A hybrid CMV-H1 construct improves efficiency of PEI-delivered shRNA in the mouse brain

Enhanced Extracellular Vesicle Cargo Loading via microRNA Biogenesis Pathway Modulation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are physiological vectors for the intercellular transport of a variety of molecules. Among these, small RNAs, and especially microRNAs (miRNAs), have been identified as prevalent components, and there has thus been a robust investigation of EVs for therapeutic miRNAs delivery. However, intrinsic levels of EV-associated miRNAs are generally too low to enable efficient and effective therapeutic outcomes. We hypothesized that miRNA localization to EVs could be improved by limiting competing interactions that occur throughout the miRNA biogenesis process. Using miR-146a-5p as a model, modulation of transcription, nuclear export, and enzymatic cleavage steps of miRNA biogenesis were tested for impact on EV miRNA loading. Working in HEK293T cells, various alterations in the EV biogenesis pathway were shown to impact miRNA localization to EVs. The system was then applied in induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), a more promising substrate for therapeutic EV production, and EVs were separated and assessed for anti-inflammatory efficacy in vitro and in a murine colitis model, where the preservation of function was validated. Overall, the results highlight necessary considerations when designing a cell culture system for the devoted production of miRNA-loaded EVs.

Thyroid hormone action in adult neurogliogenic niches: the known and unknown

Over the last decades, thyroid hormones (THs) signaling has been established as a key signaling cue for the proper maintenance of brain functions in adult mammals, including humans. One of the most fascinating roles of THs in the mature mammalian brain is their ability to regulate adult neurogliogenic processes. In this respect, THs control the generation of new neuronal and glial progenitors from neural stem cells (NSCs) as well as their final differentiation and maturation programs. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the cellular organization of adult rodent neurogliogenic niches encompassing well-established niches in the subventricular zone (SVZ) lining the lateral ventricles, the hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ), and the hypothalamus, but also less characterized niches in the striatum and the cerebral cortex. We then discuss critical questions regarding how THs availability is regulated in the respective niches in rodents and larger mammals as well as how modulating THs availability in those niches interferes with lineage decision and progression at the molecular, cellular, and functional levels. Based on those alterations, we explore the novel therapeutic avenues aiming at harnessing THs regulatory influences on neurogliogenic output to stimulate repair processes by influencing the generation of either new neurons (i.e. Alzheimer's, Parkinson's diseases), oligodendrocytes (multiple sclerosis) or both (stroke). Finally, we point out future challenges, which will shape research in this exciting field in the upcoming years.

Thyroid hormone regulation of adult neural stem cell fate: A comparative analysis between rodents and primates

Thyroid hormone (TH) signaling, a highly conserved pathway across vertebrates, is crucial for brain development and function throughout life. In the adult mammalian brain, including that of humans, multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) proliferate and generate neuronal and glial progenitors. The role of TH has been intensively investigated in the two main neurogenic niches of the adult mouse brain, the subventricular and the subgranular zone. A key finding is that T3, the biologically active form of THs, promotes NSC commitment toward a neuronal fate. In this review, we first discuss the roles of THs in the regulation of adult rodent neurogenesis, as well as how it relates to functional behavior, notably olfaction and cognition. Most research uncovering these roles of TH in adult neurogenesis was conducted in rodents, whose genetic background, brain structure and rate of neurogenesis are considerably different from that of humans. To bridge the phylogenetic gap, we also explore the similarities and divergences of TH-dependent adult neurogenesis in non-human primate models. Lastly, we examine how photoperiodic length changes TH homeostasis, and how that might affect adult neurogenesis in seasonal species to increase fitness. Several aspects by which TH acts on adult NSCs seem to be conserved among mammals, while we only start to uncover the molecular pathways, as well as how other in- and extrinsic factors are intertwined. A multispecies approach delivering more insights in the matter will pave the way for novel NSC-based therapies to combat neurological disorders.

Thyroid hormone regulation of neural stem cell fate: From development to ageing

In the vertebrate brain, neural stem cells (NSCs) generate both neuronal and glial cells throughout life. However, their neuro‐ and gliogenic capacity changes as a function of the developmental context. Despite the growing body of evidence on the variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors regulating NSC physiology, their precise cellular and molecular actions are not fully determined. Our review focuses on thyroid hormone (TH), a vital component for both development and adult brain function that regulates NSC biology at all stages. First, we review comparative data to analyse how TH modulates neuro‐ and gliogenesis during vertebrate brain development. Second, as the mammalian brain is the most studied, we highlight the molecular mechanisms underlying TH action in this context. Lastly, we explore how the interplay between TH signalling and cell metabolism governs both neurodevelopmental and adult neurogenesis. We conclude that, together, TH and cellular metabolism regulate optimal brain formation, maturation and function from early foetal life to adult in vertebrate species.

[Thyroid hormones regulate neural stem cell fate]

Thyroid hormones (THs) are vital for vertebrate brain function throughout life, from early development to ageing. Epidemiological studies show an adequate supply of maternal TH during pregnancy to be necessary for normal brain development, and this from the first trimester of onwards. Maternal TH deficiency irreversibly affects fetal brain development, increasing the risk of offspring cognitive disorders and IQ loss. Mammalian and non-mammalian (zebrafish, xenopus, chicken) models are useful to dissect TH-dependent cellular and molecular mechanisms governing embryonic and fetal brain development: a complex process including cell proliferation, survival, determination, migration, differentiation and maturation of neural stem cells (NSCs). Notably, rodent models have strongly contributed to understand the key neurogenic roles of TH still at work in adult life. Neurogenesis continues in two main areas, the sub-ventricular zone lining the lateral ventricles (essential for olfaction) and the sub-granular zone in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus (involved in memory, learning and mood control). In both niches, THs tightly regulate the balance between neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis under physiological and pathological contexts. Understanding how THs modulate NSCs determination toward a neuronal or a glial fate throughout life is a crucial question in neural stem cell biology. Providing answers to this question can offer therapeutic strategies for brain repair, notably in neurodegenerative diseases, demyelinating diseases or stroke where new neurons and/or oligodendrocytes are required. The review focuses on TH regulation of NSC fate in mammals and humans both during development and in the adult.

Comparative approaches to understanding thyroid hormone regulation of neurogenesis

Thyroid hormone (TH) signalling, an evolutionary conserved pathway, is crucial for brain function and cognition throughout life, from early development to ageing. In humans, TH deficiency during pregnancy alters offspring brain development, increasing the risk of cognitive disorders. How TH regulates neurogenesis and subsequent behaviour and cognitive functions remains a major research challenge. Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying TH signalling on proliferation, survival, determination, migration, differentiation and maturation have been studied in mammalian animal models for over a century. However, recent data show that THs also influence embryonic and adult neurogenesis throughout vertebrates (from mammals to teleosts). These latest observations raise the question of how TH availability is controlled during neurogenesis and particularly in specific neural stem cell populations. This review deals with the role of TH in regulating neurogenesis in the developing and the adult brain across different vertebrate species. Such evo-devo approaches can shed new light on (i) the evolution of the nervous system and (ii) the evolutionary control of neurogenesis by TH across animal phyla. We also discuss the role of thyroid disruptors on brain development in an evolutionary context.

Transient hypothyroidism favors oligodendrocyte generation providing functional remyelination in the adult mouse brain

In the adult brain, both neurons and oligodendrocytes can be generated from neural stem cells located within the Sub-Ventricular Zone (SVZ). Physiological signals regulating neuronal versus glial fate are largely unknown. Here we report that a thyroid hormone (T₃)-free window, with or without a demyelinating insult, provides a favorable environment for SVZ-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor generation. After demyelination, oligodendrocytes derived from these newly-formed progenitors provide functional remyelination, restoring normal conduction. The cellular basis for neuronal versus glial determination in progenitors involves asymmetric partitioning of EGFR and TRα1, expression of which favor glio- and neuro-genesis, respectively. Moreover, EGFR⁺ oligodendrocyte progenitors, but not neuroblasts, express high levels of a T₃-inactivating deiodinase, Dio3. Thus, TRα absence with high levels of Dio3 provides double-pronged blockage of T₃ action during glial lineage commitment. These findings not only transform our understanding of how T₃ orchestrates adult brain lineage decisions, but also provide potential insight into demyelinating disorders.

Impaired oxidative endoplasmic reticulum stress response caused by deficiency of thyroid hormone receptor α

Thyroid hormone receptor α (TRα) is critical to postnatal pancreatic β-cell maintenance. To investigate the association between TRα and the survival of pancreatic β-cells under endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, the expression of endogenous TRα was inhibited by infection with an adenovirus expressing double-stranded short hairpin RNA against TRα (AdshTRα). In control adenovirus-infected pancreatic β-cells, palmitate enhanced the expression of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and heme oxygenase 1, which facilitates adaptation to oxidative ER stress. However, in AdshTRα-infected pancreatic β-cells, palmitate did not induce ATF4-mediated integrated stress response, and oxidative stress-associated apoptotic cell death was significantly enhanced. TRα-deficient mice or wild-type mice (WT) were fed a high fat diet (HFD) for 30 weeks, and the effect of oxidative ER stress on pancreatic β-cells was analyzed. HFD-treated TRα-deficient mice had high blood glucose levels and low plasma insulin levels. In HFD-treated TRα-deficient mice, ATF4 was not induced, and apoptosis was enhanced compared with HFD-treated WT mice. Furthermore, the expression level of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, an oxidative stress marker, was enhanced in the β-cells of HFD-treated TRα-deficient mice. These results indicate that endogenous TRα plays an important role for the expression of ATF4 and facilitates reduced apoptosis in pancreatic β-cells under ER stress.

Expression of green fluorescent protein in the chicken using in vivo transfection of the piggyBac transposon

The chicken is a well-established model system for studying developmental biology and is recognized as one of the top food production animals in the world. For this reason the chicken is an excellent candidate for transgenic applications, as the technology can be applied to both areas of research. Transgenic technology has not been broadly utilized in the chicken model, however, primarily due to difficulties in targeting germ cells and establishing germ line transmission. Transgenic technologies using non-replicating viral particles have been used in the chick, but are unsuitable for many applications because of size and sequence restraints and low efficiency. To create a more versatile method to target chick germ line stem cells, we utilized the transposable element system piggyBac paired with an in vivo transfection reagent, JetPEI. piggyBac has been previously shown to be highly active in mammalian cells and will transpose into the chicken genome. Here, we show that JetPEI can transfect multiple chick cell types, most notably germline stem cells. We also show that pairing these two reagents is a viable and reproducible method for long-term expression of a transgene in the chicken. Stable expression of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene was seen in multiple tissue types including heart, brain, liver, intestine, kidney and gonad. Combining an in vivo transfection strategy with the PB system provides a simple and flexible method for efficiently producing stable chimeric birds and could be used for production of germ line transgenics.

Thyroid hormone signaling and adult neurogenesis in mammals

The vital roles of thyroid hormone in multiple aspects of perinatal brain development have been known for over a century. In the last decades, the molecular mechanisms underlying effects of thyroid hormone on proliferation, differentiation, migration, synaptogenesis, and myelination in the developing nervous system have been gradually dissected. However, recent data reveal that thyroid signaling influences neuronal development throughout life, from early embryogenesis to the neurogenesis in the adult brain. This review deals with the latter phase and analyses current knowledge on the role of T3, the active form of thyroid hormone, and its receptors in regulating neural stem cell function in the hippocampus and the subventricular zone, the two principal sites harboring neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain. In particular, we discuss the critical roles of T3 and TRα1 in commitment to a neuronal phenotype, a process that entails the repression of a number of genes notably that encoding the pluripotency factor, Sox2. Furthermore, the question of the relevance of thyroid hormone control of adult neurogenesis is considered in the context of brain aging, cognitive decline, and neurodegenerative disease.

Retinoic X receptor subtypes exert differential effects on the regulation of Trh transcription

How Retinoid X receptors (RXR) and thyroid hormone receptors (TR) interact on negative TREs and whether RXR subtype specificity is determinant in such regulations is unknown. In a set of functional studies, we analyzed RXR subtype effects in T3-dependent repression of hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (Trh). Two-hybrid screening of a hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus cDNA bank revealed specific, T3-dependent interaction of TRs with RXRβ. In vivo chromatin immuno-precipitation showed recruitment of RXRs to the TRE-site 4 region of the Trh promoter in the absence of T3. In vivo overexpression of RXRα in the mouse hypothalamus heightened T3-independent Trh transcription, whereas RXRβ overexpression abrogated this activity. Loss of function of RXRα and β by shRNAs induced inverse regulations. Thus, RXRα and RXRβ display specific roles in modulating T3-dependent regulation of Trh. These results provide insight into the actions of these different TR heterodimerization partners within the context of a negatively regulated gene.

Inhibition of Sox2 Expression in the Adult Neural Stem Cell Niche In Vivo by Monocationic-based siRNA Delivery

RNA interference (RNAi) is a major tool for basic and applied investigations. However, obtaining RNAi data that have physiological significance requires investigation of regulations and therapeutic strategies in appropriate in vivo settings. To examine in vivo gene regulation and protein function in the adult neural stem cell (NSC) niche, we optimized a new non-viral vector for delivery of siRNA into the subventricular zone (SVZ). This brain region contains the neural stem and progenitor cells populations that express the stem cell marker, SOX2. Temporally and spatially controlled Sox2 knockdown was achieved using the monocationic lipid vector, IC10. siRNA/IC10 complexes were stable over time and smaller (<40 nm) than jetSi complexes (≈400 nm). Immunocytochemistry showed that siRNA/IC10 complexes efficiently target both the progenitor and stem cell populations in the adult SVZ. Injection of the complexes into the lateral brain ventricle resulted in specific knockdown of Sox2 in the SVZ. Furthermore, IC10-mediated transient in vivo knockdown of Sox2-modulated expression of several genes implicated in NSC maintenance. Taken together, these data show that IC10 cationic lipid formulation can efficiently vectorize siRNA in a specific area of the adult mouse brain, achieving spatially and temporally defined loss of function.

A linear polyethylenimine mediated siRNA-based therapy targeting human epidermal growth factor receptor in SPC-A1 xenograft mice

Background

Linear polyethylenimine (LPEI) is considered as a desirable gene in vivo delivery system, but whether it could deliver the specific siRNA targeted EGFR to the tumor site to inhibit the growth of NSCLC xenograft in nude mice still needs to be examined.

Methods

In this study, LPEI/siRNA was made into a complex and SPC-A1-xenografted mice model was established. Then, stable LPEI/siRNA-EGFR complexes were intraperitoneally administrated. Afterwards, tumor growth was measured every 3 days. At the end of the experiment, tumor volume was calculated, and tumors were weighed, and examined for EGFR expression, proliferation, and apoptosis evaluations. By using blood samples, toxicity tests including aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), urea and creatinine (Cr) were measured for liver and renal function evaluation. Serum concentrations of TNF-α and IFN-γ were also examined.

Results

Our results demonstrated that LPEI/siRNA-EGFR complexes could downregulate EGFR expression in SPC-A1 xenografted tumor upon single i.p. injection. LPEI/siRNA-EGFR complexes inhibited tumor growth and did not induce organ toxicity in SPC-A1-xenografted mice. At the end of the experiment no significant IFN-α increase was detected in LPEI/siRNA complexes or glucose-treated groups.

Conclusions

The novel modality of siRNA-based therapy targeting EGFR may be of great potential in NSCLC treatment.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/2213-0802-1-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Pseudotyped adeno-associated virus 2/9-delivered CCL11 shRNA alleviates lung inflammation in an allergen-sensitized mouse model

Airway infiltration by eosinophils is a major characteristic of chronic asthma. CCL11 (eotaxin-1) is secreted by lung epithelial cells and functions as the major chemokine for eosinophil recruitment. Pseudotyped adeno-associated virus (AAV) 2/9, composed by the AAV2 rep and AAV9 cap genes, can efficiently target lung epithelial cells and might carry gene sequences with therapeutic potential for asthma. This study aimed to determine whether pseudotyped AAV2/9 virus carrying the small hairpin RNA targeting CCL11 and expressed by CMV/U6 promoter could reduce eosinophilia and asthmatic responses in mite allergen-sensitized mice. Mice were sensitized by intraperitoneal and challenged by intratracheal injection with recombinant Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus group 2 allergen (rDp2). AAV2/9 viral vectors were intratracheally injected three days before the first challenge. AAV2/9 sh47 virus significantly reduced airway hyperresponsiveness, airway resistance, CCL11 levels, and eosinophilia in the lungs of sensitized mice. Th2 cytokines, including interleukins (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-10, were also significantly reduced in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of AAV2/9 sh47 virus-treated mice. Th2 cytokine levels were also reduced in rDp2-stimulated mediastinal lymphocytes in treated mice. However, serum levels of rDp2-specific IgG1 and IgE, as well as Th2 cytokine levels in rDp2-stimulated splenocyte culture supernatants, were comparable to the sensitized control group. The results suggest that AAV2/9 sh47 virus relieved local instead of systemic inflammatory responses. Therefore, the CMV/U6 promoter with AAV2/9 viral vector, which is preferable to target lung epithelia cells, might be applied as a novel therapeutic approach for asthma.

Thyroid hormone signaling acts as a neurogenic switch by repressing Sox2 in the adult neural stem cell niche

The subventricular zone (SVZ) neural stem cell niche contains mixed populations of stem cells, transit-amplifying cells, and migrating neuroblasts. Deciphering how endogenous signals, such as hormones, affect the balance between these cell types is essential for understanding the physiology of niche plasticity and homeostasis. We show that Thyroid Hormone (T(3)) and its receptor, TRα1, are directly involved in maintaining this balance. TRα1 is expressed in amplifying and migrating cells. In vivo gain- and loss-of-function experiments demonstrate first, that T(3)/TRα1 directly repress Sox2 expression, and second, that TRα1 overexpression in the niche favors the appearance of DCX+ migrating neuroblasts. Lack of TRα increases numbers of SOX2+ cells in the SVZ. Hypothyroidism increases proportions of cells in interphase. Thus, in the adult SVZ, T(3)/TRα1 together favor neural stem cell commitment and progression toward a migrating neuroblast phenotype; this transition correlates with T(3)/TRα1-dependent transcriptional repression of Sox2.

Cellular cytoskeleton dynamics modulates non-viral gene delivery through RhoGTPases

Although it is well accepted that the constituents of the cellular microenvironment modulate a myriad of cellular processes, including cell morphology, cytoskeletal dynamics and uptake pathways, the underlying mechanism of how these pathways influence non-viral gene transfer have not been studied. Transgene expression is increased on fibronectin (Fn) coated surfaces as a consequence of increased proliferation, cell spreading and active engagement of clathrin endocytosis pathway. RhoGTPases mediate the crosstalk between the cell and Fn, and regulate cellular processes involving filamentous actin, in-response to cellular interaction with Fn. Here the role of RhoGTPases specifically Rho, Rac and Cdc42 in modulation of non-viral gene transfer in mouse mesenchymal stem (mMSCs) plated in a fibronectin microenvironment was studied. More than 90% decrease in transgene expression was observed after inactivation of RhoGTPases using difficile toxin B (TcdB) and C3 transferase. Expression of dominant negative RhoA (RhoAT19N), Rac1(Rac1T17N) and Cdc42 (Cdc42T17N) also significantly reduced polyplex uptake and transgene expression. Interactions of cells with Fn lead to activation of RhoGTPases. However, further activation of RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42 by expression of constitutively active genes (RhoAQ63L, Rac1Q61L and Cdc42Q61L) did not further enhance transgene expression in mMSCs, when plated on Fn. In contrast, activation of RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42 by expression of constitutively active genes for cells plated on collagen I, which by itself did not increase RhoGTPase activation, resulted in enhanced transgene expression. Our study shows that RhoGTPases regulate internalization and effective intracellular processing of polyplexes that results in efficient gene transfer.

Targeting insulin-like growth factor I with 10-23 DNAzymes: 2'-O-methyl modifications in the catalytic core enhance mRNA cleavage

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and its cognate receptor (IGF-1R) contribute to normal cell function and to tumorigenesis. The role of IGF-I signaling in tumor growth has been demonstrated in vivo using nucleic acid-based strategies. Here, we designed the first 10-23 DNAzymes directed against IGF-I mRNA. Unlike antisense approaches and RNA interference that require protein catalysis, DNAzymes catalyze protein-free RNA cleavage. We identified target sequences and measured catalytic properties of differently designed DNAzymes on short synthetic RNA targets and on in vitro transcribed IGF-I mRNA. The most efficient cleavers were then transfected into cells, and their inhibitory effect was analyzed using reporter gene assays. We found that increasing the size of DNAzyme flanking sequences and modifications of the termini with 2'-O-methyl residues improved cleavage rates of target RNAs. Modification of the catalytic loop with six 2'-O-methyl ribonucleotides at nonessential positions increased or decreased catalytic efficiency depending on the mRNA target site. In cells, DNAzymes with 2'-O-methyl-modified catalytic cores and flanking sequences were able to inhibit reporter gene activity because of specific recognition and cleavage of IGF-I mRNA sequences. Mutant DNAzymes with inactive catalytic cores were unable to block reporter gene expression, demonstrating that the RNA cleaving ability of 10-23 DNAzymes contributed to inhibitory mechanisms. Our results show that nuclease-resistant 2'-O-methyl-modified DNAzymes with high catalytic efficiencies are useful for inhibiting IGF-I gene function in cells.

Thyroid hormone potentiates insulin signaling and attenuates hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine (T3) has many metabolic functions. Unexpectedly, exogenous T3 lowered blood glucose in db/db mice, a model of type 2 diabetes. Here, we have explored this finding and its possible mechanisms further.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

db/db and lean mice were treated with T3, the phosphoinositide 3- kinase (PI3-kinase) inhibitor, LY294002, plus T3, or vehicles. Blood glucose, insulin sensitivity, levels and synthesis were measured. Effects of T3 on intracellular insulin signaling were analyzed in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes with Western blotting. Knock-down of the thyroid hormone receptor α1 (TRα1) in 3T3-L1 cells was achieved with an appropriate silencing RNA (siRNA).

KEY RESULTS

Single injections of T3 (7 ng·g⁻¹ i.p.) rapidly and markedly attenuated hyperglycemia. Treatment with T3 (14 ng·g⁻¹·day⁻¹, 18 days) dose-dependently attenuated blood glucose and increased insulin sensitivity in db/db mice. Higher doses of T3 (28 ng·g⁻¹·day⁻¹) reversed insulin resistance in db/db mice. T3 also increased insulin levels in plasma and the neurogenic differentiation factor (an insulin synthesis transcription factor) and insulin storage in pancreatic islets in db/db mice. These anti-diabetic effects of T3 were abolished by the PI3-kinase inhibitor (LY294002). In 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, T3 enhanced insulin-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and activation of PI3-kinase, effects blocked by siRNA for TRα1.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

T3 potentiated insulin signaling, improved insulin sensitivity, and increased insulin synthesis, which may contribute to its anti-diabetic effects. These findings may provide new approaches to the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Enoyl coenzyme A hydratase 1 is an important factor in the lymphatic metastasis of tumors

We have previously demonstrated that enoyl coenzyme A hydratase 1 (Ech1) is involved in the lymphatic metastasis of tumors. In this study, RNAi was used to investigate the role of Ech1 in Hca-F, a hepatocarcinoma cell line with high rates of lymphatic metastasis. The downregulation of Ech1 inhibited proliferation of the Hca-F cells, increased the ratio of Hca-F cells in S phase to G(1) phase and decreased the adhesion and migration capacities of Hca-F cells. A higher expression level of Ech1 was confirmed in tissue from patients with gastric carcinoma (GC) with lymph node metastases (LNM), indicating the clinical association with tumor metastasis. The results indicate that Ech1 is a critical factor in the development of lymphatic metastasis in these tumors.

Critical design criteria for minimal antibiotic-free plasmid vectors necessary to combine robust RNA Pol II and Pol III-mediated eukaryotic expression with high bacterial production yields

BACKGROUND

For safety considerations, regulatory agencies recommend the elimination of antibiotic resistance markers and non-essential sequences from plasmid DNA-based gene medicines. In the present study, we analyzed antibiotic-free (AF) vector design criteria impacting upon bacterial production and mammalian transgene expression.

METHODS

Both CMV-HTLV-I R RNA Pol II promoter (protein transgene) and murine U6 RNA Pol III promoter (RNA transgene) vector designs were studied. Plasmid production yield was assessed through inducible fed-batch fermentation. RNA Pol II-directed enhanced green fluorescent protein and RNA Pol III-directed RNA expression were quantified by fluorometry and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, respectively, after transfection of human HEK293 cells.

RESULTS

Sucrose-selectable minimalized protein and therapeutic RNA expression vector designs that combined an RNA-based AF selection with highly productive fermentation manufacturing (>1000 mg/l plasmid DNA) and high-level in vivo expression of encoded products were identified. The AF selectable marker was also successfully applied to convert existing kanamycin-resistant DNA vaccine plasmids gWIZ and pVAX1 into AF vectors, demonstrating a general utility for retrofitting existing vectors. A minimum vector size for high yield plasmid fermentation was identified. A strategy for stable fermentation of plasmid dimers with improved vector potency and fermentation yields up to 1740 mg/l was developed.

CONCLUSIONS

We report the development of potent high yield AF gene medicine expression vectors for protein or RNA (e.g. short hairpin RNA or microRNA) products. These AF expression vectors were optimized to exceed a newly-identified size threshold for high copy plasmid replication and direct higher transgene expression levels than alternative vectors.

Regulation of U6 promoter activity by transcriptional interference in viral vector-based RNAi

The direct negative impact of the transcriptional activity of one component on the second one in cis is referred to as transcriptional interference (TI). U6 is a type III RNA polymerase III promoter commonly used for driving small hairpin RNA (shRNA) expression in vector-based RNAi. In the design and construction of viral vectors, multiple transcription units may be arranged in close proximity in a space-limited vector. Determining if U6 promoter activity can be affected by TI is critical for the expression of target shRNA in gene therapy or loss-of-function studies. In this research, we designed and implemented a modified retroviral system where shRNA and exogenous gene expressions were driven by two independent transcriptional units. We arranged U6 promoter driving shRNA expression and UbiC promoter in two promoter arrangements. In primary macrophages, we found U6 promoter activity was inhibited by UbiC promoter when in the divergent arrangement but not in tandem. In contrast, PKG promoter had no such negative impact. Instead of enhancing U6 promoter activity, CMV enhancer had significant negative impact on U6 promoter activity in the presence of UbiC promoter. Our results indicate that U6 promoter activity can be affected by TI in a proximal promoter-specific and arrangement-dependent manner.

RNA interference for improving the outcome of islet transplantation

Islet transplantation has the potential to cure type 1 diabetes. Despite recent therapeutic success, it is still not common because a large number of transplanted islets get damaged by multiple challenges including instant blood mediated inflammatory reaction, hypoxia/reperfusion injury, inflammatory cytokines, and immune rejection. RNA interference (RNAi) is a novel strategy to selectively degrade target mRNA. The use of RNAi technologies to downregulate the expression of harmful genes has the potential to improve the outcome of islet transplantation. The aim of this review is to gain a thorough understanding of biological obstacles to islet transplantation and discuss how to overcome these barriers using different RNAi technologies. This eventually will help improve islet survival and function post transplantation. Chemically synthesized small interferring RNA (siRNA), vector based short hairpin RNA (shRNA), and their critical design elements (such as sequences, promoters, and backbone) are discussed. The application of combinatorial RNAi in islet transplantation is also discussed. Last but not the least, several delivery strategies for enhanced gene silencing are discussed, including chemical modification of siRNA, complex formation, bioconjugation, and viral vectors.

Nonviral gene transfer as a tool for studying transcription regulation of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes

Numerous xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes are regulated by nuclear receptors at transcriptional level. The challenge we currently face is to understand how a given nuclear receptor interacts with its xenobiotics, migrates into nucleus, binds to the xenobiotic response element of a target gene, and regulates transcription. Toward this end, new methods have been developed to introduce the nuclear receptor gene into appropriate cells and study its activity in activating reporter gene expression under the control of a promoter containing xenobiotic response elements. The goal of this review is to critically examine the gene transfer methods currently available. We concentrate on the gene transfer mechanism, advantages and limitations of each method when employed for nuclear receptor-mediated gene regulation studies. It is our hope that the information provided highlights the importance of gene transfer in studying the mechanisms by which our body eliminates the potentially harmful substances and maintains the homeostasis.

Nuclear orphan receptor Nor-1 contributes to depressive behavior in the Wistar-Kyoto rat model of depression

The current study explored the effects of prolonged antidepressant treatment on mRNA levels of two nuclear receptors in specific brain regions of an animal model of depression, the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat. Both nuclear receptors have been implicated in the development or treatment of depression. The expression of nuclear orphan receptor-1 (Nor-1), a member of the NR4A nuclear orphan receptor family, is induced by electroconvulsive shock, an effective treatment for depression. Deficit in the levels or function of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) found in depressed patients has been causally implicated in depression, as this deficit is normalized by antidepressant treatments. Baseline levels of amygdalar Nor-1 and GR mRNA were higher in the WKYs compared to the comparison control Sprague-Dawley rats (SD). Prolonged treatment with the antidepressant desipramine (DMI) decreased the expression of both transcripts in the WKY strain concomitantly with decreased immobility in the forced swim test (FST) of depressive behavior. Using short hairpin RNA (shRNA) targeted against Nor-1, we investigated the direct contribution of elevated Nor-1 expression in the amygdala of WKY to their exaggerated depressive behavior in the FST. After validating the shRNA targeting of Nor-1 in vitro, Nor-1 shRNA containing vector was infused intracerebroventricularly, using a linear polyethylenimine (PEI)-containing in vivo gene delivery system. Repeated administration of Nor-1 shRNA ameliorated the depressive behavior of WKYs in the FST and decreased amygdalar Nor-1 mRNA levels without affecting GR mRNA levels. These data demonstrate that brain region-specific changes in GR expression in response to DMI are strain dependent and that elevated amygdalar Nor-1 expression can contribute to depressive behavior in the WKY model of depression.

Liganded thyroid hormone receptor-alpha enhances proliferation of pancreatic beta-cells

Failure of the functional pancreatic beta-cell mass to expand in response to increased metabolic demand is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes. Lineage tracing studies indicate that replication of existing beta-cells is important for beta-cell proliferation in adult animals. In rat pancreatic beta-cell lines (RIN5F), treatment with 100 nM thyroid hormone (triiodothyronine, T(3)) enhances cell proliferation. This result suggests that T(3) is required for beta-cell proliferation or replication. To identify the role of thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TR(alpha)) in the processes of beta-cell growth and cell cycle regulation, we constructed a recombinant adenovirus vector, AdTR(alpha). Infection with AdTR(alpha) to RIN5F cells increased the expression of cyclin D1 mRNA and protein. Overexpression of the cyclin D1 protein in AdTR(alpha)-infected cells led to activation of the cyclin D1/cyclin-dependent kinase/retinoblastoma protein/E2F pathway, along with cell cycle progression and cell proliferation following treatment with 100 nM T(3). Conversely, lowering cellular cyclin D1 by small interfering RNA knockdown in AdTR(alpha)-infected cells led to down-regulation of the cyclin D1/CDK/Rb/E2F pathway and inhibited cell proliferation. Furthermore, in immunodeficient mice with streptozotocin-induced diabetes, intrapancreatic injection of AdTR(alpha) led to the restoration of islet function and to an increase in the beta-cell mass. These results support the hypothesis that liganded TR(alpha) plays a critical role in beta-cell replication and in expansion of the beta-cell mass during postnatal development. Thus, liganded TR(alpha) may be a target for therapeutic strategies that can induce the expansion and regeneration of beta-cells.

Thyroid hormone exerts negative feedback on hypothalamic type 4 melanocortin receptor expression

The type 4 melanocortin receptor MC4R, a key relay in leptin signaling, links central energy control to peripheral reserve status. MC4R activation in different brain areas reduces food intake and increases energy expenditure. Mice lacking Mc4r are obese. Mc4r is expressed by hypothalamic paraventricular Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) neurons and increases energy usage through activation of Trh and production of the thyroid hormone tri-iodothyronine (T(3)). These facts led us to test the hypothesis that energy homeostasis should require negative feedback by T(3) on Mc4r expression. Quantitative PCR and in situ hybridization showed hyperthyroidism reduces Mc4r mRNA levels in the paraventricular nucleus. Comparative in silico analysis of Mc4r regulatory regions revealed two evolutionarily conserved potential negative thyroid hormone-response elements (nTREs). In vivo ChIP assays on mouse hypothalamus demonstrated association of thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) with a region spanning one nTRE. Further, in vivo gene reporter assays revealed dose-dependent T(3) repression of transcription from the Mc4r promoter in mouse hypothalamus, in parallel with T(3)-dependent Trh repression. Mutagenesis of the nTREs in the Mc4r promoter demonstrated direct regulation by T(3), consolidating the ChIP results. In vivo shRNA knockdown, TR over-expression approaches and use of mutant mice lacking specific TRs showed that both TRalpha and TRbeta contribute to Mc4r regulation. T(3) repression of Mc4r transcription ensures that the energy-saving effects of T(3) feedback on Trh are not overridden by MC4R activation of Trh. Thus parallel repression by T(3) on hypothalamic Mc4r and Trh contributes to energy homeostasis.

Specific knock-down of GAD67 in the striatum using naked small interfering RNAs

Small interfering RNAs (siRNA) are double-stranded RNAs of 9-29 nucleotides designed to reduce the expression of homologous genes by a process known as RNA interference (RNAi). Most studies using siRNA in neurons have been performed in mammalian cell cultures. Only few reports have reported the effects of in vivo infusion of siRNA into the brain. In the present study, we performed local intracerebral infusions of naked siRNA against glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67) mRNA to engineer specific knock-down of GAD67 protein in the striatum of adult rats. Directly injecting a mix of GAD67 siRNAs into the striatum decreased the levels of corresponding mRNA, evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR. In particular, we show that GAD67 mRNA expression is reduced in the striatum for 3, 6, and 24h following intrastriatal injection of GAD67 siRNA and is restored at 72h. Relative to controls, the levels of GAD67 protein were also lower in the striatum for 6 and 24h after injection. No changes in GAD65 expression, one of the two isoforms of GAD, were detected in the striatum, which further validates the specificity of the siRNA. We demonstrate the efficiency of the RNAi strategy for producing a specific and selective down-regulation of GAD67 in the adult rat brain. This suggests that siRNA-mediated gene knock-down constitute a valid methodological approach for studying the functional consequences of a transient decrease of a gene expression in a brain structure.

Synthetic vs. natural/biodegradable polymers for delivery of shRNA-based cancer therapies

DNA vector-based short hairpin RNA (shRNA) as a means of effecting RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising mechanism for the precise disruption of gene expression to achieve a therapeutic effect. The clinical usage of shRNA therapeutics in cancer is limited by obstacles related to effective delivery into the nuclei of target cancer cells. Significant pre-clinical data have been amassed about biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymeric delivery vehicles that are relevant for shRNA delivery into humans. Here, we will review some leading candidates for clinical usage with a focus on studies relating to their potential for usage in cancer shRNA therapeutics and discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of using biodegradable and non-biodegradable delivery vehicles.

Application of RNAi technology to the inhibition of zebrafish GtHalpha, FSHbeta, and LHbeta expression and to functional analyses

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were used as a model fish, and the technique of RNA interference (RNAi) was employed to knockdown three subunits of the gonadotropin alpha (GtHalpha, common alpha), follicle-stimulating hormone beta (FSHbeta), and luteinizing hormone beta (LHbeta) genes. Three short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) expression vectors and three mismatched shRNA expression vectors as controls for each subunit gene were constructed, and the depression efficiency was tested in vivo by microinjection; the RNA or protein expression levels of the GtH genes were monitored by RT-PCR, Southern blotting, and green fluorescent protein (GFP) analyses. Expression of GtH mRNA was obviously and more efficiently depressed by GtHalpha RNAi expression compared with the other two subunits. A GtHalpha morpholino analysis showed that the GtHalpha morpholino led to suppression of embryonic development and the production of embryonic mutants as a result of an injection of GtHalpha -shRNA. Taken together, these results show that GtHalpha-shRNA, which more efficiently targets RNAi, may have an essential role in the further development of sterility technology of transgenic fish for biosafety purposes.

Hybrid cytomegalovirus-U6 promoter-based plasmid vectors improve efficiency of RNA interference in zebrafish

Short hairpin RNA (shRNA) directed by RNA polymerase III (Pol III) or Pol II promoter was shown to be capable of silencing gene expression, which should permit analyses of gene functions or as a potential therapeutic tool. However, the inhibitory effect of shRNA remains problematic in fish. We demonstrated that silencing efficiency by shRNA produced from the hybrid construct composed of the CMV enhancer or entire CMV promoter placed immediately upstream of a U6 promoter. When tested the exogenous gene, silencing of an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) target gene was 89.18 +/- 5.06% for CMVE-U6 promoter group and 88.26 +/- 6.46% for CMV-U6 promoter group. To test the hybrid promoters driving shRNA efficiency against an endogenous gene, we used shRNA against no tail (NTL) gene. When vectorized in the zebrafish, the hybrid constructs strongly repressed NTL gene expression. The NTL phenotype occupied 52.09 +/- 3.06% and 51.56 +/- 3.68% for CMVE-U6 promoter and CMV-U6 promoter groups, respectively. The NTL gene expression reduced 82.17 +/- 2.96% for CMVE-U6 promoter group and 83.06 +/- 2.38% for CMV-U6 promoter group. We concluded that the CMV enhancer or entire CMV promoter locating upstream of the U6-promoter could significantly improve inhibitory effect induced by the shRNA for both exogenous and endogenous genes compared with the CMV promoter or U6 promoter alone. In contrast, the two hybrid promoter constructs had similar effects on driving shRNA.

Systemic delivery of DNA or siRNA mediated by linear polyethylenimine (L-PEI) does not induce an inflammatory response

PURPOSE

The success of nucleic acid therapies depends upon delivery vehicle's ability to selectively and efficiently deliver therapeutic nucleic acids to target organ with minimal toxicity. The cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI) has been widely used for nucleic acid delivery due to its versatility and efficiency. In particular, the last generation of linear PEI (L-PEI) is being more efficient in vivo than the first generation of branched PEI. This led to several clinical trials including phase II bladder cancer therapy and human immunodeficiency virus immunotherapy. When moving towards to the clinic, it is crucial to identify potential side-effects induced by the delivery vehicle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For this purpose we have analyzed the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon (IFN)-gamma, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-12/IL-23, IFN-beta and IL-1beta] and hepatic enzyme levels (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase) in the blood serum of mice after systemic injection of DNA or siRNAs delivered with L-PEI.

RESULTS

Our data show no major production of pro-inflammatory cytokines or hepatic enzymes after injection of DNA or oligonucleotides active for RNA interference (siRNAs or sticky siRNAs) complexed with L-PEI. Only a slight induction of IFN-gamma was measured after DNA delivery, which is probably induced by the CpG mediated response.

CONCLUSION

Taken together our data highlight that linear polyethylenimine is a delivery reagent of choice for nucleic acid therapeutics.