the contamination source and issuing boil water advisories remain important, especially during confirmed contamination events.
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Renwick DV, Heinrich A, Weisman R, Arvanaghi H, Rotert K. Potential Public Health Impacts of Deteriorating Distribution System Infrastructure. JOURNAL - AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION 2019; 111:42-53. [PMID: 32280135 PMCID: PMC7147732 DOI: 10.1002/awwa.1235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Drinking water distribution system deterioration can affect the water supply and reliability as well as water quality and public health.
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Bylund J, Toljander J, Lysén M, Rasti N, Engqvist J, Simonsson M. Measuring sporadic gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking water - an overview of methodologies. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2017; 15:321-340. [PMID: 28598337 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2017.261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
There is an increasing awareness that drinking water contributes to sporadic gastrointestinal illness (GI) in high income countries of the northern hemisphere. A literature search was conducted in order to review: (1) methods used for investigating the effects of public drinking water on GI; (2) evidence of possible dose-response relationship between sporadic GI and drinking water consumption; and (3) association between sporadic GI and factors affecting drinking water quality. Seventy-four articles were selected, key findings and information gaps were identified. In-home intervention studies have only been conducted in areas using surface water sources and intervention studies in communities supplied by ground water are therefore needed. Community-wide intervention studies may constitute a cost-effective alternative to in-home intervention studies. Proxy data that correlate with GI in the community can be used for detecting changes in the incidence of GI. Proxy data can, however, not be used for measuring the prevalence of illness. Local conditions affecting water safety may vary greatly, making direct comparisons between studies difficult unless sufficient knowledge about these conditions is acquired. Drinking water in high-income countries contributes to endemic levels of GI and there are public health benefits for further improvements of drinking water safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Bylund
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Jonas Toljander
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Maria Lysén
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Niloofar Rasti
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Jannes Engqvist
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Magnus Simonsson
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
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Van Nevel S, Buysschaert B, De Roy K, De Gusseme B, Clement L, Boon N. Flow cytometry for immediate follow-up of drinking water networks after maintenance. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 111:66-73. [PMID: 28043001 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water networks need maintenance every once in a while, either planned interventions or emergency repairs. When this involves opening of the water pipes, precautionary measures need to be taken to avoid contamination of the drinking water at all time. Drinking water suppliers routinely apply plating for faecal indicator organisms as quality control in such a situation. However, this takes at least 21 h of waiting time, which can be crucial when dealing with major supply pipes. A combination of flow cytometric (FCM) bacterial cell counts with FCM fingerprinting techniques is proposed in this study as a fast and sensitive additional technique. In three full scale situations, major supply pipes with 400-1050 mm diameter were emptied for maintenance, shock-chlorinated and flushed with large amounts of clean drinking water before taking back in operation. FCM measurements of the discharged flushing water revealed fast lowering and stabilizing bacterial concentrations once flushing is initiated. Immediate comparison with clean reference drinking water used for flushing was done, and the moment when both waters had similar bacterial concentrations was considered as the endpoint of the necessary flushing works. This was usually after 2-4 h of flushing. FCM fingerprinting, based on both bacteria and FCM background, was used as additional method to verify how similar flushing and reference samples were and yielded similar results. The FCM approved samples were several hours later approved as well by the drinking water supplier after plating and incubation for total Coliforms and Enterococci. These were used as decisive control to set the pipes back in operation. FCM proved to be a more conservative test than plating, yet it yielded immediate results. Application of these FCM methods can therefore avoid long unnecessary waiting times and large drinking water losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Van Nevel
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Benjamin Buysschaert
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Karen De Roy
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Bart De Gusseme
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium; Engineering TMVW (FARYS), Stropstraat 1, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Lieven Clement
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Computer Science and Statistics, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S9, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Nico Boon
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
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Levy K, Klein M, Sarnat SE, Panwhar S, Huttinger A, Tolbert P, Moe C. Refined assessment of associations between drinking water residence time and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal illness in Metro Atlanta, Georgia. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:672-681. [PMID: 27441862 PMCID: PMC5468164 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Recent outbreak investigations suggest that a substantial proportion of waterborne disease outbreaks are attributable to water distribution system issues. In this analysis, we examine the relationship between modeled water residence time (WRT), a proxy for probability of microorganism intrusion into the distribution system, and emergency department visits for gastrointestinal (GI) illness for two water utilities in Metro Atlanta, USA during 1993-2004. We also examine the association between proximity to the nearest distribution system node, based on patients' residential address, and GI illness using logistic regression models. Comparing long (≥90th percentile) with intermediate WRTs (11th to 89th percentile), we observed a modestly increased risk for GI illness for Utility 1 (OR = 1.07, 95% CI: 1.02-1.13), which had substantially higher average WRT than Utility 2, for which we found no increased risk (OR = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.94-1.02). Examining finer, 12-hour increments of WRT, we found that exposures >48 h were associated with increased risk of GI illness, and exposures of >96 h had the strongest associations, although none of these associations was statistically significant. Our results suggest that utilities might consider reducing WRTs to <2-3 days or adding booster disinfection in areas with longer WRT, to minimize risk of GI illness from water consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Levy
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA E-mail: ; Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene at Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mitchel Klein
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA E-mail:
| | - Stefanie Ebelt Sarnat
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA E-mail:
| | - Samina Panwhar
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene at Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Present address: Oregon Health Authority, 500 Summer St. NE, E52, Salem, OR 97301, USA
| | - Alexandra Huttinger
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene at Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Paige Tolbert
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA E-mail:
| | - Christine Moe
- Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene at Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Intermittent Domestic Water Supply: A Critical Review and Analysis of Causal-Consequential Pathways. WATER 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/w8070274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Guzman-Herrador B, de Blasio BF, Lund V, MacDonald E, Vold L, Wahl E, Nygård K. [Waterborne outbreaks in Norway 2003-2012]. TIDSSKRIFT FOR DEN NORSKE LEGEFORENING 2016; 136:612-6. [PMID: 27094662 DOI: 10.4045/tidsskr.15.0114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We describe the status of waterborne outbreaks notified in Norway and discuss this in the context of outbreaks recorded in previous years, to gain a better understanding of their development in Norway in recent years. MATERIAL AND METHOD We have collected information on all outbreaks notified to the Norwegian Institute of Public Health via the surveillance system for communicable diseases in the ten-year period from 2003-2012 for which drinking water was given as the suspected cause. RESULTS Altogether 28 waterborne outbreaks with a total of 8,060 persons reported as ill were notified in the period. The majority of outbreaks resulted in fewer than 100 cases of illness. There were two outbreaks with more than 1,000 cases of illness: an oubreak of campylobacteriosis in Røros and an oubreak of giardiasis in Bergen. In more than half of the outbreaks, water was supplied from public water distribution systems (16/28 outbreaks, 57%). In addition, a large proportion was linked to individual households with their own water supply (12/28 outbreaks, 43%). INTERPRETATION Most of the outbreaks in the ten-year period were linked to public water distribution systems, while almost half were linked to non-disinfected water supplies to individual households. Although most of the outbreaks were small, two extensive outbreaks were also registered in the period, resulting in more than one thousand cases of illness. This underscores the need for good contingency planning and surveillance, so that suspicion of waterborne outbreaks is rapidly notified to the responsible authorities, and the importance of good protection of water sources, as well as proper maintenance of water treatment plants and distribution systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Birgitte Freiesleben de Blasio
- Divisjon for smittevern Nasjonalt folkehelseinstitutt og Avdeling for biostatistikk Oslo senter for biostatistikk og epidemiologi Institutt for medisinske basalfag Universitetet i Oslo
| | - Vidar Lund
- Divisjon for miljømedisin Nasjonalt folkehelseinstitutt
| | | | - Line Vold
- Divisjon for smittevern Nasjonalt folkehelseinstitutt
| | | | - Karin Nygård
- Divisjon for smittevern Nasjonalt folkehelseinstitutt
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Kumpel E, Nelson KL. Intermittent Water Supply: Prevalence, Practice, and Microbial Water Quality. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:542-553. [PMID: 26670120 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Intermittent water supplies (IWS), in which water is provided through pipes for only limited durations, serve at least 300 million people around the world. However, providing water intermittently can compromise water quality in the distribution system. In IWS systems, the pipes do not supply water for periods of time, supply periods are shortened, and pipes experience regular flow restarting and draining. These unique behaviors affect distribution system water quality in ways that are different than during normal operations in continuous water supplies (CWS). A better understanding of the influence of IWS on mechanisms causing contamination can help lead to incremental steps that protect water quality and minimize health risks. This review examines the status and nature of IWS practices throughout the world, the evidence of the effect of IWS on water quality, and how the typical contexts in which IWS systems often exist-low-income countries with under-resourced utilities and inadequate sanitation infrastructure-can exacerbate mechanisms causing contamination. We then highlight knowledge gaps for further research to improve our understanding of water quality in IWS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Kumpel
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- The Aquaya Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kara L Nelson
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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Estimating the number of cases of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) associated with Canadian municipal drinking water systems. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 144:1371-85. [PMID: 26564554 PMCID: PMC4823834 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268815002083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The estimated burden of endemic acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) annually in Canada is 20·5 million cases. Approximately 4 million of these cases are domestically acquired and foodborne, yet the proportion of waterborne cases is unknown. A number of randomized controlled trials have been completed to estimate the influence of tap water from municipal drinking water plants on the burden of AGI. In Canada, 83% of the population (28 521 761 people) consumes tap water from municipal drinking water plants serving >1000 people. The drinking water-related AGI burden associated with the consumption of water from these systems in Canada is unknown. The objective of this research was to estimate the number of AGI cases attributable to consumption of drinking water from large municipal water supplies in Canada, using data from four household drinking water intervention trials. Canadian municipal water treatment systems were ranked into four categories based on source water type and quality, population size served, and treatment capability and barriers. The water treatment plants studied in the four household drinking water intervention trials were also ranked according to the aforementioned criteria, and the Canadian treatment plants were then scored against these criteria to develop four AGI risk groups. The proportion of illnesses attributed to distribution system events vs. source water quality/treatment failures was also estimated, to inform the focus of future intervention efforts. It is estimated that 334 966 cases (90% probability interval 183 006-501 026) of AGI per year are associated with the consumption of tap water from municipal systems that serve >1000 people in Canada. This study provides a framework for estimating the burden of waterborne illness at a national level and identifying existing knowledge gaps for future research and surveillance efforts, in Canada and abroad.
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Upgrading a piped water supply from intermittent to continuous delivery and association with waterborne illness: a matched cohort study in urban India. PLoS Med 2015; 12:e1001892. [PMID: 26505897 PMCID: PMC4624240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intermittent delivery of piped water can lead to waterborne illness through contamination in the pipelines or during household storage, use of unsafe water sources during intermittencies, and limited water availability for hygiene. We assessed the association between continuous versus intermittent water supply and waterborne diseases, child mortality, and weight for age in Hubli-Dharwad, India. METHODS AND FINDINGS We conducted a matched cohort study with multivariate matching to identify intermittent and continuous supply areas with comparable characteristics in Hubli-Dharwad. We followed 3,922 households in 16 neighborhoods with children <5 y old, with four longitudinal visits over 15 mo (Nov 2010-Feb 2012) to record caregiver-reported health outcomes (diarrhea, highly credible gastrointestinal illness, bloody diarrhea, typhoid fever, cholera, hepatitis, and deaths of children <2 y old) and, at the final visit, to measure weight for age for children <5 y old. We also collected caregiver-reported data on negative control outcomes (cough/cold and scrapes/bruises) to assess potential bias from residual confounding or differential measurement error. Continuous supply had no significant overall association with diarrhea (prevalence ratio [PR] = 0.93, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.83-1.04, p = 0.19), bloody diarrhea (PR = 0.78, 95% CI: 0.60-1.01, p = 0.06), or weight-for-age z-scores (Δz = 0.01, 95% CI: -0.07-0.09, p = 0.79) in children <5 y old. In prespecified subgroup analyses by socioeconomic status, children <5 y old in lower-income continuous supply households had 37% lower prevalence of bloody diarrhea (PR = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.46-0.87, p-value for interaction = 0.03) than lower-income intermittent supply households; in higher-income households, there was no significant association between continuous versus intermittent supply and child diarrheal illnesses. Continuous supply areas also had 42% fewer households with ≥1 reported case of typhoid fever (cumulative incidence ratio [CIR] = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.41-0.78, p = 0.001) than intermittent supply areas. There was no significant association with hepatitis, cholera, or mortality of children <2 y old; however, our results were indicative of lower mortality of children <2 y old (CIR = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.22-1.07, p = 0.10) in continuous supply areas. The major limitations of our study were the potential for unmeasured confounding given the observational design and measurement bias from differential reporting of health symptoms given the nonblinded treatment. However, there was no significant difference in the prevalence of the negative control outcomes between study groups that would suggest undetected confounding or measurement bias. CONCLUSIONS Continuous water supply had no significant overall association with diarrheal disease or ponderal growth in children <5 y old in Hubli-Dharwad; this might be due to point-of-use water contamination from continuing household storage and exposure to diarrheagenic pathogens through nonwaterborne routes. Continuous supply was associated with lower prevalence of dysentery in children in low-income households and lower typhoid fever incidence, suggesting that intermittently operated piped water systems are a significant transmission mechanism for Salmonella typhi and dysentery-causing pathogens in this urban population, despite centralized water treatment. Continuous supply was associated with reduced transmission, especially in the poorer higher-risk segments of the population.
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Pirard P, Goria S, Nguengang Wakap S, Galey C, Motreff Y, Guillet A, Le Tertre A, Corso M, Beaudeau P. No increase in drug dispensing for acute gastroenteritis after Storm Klaus, France 2009. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2015; 13:737-745. [PMID: 26322759 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2015.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
During the night of 23-24 January 2009, Storm Klaus hit south-western France and caused power outages affecting 1,700,000 homes and stopping numerous pumping and drinking water disinfection systems. In France, medicalized acute gastroenteritis (MAGE) outbreaks are monitored by analysing the daily amount of reimbursements of medical prescriptions, registered in the French National Health Insurance database, at the 'commune' administrative level. As AGE is suspected to be associated with perturbations to water supply systems as well as power outages, Storm Klaus provided an opportunity to test its influence on the incidence of MAGE in the communes of three affected French departments (administrative areas larger than communes). The geographical exposure indicator was built by using the mapping of the water distribution zones, the reported distribution/production stoppages and their duration. Irrespective of exposure class, a relative risk of MAGE of 0.86 (95% confidence 0.84-0.88) was estimated compared with the 'unexposed' reference level. Although these results must be considered with caution because of a potential marked decrease in global medical consultation probably due to impassable roads, they do not suggest a major public health impact of Klaus in terms of increased MAGE incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Pirard
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - S Goria
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - S Nguengang Wakap
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - C Galey
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - Y Motreff
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - A Guillet
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - A Le Tertre
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - M Corso
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
| | - P Beaudeau
- Département santé environnement, Institut de Veille Sanitaire, 12 rue du Val d'Osne, Saint-Maurice Cedex 94415, France E-mail
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Stoler J, Ahmed H, Asantewa Frimpong L, Bello M. Presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in coliform-free sachet drinking water in Ghana. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Erickson J, Roberson JA, Friedman M, Smith C. Low-Pressure Events: Variation in State Regulations and Utility Practices. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.5942/jawwa.2015.107.0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Erickson
- University of California-Berkeley; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
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Yang J, Schneider OD, Jjemba PK, Lechevallier MW. Microbial Risk Modeling for Main Breaks. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.5942/jawwa.2015.107.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yang
- American Water Works Co.; Voorhees N.J
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Acute gastrointestinal illness following a prolonged community-wide water emergency. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 143:2766-76. [PMID: 25608522 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814003501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The drinking water infrastructure in the United States is ageing; extreme weather events place additional stress on water systems that can lead to interruptions in the delivery of safe drinking water. We investigated the association between household exposures to water service problems and acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) and acute respiratory illness (ARI) in Alabama communities that experienced a freeze-related community-wide water emergency. Following the water emergency, investigators conducted a household survey. Logistic regression models were used to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for self-reported AGI and ARI by water exposures. AGI was higher in households that lost water service for ⩾7 days (aPR 2·4, 95% CI 1·1-5·2) and experienced low water pressure for ⩾7 days (aPR 3·6, 95% CI 1·4-9·0) compared to households that experienced normal service and pressure; prevalence of AGI increased with increasing duration of water service interruptions. Investments in the ageing drinking water infrastructure are needed to prevent future low-pressure events and to maintain uninterrupted access to the fundamental public health protection provided by safe water supplies. Households and communities need to increase their awareness of and preparedness for water emergencies to mitigate adverse health impacts.
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van Alphen LB, Dorléans F, Schultz AC, Fonager J, Ethelberg S, Dalgaard C, Adelhardt M, Engberg JH, Fischer TK, Lassen SG. The application of new molecular methods in the investigation of a waterborne outbreak of norovirus in Denmark, 2012. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105053. [PMID: 25222495 PMCID: PMC4164364 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In December 2012, an outbreak of acute gastrointestinal illness occurred in a geographical distinct area in Denmark covering 368 households. A combined microbiological, epidemiological and environmental investigation was initiated to understand the outbreak magnitude, pathogen(s) and vehicle in order to control the outbreak. Norovirus GII.4 New Orleans 2009 variant was detected in 15 of 17 individual stool samples from 14 households. Norovirus genomic material from water samples was detected and quantified and sequencing of longer parts of the viral capsid region (>1000 nt) were applied to patient and water samples. All five purposely selected water samples tested positive for norovirus GII in levels up to 1.8×104 genomic units per 200 ml. Identical norovirus sequences were found in all 5 sequenced stool samples and 1 sequenced water sample, a second sequenced water sample showed 1 nt (<0.1%) difference. In a cohort study, including 256 participants, cases were defined as residents of the area experiencing diarrhoea or vomiting onset on 12–14 December 2012. We found an attack rate of 51%. Being a case was associated with drinking tap-water on 12–13 December (relative risk = 6.0, 95%CI: 1.6–22) and a dose-response relation for the mean glasses of tap-water consumed was observed. Environmental investigations suggested contamination from a sewage pipe to the drinking water due to fall in pressure during water supply system renovations. The combined microbiological, epidemiological and environmental investigations strongly indicates the outbreak was caused by norovirus contamination of the water supply system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieke B. van Alphen
- Department of Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
- European Programme of Public Health Microbiology (EUPHEM), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Frédérique Dorléans
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
- European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Charlotte Schultz
- National Food Institute, Division of Food Microbiology, Danish Technical University (DTU), Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jannik Fonager
- Department of Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Steen Ethelberg
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Camilla Dalgaard
- Department of Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marianne Adelhardt
- Danish Health and Medicines Authority, Public Health Medical Officers East, Denmark
| | | | - Thea Kølsen Fischer
- Department of Microbiological Diagnostics and Virology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Wedgworth JC, Brown J, Johnson P, Olson JB, Elliott M, Forehand R, Stauber CE. Associations between perceptions of drinking water service delivery and measured drinking water quality in rural Alabama. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2014; 11:7376-92. [PMID: 25046635 PMCID: PMC4113882 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph110707376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Although small, rural water supplies may present elevated microbial risks to consumers in some settings, characterizing exposures through representative point-of-consumption sampling is logistically challenging. In order to evaluate the usefulness of consumer self-reported data in predicting measured water quality and risk factors for contamination, we compared matched consumer interview data with point-of-survey, household water quality and pressure data for 910 households served by 14 small water systems in rural Alabama. Participating households completed one survey that included detailed feedback on two key areas of water service conditions: delivery conditions (intermittent service and low water pressure) and general aesthetic characteristics (taste, odor and color), providing five condition values. Microbial water samples were taken at the point-of-use (from kitchen faucets) and as-delivered from the distribution network (from outside flame-sterilized taps, if available), where pressure was also measured. Water samples were analyzed for free and total chlorine, pH, turbidity, and presence of total coliforms and Escherichia coli. Of the 910 households surveyed, 35% of participants reported experiencing low water pressure, 15% reported intermittent service, and almost 20% reported aesthetic problems (taste, odor or color). Consumer-reported low pressure was associated with lower gauge-measured pressure at taps. While total coliforms (TC) were detected in 17% of outside tap samples and 12% of samples from kitchen faucets, no reported water service conditions or aesthetic characteristics were associated with presence of TC. We conclude that consumer-reported data were of limited utility in predicting potential microbial risks associated with small water supplies in this setting, although consumer feedback on low pressure—a risk factor for contamination—may be relatively reliable and therefore useful in future monitoring efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica C Wedgworth
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, 300 Hackberry Lane, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
| | - Joe Brown
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
| | - Pauline Johnson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama, 245 7th Avenue, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
| | - Julie B Olson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, 300 Hackberry Lane, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
| | - Mark Elliott
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alabama, 245 7th Avenue, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA.
| | - Rick Forehand
- Barge Waggoner Sumner and Cannon Inc., 2047 West Main Street, Suite 1, Dothan, AL 36301, USA.
| | - Christine E Stauber
- Division of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Georgia State University, P.O. Box 3995, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA.
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Ercumen A, Gruber JS, Colford JM. Water distribution system deficiencies and gastrointestinal illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2014; 122:651-60. [PMID: 24659576 PMCID: PMC4080524 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1306912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water distribution systems are vulnerable to performance deficiencies that can cause (re)contamination of treated water and plausibly lead to increased risk of gastrointestinal illness (GII) in consumers. OBJECTIVES It is well established that large system disruptions in piped water networks can cause GII outbreaks. We hypothesized that routine network problems can also contribute to background levels of waterborne illness and conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the impact of distribution system deficiencies on endemic GII. METHODS We reviewed published studies that compared direct tap water consumption to consumption of tap water re-treated at the point of use (POU) and studies of specific system deficiencies such as breach of physical or hydraulic pipe integrity and lack of disinfectant residual. RESULTS In settings with network malfunction, consumers of tap water versus POU-treated water had increased GII [incidence density ratio (IDR) = 1.34; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.79]. The subset of nonblinded studies showed a significant association between GII and tap water versus POU-treated water consumption (IDR = 1.52; 95% CI: 1.05, 2.20), but there was no association based on studies that blinded participants to their POU water treatment status (IDR = 0.98; 95% CI: 0.90, 1.08). Among studies focusing on specific network deficiencies, GII was associated with temporary water outages (relative risk = 3.26; 95% CI: 1.48, 7.19) as well as chronic outages in intermittently operated distribution systems (odds ratio = 1.61; 95% CI: 1.26, 2.07). CONCLUSIONS Tap water consumption is associated with GII in malfunctioning distribution networks. System deficiencies such as water outages also are associated with increased GII, suggesting a potential health risk for consumers served by piped water networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Ercumen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
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Shortridge JE, Guikema SD. Public health and pipe breaks in water distribution systems: analysis with internet search volume as a proxy. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 53:26-34. [PMID: 24495984 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water distribution infrastructure has been identified as a factor in waterborne disease outbreaks and improved understanding of the public health risks associated with distribution system failures has been identified as a priority area for research. Pipe breaks may pose a risk, as their occurrence and repair can result in low or negative pressure, potentially allowing contamination of drinking water from adjacent soils. However, measuring this phenomenon is challenging because the most likely health impact is mild gastrointestinal (GI) illness, which is unlikely to result in a doctor or hospital visit. Here we present a novel method that uses data mining techniques and internet search volume to assess the relationship between pipe breaks and symptoms of GI illness in two U.S. cities. Weekly search volume for the terms diarrhea and vomiting was used as the response variable with the number of pipe breaks in each city as a covariate as well as additional covariates to control for seasonal patterns, search volume persistence, and other sources of GI illness. The fit and predictive accuracy of multiple regression and data mining techniques were compared, with the best performance obtained using random forest and bagged regression tree models. Pipe breaks were found to be an important and positively correlated predictor of internet search volume in multiple models in both cities, supporting previous investigations that indicated an increased risk of GI illness from distribution system disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie E Shortridge
- Department of Geography & Environmental Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, USA.
| | - Seth D Guikema
- Department of Geography & Environmental Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, USA
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Davis MJ, Janke R, Magnuson ML. A framework for estimating the adverse health effects of contamination events in water distribution systems and its application. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2014; 34:498-513. [PMID: 24102461 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Intentional or accidental releases of contaminants into a water distribution system (WDS) have the potential to cause significant adverse health effects among individuals consuming water from the system. A flexible analysis framework is presented here for estimating the magnitude of such potential effects and is applied using network models for 12 actual WDSs of varying sizes. Upper bounds are developed for the magnitude of adverse effects of contamination events in WDSs and evaluated using results from the 12 systems. These bounds can be applied in cases in which little system-specific information is available. The combination of a detailed, network-specific approach and a bounding approach allows consequence assessments to be performed for systems for which varying amounts of information are available and addresses important needs of individual utilities as well as regional or national assessments. The approach used in the analysis framework allows contaminant injections at any or all network nodes and uses models that (1) account for contaminant transport in the systems, including contaminant decay, and (2) provide estimates of ingested contaminant doses for the exposed population. The approach can be easily modified as better transport or exposure models become available. The methods presented here provide the ability to quantify or bound potential adverse effects of contamination events for a wide variety of possible contaminants and WDSs, including systems without a network model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Davis
- Argonne National Laboratory, Environmental Science Division, Argonne, IL, USA
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Beaudeau P, Zeghnoun A, Corso M, Lefranc A, Rambaud L. A time series study of gastroenteritis and tap water quality in the Nantes area, France, 2002-2007. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2014; 24:192-199. [PMID: 23443240 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2013.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In the Nantes area, 410,000 inhabitants are supplied with water pumped from the Loire River. The treatment of this water is carried out through a process of complete clarification and disinfection. During the study period (2002-07), the quality of drinking water complied with European microbial standards and mean turbidity in finished water was 0.05 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units). We aimed to characterize the link between produced water turbidity and other operational data and the incidence of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in the Nantes area. The daily number of medical prescriptions for AGE was drawn from the French national health insurance system's drug reimbursement data. We modeled this time series using Poisson regression within the framework of a Generalized Additive Model. We showed that an interquartile range turbidity degradation (0.042-0.056 NTU) was connected to a 4.2% (CI95=(1.5%; 6.9%)) increase in the risk of AGE in children and a 2.9% (CI95=(0.5%; 5.4%)) increase in adults. The slope of the turbidity risk function was higher during both high- and low-water conditions of the river. High values of daily flow of produced water were also associated with higher endemic levels of AGE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Beaudeau
- Institut de Veille Sanitaire, rue de Val-d'Osne, Saint-Maurice, France
| | | | - Magali Corso
- Institut de Veille Sanitaire, rue de Val-d'Osne, Saint-Maurice, France
| | - Agnès Lefranc
- Institut de Veille Sanitaire, rue de Val-d'Osne, Saint-Maurice, France
| | - Loïc Rambaud
- Institut de Veille Sanitaire, rue de Val-d'Osne, Saint-Maurice, France
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Kayser GL, Moriarty P, Fonseca C, Bartram J. Domestic water service delivery indicators and frameworks for monitoring, evaluation, policy and planning: a review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:4812-35. [PMID: 24157507 PMCID: PMC3823337 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10104812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2013] [Revised: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring of water services informs policy and planning for national governments and the international community. Currently, the international monitoring system measures the type of drinking water source that households use. There have been calls for improved monitoring systems over several decades, some advocating use of multiple indicators. We review the literature on water service indicators and frameworks with a view to informing debate on their relevance to national and international monitoring. We describe the evidence concerning the relevance of each identified indicator to public health, economic development and human rights. We analyze the benefits and challenges of using these indicators separately and combined in an index as tools for planning, monitoring, and evaluating water services. We find substantial evidence on the importance of each commonly recommended indicator--service type, safety, quantity, accessibility, reliability or continuity of service, equity, and affordability. Several frameworks have been proposed that give structure to the relationships among individual indicators and some combine multiple indicator scores into a single index but few have been rigorously tested. More research is needed to understand if employing a composite metric of indicators is advantageous and how each indicator might be scored and scaled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia L. Kayser
- The Water Institute, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Patrick Moriarty
- IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Bezuidenhoutseweg 2, The Hague 2594 AV, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (P.M.); (C.F.)
| | - Catarina Fonseca
- IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Bezuidenhoutseweg 2, The Hague 2594 AV, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (P.M.); (C.F.)
| | - Jamie Bartram
- The Water Institute, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; E-Mail:
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Malm A, Axelsson G, Barregard L, Ljungqvist J, Forsberg B, Bergstedt O, Pettersson TJR. The association of drinking water treatment and distribution network disturbances with Health Call Centre contacts for gastrointestinal illness symptoms. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:4474-84. [PMID: 23764597 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
There are relatively few studies on the association between disturbances in drinking water services and symptoms of gastrointestinal (GI) illness. Health Call Centres data concerning GI illness may be a useful source of information. This study investigates if there is an increased frequency of contacts with the Health Call Centre (HCC) concerning gastrointestinal symptoms at times when there is a risk of impaired water quality due to disturbances at water works or the distribution network. The study was conducted in Gothenburg, a Swedish city with 0.5 million inhabitants with a surface water source of drinking water and two water works. All HCC contacts due to GI symptoms (diarrhoea, vomiting or abdominal pain) were recorded for a three-year period, including also sex, age, and geocoded location of residence. The number of contacts with the HCC in the affected geographical areas were recorded during eight periods of disturbances in the water works (e.g. short stops of chlorine dosing), six periods of large disturbances in the distribution network (e.g. pumping station failure or pipe breaks with major consequences), and 818 pipe break and leak repairs over a three-year period. For each period of disturbance the observed number of calls was compared with the number of calls during a control period without disturbances in the same geographical area. In total about 55, 000 calls to the HCC due to GI symptoms were recorded over the three-year period, 35 per 1000 inhabitants and year, but much higher (>200) for children <3 yrs of age. There was no statistically significant increase in calls due to GI illness during or after disturbances at the water works or in the distribution network. Our results indicate that GI symptoms due to disturbances in water works or the distribution network are rare. The number of serious failures was, however limited, and further studies are needed to be able to assess the risk of GI illness in such cases. The technique of using geocoded HCC data together with geocoded records of disturbances in the drinking water network was feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Malm
- Department of Sustainable Waste and Water, City of Gothenburg, Box 123, SE-424 23 Angered, Sweden.
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Williams MM, Armbruster CR, Arduino MJ. Plumbing of hospital premises is a reservoir for opportunistically pathogenic microorganisms: a review. BIOFOULING 2013; 29:147-62. [PMID: 23327332 PMCID: PMC9326810 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2012.757308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Several bacterial species that are natural inhabitants of potable water distribution system biofilms are opportunistic pathogens important to sensitive patients in healthcare facilities. Waterborne healthcare-associated infections (HAI) may occur during the many uses of potable water in the healthcare environment. Prevention of infection is made more challenging by lack of data on infection rate and gaps in understanding of the ecology, virulence, and infectious dose of these opportunistic pathogens. Some healthcare facilities have been successful in reducing infections by following current water safety guidelines. This review describes several infections, and remediation steps that have been implemented to reduce waterborne HAIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret M Williams
- Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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41
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Lambertini E, Borchardt MA, Kieke BA, Spencer SK, Loge FJ. Risk of viral acute gastrointestinal illness from nondisinfected drinking water distribution systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:9299-307. [PMID: 22839570 DOI: 10.1021/es3015925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) resulting from pathogens directly entering the piping of drinking water distribution systems is insufficiently understood. Here, we estimate AGI incidence from virus intrusions into the distribution systems of 14 nondisinfecting, groundwater-source, community water systems. Water samples for virus quantification were collected monthly at wells and households during four 12-week periods in 2006-2007. Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection was installed on the communities' wellheads during one study year; UV was absent the other year. UV was intended to eliminate virus contributions from the wells and without residual disinfectant present in these systems, any increase in virus concentration downstream at household taps represented virus contributions from the distribution system (Approach 1). During no-UV periods, distribution system viruses were estimated by the difference between well water and household tap virus concentrations (Approach 2). For both approaches, a Monte Carlo risk assessment framework was used to estimate AGI risk from distribution systems using study-specific exposure-response relationships. Depending on the exposure-response relationship selected, AGI risk from the distribution systems was 0.0180-0.0661 and 0.001-0.1047 episodes/person-year estimated by Approaches 1 and 2, respectively. These values represented 0.1-4.9% of AGI risk from all exposure routes, and 1.6-67.8% of risk related to drinking water exposure. Virus intrusions into nondisinfected drinking water distribution systems can contribute to sporadic AGI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Lambertini
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
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Gunnarsdottir MJ, Gardarsson SM, Elliott M, Sigmundsdottir G, Bartram J. Benefits of Water Safety Plans: microbiology, compliance, and public health. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:7782-7789. [PMID: 22679926 DOI: 10.1021/es300372h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The Water Safety Plan (WSP) methodology, which aims to enhance safety of drinking water supplies, has been recommended by the World Health Organization since 2004. WSPs are now used worldwide and are legally required in several countries. However, there is limited systematic evidence available demonstrating the effectiveness of WSPs on water quality and health. Iceland was one of the first countries to legislate the use of WSPs, enabling the analysis of more than a decade of data on impact of WSP. The objective was to determine the impact of WSP implementation on regulatory compliance, microbiological water quality, and incidence of clinical cases of diarrhea. Surveillance data on water quality and diarrhea were collected and analyzed. The results show that HPC (heterotrophic plate counts), representing microbiological growth in the water supply system, decreased statistically significant with fewer incidents of HPC exceeding 10 cfu per mL in samples following WSP implementation and noncompliance was also significantly reduced (p < 0.001 in both cases). A significant decrease in incidence of diarrhea was detected where a WSP was implemented, and, furthermore, the results indicate that population where WSP has been implemented is 14% less likely to develop clinical cases of diarrhea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Gunnarsdottir
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iceland, Hjardarhaga 2-6, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland.
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Malm A, Ljunggren O, Bergstedt O, Pettersson TJR, Morrison GM. Replacement predictions for drinking water networks through historical data. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:2149-2158. [PMID: 22348998 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Lifetime distribution functions and current network age data can be combined to provide an assessment of the future replacement needs for drinking water distribution networks. Reliable lifetime predictions are limited by a lack of understanding of deterioration processes for different pipe materials under varied conditions. An alternative approach is the use of real historical data for replacement over an extended time series. In this paper, future replacement needs are predicted through historical data representing more than one hundred years of drinking water pipe replacement in Gothenburg, Sweden. The verified data fits well with commonly used lifetime distribution curves. Predictions for the future are discussed in the context of path dependence theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Malm
- Gothenburg Water, Box 123, SE-424 23 Angered, Sweden.
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Cumberland S, Bridgeman J, Baker A, Sterling M, Ward D. Fluorescence spectroscopy as a tool for determining microbial quality in potable water applications. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2012; 33:687-693. [PMID: 22629644 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2011.588401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Building on previous work where fluorescence spectroscopy has been used to detect sewage in rivers, a portable LED spectrophotometer was used for the first time to establish bacterial numbers in a range of water samples. A mixed-method approach was used with standard bacteria enumeration techniques on diluted river water and sewage works final effluent using a number of diluents (Ringer's solution, tap water and potable spring water). Fluorescence from uncultured dilutions was detected at a 280 nm excitation/360 nm emission wavelength (corresponding to the region of tryptophan and indole fluorescence) and compared with bacteria numbers on the same cultured sample. Good correlations were obtained for total coliforms, E. coli and heterotrophic bacteria with the portable LED spectrophotometer (R2 = 0.78, 0.72 and 0.81 respectively). The results indicate that the portable spectrophotometer could be applied to establish the quality of drinking water in areas of poor sanitation that are subject to faecal contamination, where infrastructure failure has occurred in the supply of clean drinking water. This would be particularly useful where laboratory facilities are not at hand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Cumberland
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B1S 2TT, UK
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45
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An investigation of a waterborne outbreak caused by microbiological contamination of the drinking water supply system. Zdr Varst 2012. [DOI: 10.2478/v10152-012-0013-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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46
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Stedmon CA, Seredyńska-Sobecka B, Boe-Hansen R, Le Tallec N, Waul CK, Arvin E. A potential approach for monitoring drinking water quality from groundwater systems using organic matter fluorescence as an early warning for contamination events. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:6030-6038. [PMID: 21943882 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.08.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The fluorescence characteristics of natural organic matter in a groundwater based drinking water supply plant were studied with the aim of applying it as a technique to identify contamination of the water supply. Excitation-emission matrices were measured and modeled using parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) and used to identify which wavelengths provide the optimal signal for monitoring contamination events. The fluorescence was characterized by four components: three humic-like and one amino acid-like. The results revealed that the relative amounts of two of the humic-like components were very stable within the supply plant and distribution net and changed in a predictable fashion depending on which wells were supplying the water. A third humic-like component and an amino acid-like component did not differ between wells. Laboratory contamination experiments with wastewater revealed that combined they could be used as an indicator of microbial contamination. Their fluorescence spectra did not overlap with the other components and therefore the raw broadband fluorescence at the wavelengths specific to their fluorescence could be used to detect contamination. Contamination could be detected at levels equivalent to the addition of 60 μg C/L in drinking water with a TOC concentration of 3.3 mg C/L. The results of this study suggest that these types of drinking water systems, which are vulnerable to microbial contamination due to the lack of disinfectant treatment, can be easily monitored using online organic matter fluorescence as an early warning system to prompt further intensive sampling and appropriate corrective measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin A Stedmon
- Department of Marine Ecology, National Environmental Research Institute, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
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Water outage increases the risk of gastroenteritis and eyes and skin diseases. BMC Public Health 2011; 11:726. [PMID: 21943080 PMCID: PMC3198703 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 09/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The present study used insurance claims data to investigate infections associated with short-term water outage because of constructions or pipe breaks. Methods The present study used medical claims of one million insured persons for 2004-2006. We estimated incidences of gastroenteritis and eye and skin complaints for 10 days before, during, and after 10 days of water supply restriction for outpatient visits and for emergency and in-patient care combined. Results There was an increase in medical services for these complaints in outpatient visits because of water outages. Poisson regression analyses showed that increased risks of medical services were significant for gastroenteritis (relative risk [RR] 1.31, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.26-1.37), skin disease (RR 1.36, 95% CI 1.30-1.42), and eye disease patients (RR 1.34, 95% CI 1.26-1.44). Similar risks were observed during 10-day lag periods. Compared with those in cool days, risks of medical services are higher when average daily temperature is above 30°C for gastroenteritis (RR 12.1, 95% CI 6.17-23.7), skin diseases (RR 4.48, 95% CI 2.29-8.78), and eye diseases (RR 40.3, 95% CI 7.23-224). Conclusion We suggest promoting personal hygiene education during water supply shortages, particularly during the warm months.
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Besner MC, Prévost M, Regli S. Assessing the public health risk of microbial intrusion events in distribution systems: conceptual model, available data, and challenges. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:961-79. [PMID: 21106216 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Revised: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 10/31/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Low and negative pressure events in drinking water distribution systems have the potential to result in intrusion of pathogenic microorganisms if an external source of contamination is present (e.g., nearby leaking sewer main) and there is a pathway for contaminant entry (e.g., leaks in drinking water main). While the public health risk associated with such events is not well understood, quantitative microbial risk assessment can be used to estimate such risk. A conceptual model is provided and the state of knowledge, current assumptions, and challenges associated with the conceptual model parameters are presented. This review provides a characterization of the causes, magnitudes, durations and frequencies of low/negative pressure events; pathways for pathogen entry; pathogen occurrence in external sources of contamination; volumes of water that may enter through the different pathways; fate and transport of pathogens from the pathways of entry to customer taps; pathogen exposure to populations consuming the drinking water; and risk associated with pathogen exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Claude Besner
- USEPA, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, Mail code 4607m, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20460, USA.
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Teschke K, Bellack N, Shen H, Atwater J, Chu R, Koehoorn M, MacNab YC, Schreier H, Isaac-Renton JL. Water and sewage systems, socio-demographics, and duration of residence associated with endemic intestinal infectious diseases: a cohort study. BMC Public Health 2010; 10:767. [PMID: 21162734 PMCID: PMC3022849 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies of water-related gastrointestinal infections are usually directed at outbreaks. Few have examined endemic illness or compared rates across different water supply and sewage disposal systems. We conducted a cohort study of physician visits and hospitalizations for endemic intestinal infectious diseases in a mixed rural and urban community near Vancouver, Canada, with varied and well-characterized water and sewage systems. METHODS Cohort members and their disease events were defined via universal health insurance data from 1995 through 2003. Environmental data were derived from municipal, provincial, and federal government sources. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between disease events and water and sewage systems, socio-demographic characteristics, and temporal factors. RESULTS The cohort included 126,499 individuals and approximately 190,000,000 person-days. Crude incidence rates were 1,353 physician visits and 33.8 hospitalizations for intestinal infectious diseases per 100,000 person-years. Water supply chlorination was associated with reduced physician visit incidence (OR: 0.92, 95% CI 0.85-1.0). Two water systems with the highest proportions of surface water had increased incidence (ORs: 1.57, 95% CI 1.39-1.78; and 1.45, 95% CI 1.28-1.64). Private well water and well depth were not associated with increased risk, likely because of residents' awareness of and attention to water quality. There was increased crude incidence with increasing precipitation in the population served by surface water supplies, but this trend did not remain with adjustment for other variables. Municipal sewer systems were associated with increased risk (OR: 1.26, 95% CI 1.14-1.38). Most socio-demographic variables had predicted associations with risk: higher rates in females, in the very young and the elderly, and in residents of low income areas. Increased duration of area residence was associated with reduced risk (OR, duration ≥ 6 years: 0.69, 95% CI 0.60-0.80 vs. < 1 year: 1.16, 95% CI 1.03-1.30). CONCLUSIONS This large cohort study, with objective data on exposures and outcomes, demonstrated associations between endemic infectious intestinal diseases and factors related to water supply, sewage disposal, socio-demographics, and duration of residency. The results did not always follow prior expectations based on studies examining outbreaks and single systems, and underscore the importance of studying factors associated with endemic disease across water and sewage system types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Teschke
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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50
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Teunis PFM, Xu M, Fleming KK, Yang J, Moe CL, Lechevallier MW. Enteric virus infection risk from intrusion of sewage into a drinking water distribution network. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010; 44:8561-6. [PMID: 20968297 DOI: 10.1021/es101266k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Contaminants from the soil surrounding drinking water distribution systems are thought to not enter the drinking water when sufficient internal pressure is maintained. Pressure transients may cause short intervals of negative pressure, and the soil near drinking water pipes often contains fecal material due to the proximity of sewage lines, so that a pressure event may cause intrusion of pathogens. This paper presents a risk model for predicting intrusion and dilution of viruses and their transport to consumers. Random entry and dilution of virus was simulated by embedding the hydraulic model into a Monte Carlo simulation. Special attention was given to adjusting for the coincidence of virus presence and use of tap water, as independently occurring short-term events within the longer interval that the virus is predicted to travel in any branch of the distribution system. The probability that a consumer drinks water contaminated with virus is small, but when this happens the virus concentration tends to be high and the risk of infection may be considerable. The spatial distribution of infection risk is highly heterogeneous. The presence of a chlorine residual reduces the infection risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- P F M Teunis
- Epidemiology and Surveillance Unit, Centre for Infectious Disease Control, RIVM (National Institute of Public Health and the Environment), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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