Grit and the brain: spontaneous activity of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex mediates the relationship between the trait grit and academic performance

"I Refuse to Wear a Mask!" Examining the Relationship Between Grit and Preventative Behaviors and Well-Being: Mediating Role of Motivation

Despite government mandates to wear face masks in some public locations, why do some people still refuse to wear a face mask in public? This paper examines the relationship between grit, COVID-19 preventative health measure, and distress. Further, the mediating role of COVID-19 autonomous and controlled motivation is also investigated. The results suggest that grit is directly related to decreased distress and increased preventative behaviors. COVID-19 autonomous and controlled motivated mediated the relationship between grit, distress and preventive behaviors, such that COVID-19 autonomous motivation mediated the association between grit and preventive behaviors; while COVID-19 controlled motivation mediated the relationship between grit and psychological distress. These findings suggest that grit can be an important growth mindset in increasing preventative behaviors and individual well-being during the pandemic. Implications for human resource managers in attempting to help employees cope effectively during the pandemic are discussed.

The promoting effect of the absence of second-party's punishment power on third-party punishment in maintaining social fairness norms: An EEG hyper-scanning study

Third-party punishment (TPP) plays an irreplaceable role in maintaining social fairness. Punishment power is a significant area of study within economic games. However, the impact of whether or not the second-party possesses punishment power on TPP remains unexplored. The present study utilizes the high temporal resolution of EEG and time-frequency analysis, intra-barin functional connectivity analysis, inter-brain synchronization (IBS) analysis, and granger causality analysis(GCA) to comprehensively explore the neural mechanism of TPP from the perspective of third-party individual's decision-making and IBS in the real-time social interaction. Time-frequency results found that, the absence of the punishment power activated more theta-band and alpha-band power compare to when second-party has punishment power. When second-party has no punishment power, functional connection results observed stronger functional connectivity in theta band for medium unfair offers between rTPJ and PFC. Dual-brain analysis revealed that when the second-party has no punishment power, there is a significantly higher IBS in the alpha band between the frontal and frontal-central lobes of the second-party and the parietal and parietal occipital lobes of the third-party. GCA results further showed that the direction of IBS from third-party to second-party was significantly stronger than from second-party to third-party. This study demonstrates that the absence of the second-party's punishment power promote TPP, and similar cognitive process of thinking on how to maintain social fairness enhances IBS. The current study emphasizes the influence of punishment power on TPP, broadens the research perspective and contributes crucial insights into maintain social fairness.

Neural basis responsible for effect of grit on procrastination: The interaction between the self-regulation and motivation neural pathways

Procrastination has a detrimental impact on academic performance, health, and subjective well-being. Previous studies indicated that grit was negatively related to procrastination. However, the underlying neural basis of this relationship remains unclear. To address this issue, we utilized voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) analysis to identify the neural substrates of how is grit linked to procrastination. Behavioral results showed that procrastination was negatively associated with grit. VBM analysis revealed that gray matter volume (GMV) in the left precuneus was positively associated with the consistency of interest (CI), a subcomponent of grit, while the right medial orbital frontal cortex (mOFC) was positively correlated with the perseverance of effort (PE), another subcomponent of grit. Moreover, the RSFC analysis indicated that both precuneus-medial superior frontal gyrus (mSFG) and precuneus-insula connectivity were positively related to CI, while the functional coupling of right mOFC with left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was positively related to PE. Importantly, the structural equation modeling (SEM) results were well suited for the influence of grit on procrastination via both self-regulation (mOFC-ACC) and motivation pathways (precuneus-mSFG, precuneus-insula). Together, these findings imply that self-regulation and motivation could be two neural circuits underlying the impact of grit on procrastination.

Physical activity and self-efficacy in college students: the mediating role of grit and the moderating role of gender

Background

There is a paucity of knowledge concerning the psychological variables that serve to facilitate the connection between physical activity and self-efficacy, and the factors capable of moderating these pathways. This study aimed to examine the relationship between physical activity and self-efficacy among college students, with a focus on the mediating effect of grit and the moderating effect of gender.

Methods

This study recruited 3,228 undergraduate students from a university in Shanghai, China. They completed the General Self-Efficacy Scale, the Short Grit Scale, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 and the Process v4.0 plugin.

Results

Physical activity had both a direct effect on self-efficacy (β = 0.07, 95% CI [0.04-0.11]) and an indirect effect through the two dimensions of grit: perseverance of effort (β = 0.06, 95% CI [0.04-0.07]) and consistency of interest (β = 0.03, 95% CI [0.02-0.04]). The mediating effect explained 53.27% of the total effect. Furthermore, gender moderated the relationship between perseverance of effort and self-efficacy, with a stronger effect observed in males (β = 0.08, t = 3.27, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

The results revealed that grit is an underlying psychological mechanism that links physical activity and self-efficacy. Moreover, gender moderates the effect of perseverance of effort on self-efficacy, with a stronger effect observed in males. These findings have practical implications for educators to design tailored physical activity interventions that foster grit and self-efficacy among college students.

Persistence of effort in apathy

The syndrome of apathy has generated increasing interest in recent years as systematic evaluations have revealed its high prevalence and strong negative impact on quality of life across a wide range of neurological and psychiatric conditions. However, although several theoretical models have been proposed to account for various aspects of the condition, understanding of this syndrome is still incomplete. One influential model has proposed that apathy might be described as a quantitative reduction of goal-directed behaviour in comparison to an individual's prior level of functioning. Persistence of activity defined as the capacity to continue with a task - sometimes in the face of setbacks, high levels of difficulty or fatigue - is a crucial but understudied aspect of goal-directed behaviour. Surprisingly, it has not been investigated yet in the context of apathy. Here, we provide an overview of theoretical and experimental aspects of persistence in effort that might assist to develop methods for the investigation of persistence in human behaviour, particularly within the pathologic context of apathy.

Psychological grit moderates the relation between lifetime stressor exposure and functional outcomes among HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative adults

The ability to maintain functional independence throughout the lifespan may be diminished among medically compromised and chronically stressed populations. People living with HIV are more likely to demonstrate functional impairment and report greater exposure to lifetime and chronic stressors than their seronegative counterparts. It is well-known that exposure to stressors and adversity is associated with functional impairment outcomes. However, to our knowledge, no studies have examined how protective factors such as psychological grit mitigate the negative effects of lifetime and chronic stressor exposure on functional impairment, and how this association differs by HIV-status. To address this issue, we studied associations between lifetime and chronic stressor exposure, grit, and functional impairment in 176 African American and non-Hispanic White HIV-seropositive (n = 100) and HIV-seronegative (n = 76) adults, aged 24-85 (M = 57.28, SD = 9.02). As hypothesised, HIV-seropositive status and lower grit, but not lifetime stressor exposure, were independently associated with more functional impairment. Moreover, there was a significant three-way interaction between HIV-status, grit, and lifetime stressor exposure, b = 0.07, p = 0.025, 95% CI [0.009, 0.135]. Specifically, lifetime stressor exposure was related to more functional impairment for HIV-seronegative-but not HIV-seropositive-adults who reported low levels of grit. These findings suggest that the protective effects of grit may differ across populations at risk for functional impairment.

Similarity in functional connectome architecture predicts teenage grit

Grit is a personality trait that encapsulates the tendency to persevere and maintain consistent interest for long-term goals. While prior studies found that grit predicts positive behavioral outcomes, there is a paucity of work providing explanatory evidence from a neurodevelopmental perspective. Based on previous research suggesting the utility of the functional connectome (FC) as a developmental measure, we tested the idea that individual differences in grit might be, in part, rooted in brain development in adolescence and emerging adulthood (N = 64, 11-19 years of age). Our analysis showed that grit was associated with connectome stability across conditions and connectome similarity across individuals. Notably, inter-subject representational similarity analysis revealed that teenagers who were grittier shared similar FC architecture with each other, more so than those with lower grit. Our findings suggest that individuals with high levels of grit are more likely to exhibit a converging pattern of whole-brain functional connectivity, which may underpin subsequent beneficial behavioral outcomes.

Neural basis underlying the sense of coherence in medical professionals revealed by the fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations

Although mitigating burnout has long been a pressing issue in healthcare, recent global disasters, including the COVID-19 pandemic and wars, have exacerbated this problem. Medical professionals are frequently exposed to diverse job-induced distress; furthermore, the importance of people's sense of coherence (SOC) over work has been addressed to better deal with burnout. However, the neural mechanisms underlying SOC in medical professionals are not sufficiently investigated. In this study, the intrinsic fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF) were measured as an indicator of regional brain spontaneous activity using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging in registered nurses. The associations between participants' SOC levels and the fALFF values within brain regions were subsequently explored. The SOC scale scores were positively correlated with fALFF values in the right superior frontal gyrus (SFG) and the left inferior parietal lobule. Furthermore, the SOC levels of the participants mediated the link between their fALFF values in the right SFG and the depersonalization dimension of burnout. The results deepened the understanding of the counter role of SOC on burnout in medical professionals and may provide practical insights for developing efficient interventions.

True grit and brain: Trait grit mediates the connection of DLPFC functional connectivity density to posttraumatic growth following COVID-19

BACKGROUND

There is increasing interest in identifying factors to predict posttraumatic growth (PTG), a positive psychological response following traumatic events (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic). Grit, a psychological trait of perseverance and passion to pursue long-term goals, has emerged as a promising predictor for PTG. This study aimed to examine the functional connectivity markers of grit and the potential brain-grit mechanism in predicting PTG.

METHODS

Baseline brain imaging scans and grit scale and other controlling measures were administered in 100 normal young adults before the COVID-19 pandemic, and follow-up PTG measurement was obtained during the period of community-level outbreak. Whole-brain correlation analysis and prediction analysis were used to identify the brain regions whose functional connectivity density (FCD) related to individuals' grit scores. Mediation analyses were performed to explore the mediation relation between FCD, grit and PTG.

RESULTS

Grit was positively related to FCD in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), a core hub implicated in self-regulation and reward-motivation processes. Furthermore, grit mediated the effect of right DLPFC FCD on COVID-related PTG. These results survived controlling for self-control and family socioeconomic status.

LIMITATIONS

Our study is limited by only one-session neuroimaging data and self-reported behavioral measures in a sample of normal adults.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates grit and right DLPFC FCD as neuropsychological contributors for the development of PTG. It deepens our understanding of the neural bases of grit, and may have clinical potential to develop targeted brain interventions aimed at improving grit to raise PTG and mental health during the pandemic.

The relative role of executive control and personality traits in grit

Although grit is predictive of wellbeing, educational achievement, and success in life, it has been conceptualized as largely distinct from cognitive ability. The present study investigated the link between grit and executive functions since regulation abilities might underlie the expression of grit. A hundred thirty-four people were administered personality questionnaires (grit, impulsiveness, and mindfulness) and four experimental tasks tapping into Miyake's and Braver's models of executive functioning (including measures of flexibility, inhibition, working memory, and control mode dimensions). Multivariate analyses showed that two composite scores (trait and executive functioning) were reliably predictive of grit, although it was the trait composite (characterized by low impulsivity and high mindfulness) that explained more variance. Importantly, gritty participants did not demonstrate enhanced executive functioning. Instead, they exhibited a different pattern of performance that might be reflecting a cautious profile of control, characterized by paying attention to all available information, less reliance on previous contextual cues but sensitive to conflicting information of the current context. These findings converge with Duckworth's idea that high grit people do not necessarily have a greater cognitive capacity. Rather, they use it in a different way.

Patterns of a structural covariance network associated with dispositional optimism during late adolescence

Dispositional optimism (hereinafter, optimism), as a vital character strength, reflects the tendency to hold generalized positive expectancies for future outcomes. A great number of studies have consistently shown the importance of optimism to a spectrum of physical and mental health outcomes. However, less attention has been given to the intrinsic neurodevelopmental patterns associated with interindividual differences in optimism. Here, we investigated this important question in a large sample comprising 231 healthy adolescents (16-20 years old) via structural magnetic resonance imaging and behavioral tests. We constructed individual structural covariance networks based on cortical gyrification using a recent novel approach combining probability density estimation and Kullback-Leibler divergence and estimated global (global efficiency, local efficiency and small-worldness) and regional (betweenness centrality) properties of these constructed networks using graph theoretical analysis. Partial correlations adjusted for age, sex and estimated total intracranial volume showed that optimism was positively related to global and local efficiency but not small-worldness. Partial least squares correlations indicated that optimism was positively linked to a pronounced betweenness centrality pattern, in which twelve cognition-, emotion-, and motivation-related regions made robust and reliable contributions. These findings remained basically consistent after additionally controlling for family socioeconomic status and showed significant correlations with optimism scores from 2.5 years before, which replicated the main findings. The current work, for the first time, delineated characteristics of the cortical gyrification covariance network associated with optimism, extending previous neurobiological understandings of optimism, which may navigate the development of interventions on a neural network level aimed at raising optimism.

The Moderating Role of Grit in the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Depression Among Chinese College Students

Background: As a personality trait, perfectionism has shown a close association with psychological disorders, such as depression. The protective effect of grit on depression has been confirmed by a series of recent studies. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the buffering role of grit in the above relationship and the possible underlying mechanism.

Objective: Based on the multidimensional theory of perfectionism, we differentiated two dimensions of perfectionism as positive and negative and further examined the relationships between these two dimensions of perfectionism and depression. We also aimed to examine the possible moderating effect of grit on the above two relationships.

Methods: Us a questionnaire survey approach, a total of 2,602 college students (1,608 females and 994 males) were assessed using the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale the Short Grit Scale, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to investigate the direct effect of two dimensions of perfectionism on depression as well as the moderating role of grit in these associations.

Results: After controlling for gender, age, family income, and academic performance, both positive and negative perfectionism had positive predictive effects on depression, and grit negatively moderated these two relationships. Specifically, grit completely counteracted the effect of positive perfectionism on depression yet partly counteracted the effect of negative perfectionism on depression.

Conclusion: Grit prevents the depressive symptoms raised by positive and negative perfectionism.

Electrophysiological Prints of Grit

While scientific interest in understanding the grit trait has grown exponentially in recent years, one important gap in the grit literature relates to its biological and neural substrate. In the present study, we adopted a hypotheses-driven approach in a large sample of young adults (N = 120) with diverse educational backgrounds and work experiences in order to investigate the electrophysiological correlates of grit both during rest and while performing a learning task. Additionally, we selected a measure of impulsiveness to better understand the neural similarities and differences between grit and related self-control constructs. Based on previous work that implicated the prefrontal cortex in grit, we hypothesized that high grit participants would have lower frontal theta/beta ratio (a broadly used index that reflects prefrontally-mediated top-down processes, which might indicate better control over subcortical information). Furthermore, we expected the perseverance of effort facet of grit to be linked to higher complexity during task engagement because previous research has shown complexity indexes (entropy and fractal dimension) to be linked to effort while performing cognitive tasks. Our results revealed that although there were no differences at rest as a function of grit, the participants with high grit and high consistency of interest scores exhibited lower frontal theta/beta ratios during the learning task. This pattern suggests that individual differences in grit might be more evident when top-down control processes are at work. Furthermore, there was a positive association between perseverance of effort and entropy at task, which might indicate more effort and engagement in the task. Finally, no association was found between the neural indexes (frontal theta/beta ratio, entropy, or fractal dimension) and impulsiveness, neither impulsiveness mediated between grit and brain measures. Finally, when controlling for impulsiveness and demographic variables (gender, age, education, and work experience) the effects at the facet level remained statistically significant. While there is still a long way to fully understand the neural mechanisms of grit, the present work constitutes a step toward unveiling the electrophysiological prints of grit.

Increased resting-state activity in the cerebellum with mothers having less adaptive sensory processing and trait anxiety

Child‐rearing mothers with high levels of trait anxiety have a tendency for less adaptive sensory processing, which causes parenting stress. However, the neural mechanisms underlying this sensory processing and trait anxiety remain unclear. We aimed to determine the whole‐brain spontaneous neural activity and sensory processing characteristics in mothers with varying parenting stress levels. Using resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging, we assessed mothers caring for more than one preschool aged (2–5 years) child and presenting with varying levels of sensory processing, trait anxiety, and parenting stress. Spontaneous neural activities in select brain regions were evaluated by whole‐brain correlation analyses based on the fractional amplitude of low‐frequency fluctuations (fALFF). We found significant positive correlations between levels of sensory processing with trait anxiety and parenting stress. Mothers having less adaptive sensory processing had significantly increased resting‐state network activities in the left lobule VI of the cerebellum. Increased fALFF values in the left lobule VI confirmed the mediation effect on the relationship between trait anxiety and sensory processing. A tendency for less adaptive sensory processing involving increased brain activity in lobule VI could be an indicator of maternal trait anxiety and the risk of parenting stress.

Grit and chiropractic students' academic performance: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

Previous investigations have studied the relationship between grit and academic performance, and it has been reported that grittier students perform better academically. The objectives of this study are to measure chiropractic students' grittiness and to explore the correlation between grit and academic performance.

METHODS

We distributed the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) questionnaire to chiropractic students in electronic form. We included questions about their previous grade point average and the number of times they had retaken examinations. We scored the overall Grit-S scale and the Consistency of Interest and Perseverance of Effort subscales. A 2-tailed t test and 1-way analysis of variance were used to determine differences between groups.

RESULTS

The response rate was 87% (n = 110). The mean grit score (3.44 ± 0.60) was similar to the general population and slightly lower than other healthcare professionals. The students who had a grade point average between <80% but less than 90% obtained significantly higher grit scores compared to those who had a grade point average <60% but less than 70%. Similarly, students who had no examination retakes had higher grit scores compared to those who took 4 or more exam retakes. We observed these differences in the overall and subscales scores. No other group showed any difference.

CONCLUSION

The results of this research showed that the grittier students performed better academically than the less gritty students. Grit scores can potentially be used to identify the students at risk of failing or dropping out. The role and potential application of grit in chiropractic education, student support, and admission procedures should be further evaluated.

Beyond Passion and Perseverance: Review and Future Research Initiatives on the Science of Grit

Grit, which is originally conceptualized as passion and perseverance for long-term goals, has been associated with optimal performance. Although previous meta-analytic and systematic reviews summarized how grit relates to performance outcomes, they possess considerable shortcomings, such as (a) absence of summary on the association of grit with well-being outcomes; (b) absence of discussion on social, psychological, and emotional mechanisms linking grit to well-being; and (c) lack of elaboration on how alternative models can resolve fundamental problems in the grit construct. This integrative review provides a comprehensive summary on the link of grit to performance and well-being outcomes. Importantly, it elaborates how alternative models can potentially address flaws in the existing grit theory. Future research directions are discussed on how to move forward the science of grit.

Measuring Perseverance and Passion in Distance Education Students: Psychometric Properties of the Grit Questionnaire and Associations With Academic Performance

With modern technological advances, distance education has become an increasingly important education delivery medium for, for example, the higher education provided by open universities. Among predictive factors of successful learning in distance education, the effects of non-cognitive skills are less explored. Grit, the dispositional tendency to sustain trait-level passion and long-term goals, has raised much research interest and gained importance for predicting academic achievement. The Grit Questionnaire, measuring Perseverance of Effort and Consistency of Interests, has been shown to be a reliable instrument in traditional university student populations. However, the measurement and predictive validity of this questionnaire is still unknown for adult distance education university students who differ from traditional students in various ways (e.g., having a wider range of student ages). Based on a sample of 2,027 students from a distance education university, this study assessed the psychometric properties of the two-factor structure grit measured by the Grit Questionnaire. The findings suggest that the short form of the Grit Questionnaire is a potentially useful assessment tool for measuring the grit construct for distance learning higher education and that the Consistency of Interests factor is especially relevant to consider the improvement of learning performance for distance education in terms of courses credit and exam attempts. The measurement precision of the Perseverance of Effort factor, however, should be improved in future research to provide higher measurement accuracy and broader item coverage.

The personality dispositions and resting-state neural correlates associated with aggressive children

Despite aggression being detrimental to children's physical health, mental health and social development, the dispositional and neurological antecedents of aggression in the child are poorly understood. Here we examined the relationship between trait aggression as measured by Buss and Warren's Aggression Questionnaire and personality traits measured with Big Five Questionnaire for Children in 77 primary-school children and recorded resting-state brain activity (fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations [fALFF]) and resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) using functional magnetic resonance imaging. The present results showed that trait aggression was negatively correlated with agreeableness and positively correlated with neuroticism. The brain analyses showed that children with a higher propensity for aggression had a lower fALFF mainly in the left superior temporal gyrus, right parahippocampal gyrus and left supramarginal gyrus. Physical and total aggressions were negatively associated with rsFC between the right parahippocampal gyrus and the right putamen. Further analysis revealed that this rsFC could moderate the influence of neuroticism on total aggression. Moreover, the results suggest the presence of a sex difference in the neurodevelopmental mechanisms underlying aggression in middle childhood. Overall, our findings indicate that aggressive children have lower agreeableness and higher neuroticism, and the underlying neural systems are mainly implicated in social judgment and empathy.

Assessment of Neighborhood Poverty, Cognitive Function, and Prefrontal and Hippocampal Volumes in Children

IMPORTANCE

The association between poverty and unfavorable cognitive outcomes is robust, but most research has focused on individual household socioeconomic status (SES). There is increasing evidence that neighborhood context explains unique variance not accounted for by household SES.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether neighborhood poverty (NP) is associated with cognitive function and prefrontal and hippocampal brain structure in ways that are dissociable from household SES.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cross-sectional study used a baseline sample of the ongoing longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. The ABCD Study will follow participants for assessments each year for 10 years. Data were collected at 21 US sites, mostly within urban and suburban areas, between September 2019 and October 2018. School-based recruitment was used to create a participant sample reflecting the US population. Data analysis was conducted from March to June 2019.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

NP and household SES were included as factors potentially associated with National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognitive Battery subtests and hippocampal and prefrontal (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [DLPFC], dorsomedial PFC [DMPFC], superior frontal gyrus [SFG]) volumes. Independent variables were first considered individually and then together in mixed-effects models with age, sex, and intracranial volume as covariates. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to assess shared variance in NP to brain structure and cognitive task associations. The tested hypotheses were formulated after data collection.

RESULTS

A total of 11 875 children aged 9 and 10 years (5678 [47.8%] girls) were analyzed. Greater NP was associated with lower scores across all cognitive domains (eg, total composite: β = -0.18; 95% CI, -0.21 to -0.15; P < .001) and with decreased brain volume in the DLPFC (eg, right DLPFC: β = -0.09; 95% CI, -0.12 to -0.07; P < .001), DMPFC (eg, right DMPC: β = -0.07; 95% CI, -0.09 to -0.05; P < .001), SFG (eg, right SFG: β = -0.05; 95% CI, -0.08 to -0.03; P < .001), and right hippocampus (β = -0.04; 95% CI, -0.06 to -0.01; P = .01), even when accounting for household income. Greater household income was associated with higher scores across all cognitive domains (eg, total composite: β = 0.30; 95% CI, 0.28 to 0.33; P < .001) and larger volume in all prefrontal and hippocampal brain regions (eg, right hippocampus: β = 0.04; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.07; P < .001) even when accounting for NP. The SEM model was a good fit across all cognitive domains, with prefrontal regions being associated with NP relations to language (picture vocabulary: estimate [SE], -0.03 [0.01]; P < .001; oral reading: estimate [SE], -0.02 [0.01]; P < .001), episodic memory (picture sequence: estimate [SE], -0.02 [0.01]; P = .008), and working memory (dimensional card sort: estimate [SE], -0.02 [0.01]; P = .001; flanker inhibitory control: estimate [SE], -0.01 [0.01]; P = .01; list sorting: estimate [SE], -0.03 [0.01]; P < .001) and hippocampal regions being associated with NP associations with language (picture vocabulary: estimate [SE], -0.01 [0.004]; P < .001) and episodic memory (picture sequence: estimate [SE], -0.01 [0.004]; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this study, NP accounted for unique variance in cognitive function and prefrontal and right hippocampal brain volume. These findings demonstrate the importance of including broader environmental influences when conceptualizing early life adversity.

Sex-linked neurofunctional basis of psychological resilience in late adolescence: a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study

Psychological resilience refers to the ability to adapt effectively in the face of adversity, which is closely related to an individual's psychological and physical health and well-being. Although previous behavioural studies have shown sex differences in psychological resilience, little is known about the neural basis of sex differences in psychological resilience. Here, we measured amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) via resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the sex-linked neurofunctional basis of psychological resilience in 231 healthy adolescents. At the behavioural level, we replicated previous findings indicating that males are more resilient than females. At the neural level, we found sex differences in the relationship between psychological resilience and ALFF in the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Specifically, males showed a positive correlation between psychological resilience and ALFF in the right OFC, while females showed a negative correlation in this region. The sex-specific association between psychological resilience and spontaneous brain activity might be dependent on differences in hormonal systems and brain development between male and female adolescents. Taken together, the results of our study might provide the first evidence of sex-specific neurofunctional substrates of psychological resilience in adolescents, emphasizing the vital role of sex effects in future psychological resilience-related studies.

The Moderating Role of Social Identity and Grit in the Association Between Parental Control and School Adjustment in Chinese Middle School Students

Although the proliferation of empirical research has documented the association between parental control and school adjustment, findings of this linkage are still inconclusive. Moreover, fewer efforts have been made to address this association in middle school students. Guided by an ecological framework, the current study aimed to integrate the conflicting findings into a coherent body of knowledge, paying particular attention to two research purposes: (a) to examine the association between parental control and three objective indicators of school adjustment (social competence, academic grades, and peer acceptance) and (b) to explore whether this association was moderated by individual characteristics of social identity and grit. A total of 120 Chinese middle school students (42.5% females) aged between 13 and 15 years old were recruited for this study, and research data were gathered from multiple sources. To be specific, students were asked to complete a set of self-report questionnaires concerning parental control, social identity, and grit. Meanwhile, school-related social competence was rated by head teachers; academic grades were obtained from school records; and peer acceptance was assessed by sociometric nominations. The results from hierarchical regression analyses showed that parental control was negatively associated with academic grades. Moreover, when reporting higher levels of social identity, parental control was negatively related to social competence and peer acceptance for those students with lower levels of grit. Our findings suggest that parental control can dampen middle school students' academic performance, and low levels of grit can magnify the detrimental effect of parental control on social competence and peer acceptance in middle school students who regard themselves as closely connected to social groups.

Neurostructural correlates of optimism: Gray matter density in the putamen predicts dispositional optimism in late adolescence

Dispositional optimism reflects one's generalized positive expectancies for future outcomes and plays a crucial role in personal developmental outcomes and health (e.g., counteracting related mental disorders such as depression and anxiety). Increasing evidence has suggested that extraversion is an important personality factor contributing to dispositional optimism. However, less is known about the association between dispositional optimism and brain structure and the role of extraversion in this association. Here, we examined these issues in 231 healthy high school students aged 16 to 20 years (110 males, mean age = 18.48 years, SD = 0.54) by estimating regional gray matter density (rGMD) using a voxel-based morphometry method via structural magnetic resonance imaging. Whole-brain regression analyses revealed a significant positive correlation between dispositional optimism and the rGMD of the bilateral putamen after adjusting for age, sex, family socioeconomic status (SES), general intelligence, and total gray matter volume (TGMV). Moreover, prediction analyses using fourfold balanced cross-validation combined with linear regression confirmed a significant connection between dispositional optimism and putamen density after adjusting for age, sex, and family SES. More importantly, subsequent mediation analysis showed that extraversion may account for the association between putamen density and dispositional optimism after adjusting for age, sex, family SES, general intelligence, TGMV, and the other four Big Five personality traits. Taken together, the current study provides new evidence regarding the neurostructural basis underlying dispositional optimism in adolescents and underscores the importance of extraversion as an essential personality factor for dispositional optimism acquisition.

Factor Structure of the 10-Item Perceived Stress Scale and Measurement Invariance Across Genders Among Chinese Adolescents

BACKGROUND

Chinese adolescents encounter a lot of stressors, such as academic burden and parental pressure. However, little is known about their perception of stress. The 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) is a widely used instrument to measure individuals' appraisal of global stress in academic research and clinical practice. The current study aimed to evaluate the best-fit factor structure model of the PSS-10 and the measurement invariance across genders in Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

A total of 1,574 Chinese senior high school students completed the PSS-10 (mean age = 15.26 ± 0.56 years, female = 54%). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to determine the factor structure of the PSS-10. Multigroup CFA was carried out to test the measurement invariance of the PSS-10 across genders. A subsample (N = 1,060) answered additional questionnaires measuring stressful life events, anxiety, and depression to examine the convergent and concurrent validity of the PSS-10.

RESULTS

The two-factor model was supported [i.e., χ2 (34) = 332.224, p < 0.001; non-normal fit index (NNFI) = 0.901, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.925, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.075, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = 0.051]. Importantly, the model exhibited strong measurement invariance across female and male groups. Furthermore, the PSS-10 had adequate convergent validity for stressful life events (number: r = 0.13, p < 0.001; impact: r = 0.23, p < 0.001) and could explain incremental variance in predicting anxiety (ΔR 2 = 0.13, β = 0.38, p < 0.001) and depression (ΔR 2 = 0.16, β = 0.41, p < 0.001), suggesting excellent concurrent validity.

CONCLUSION

A two-factor model best fits the structure of PSS-10 among Chinese adolescents, with strong measurement invariance between gender groups, demonstrating its validity for assessing perceived stress among Chinese adolescents.

Longitudinal Invariance Analysis of the Short Grit Scale in Chinese Young Adults

The current study examined the longitudinal measurement invariance (LMI) of the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) in a survey sample of Chinese young adults (N = 233, 48.9% male, mean age = 19.36 years, SD = 0.90 years) who completed the Grit-S twice over a 3-month interval. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the LMI of the Grit-S across time. Results showed that the Grit-S has strict longitudinal invariance (i.e., equality of factor patterns, factor loadings, item intercepts, and item uniqueness for all items) over time. Additionally, the internal consistency indices of the Grit-S were acceptable across time, the stability coefficients over time were moderate, and latent factor means did not differ significantly across time. In sum, these findings suggest that the Grit-S has satisfactory longitudinal properties when used in Chinese young adults.

Academic and clinical performance among nursing students: What's grit go to do with it?

BACKGROUND

Nursing is both a science and an art and requires students to develop sound scientific foundations for artful application. The at times binary nature of how the way in which the knowledge and skills of nursing are delivered in higher education can be difficult for students to comprehend initially and synchronise for practice and can lead to feelings of being overwhelmed, withdrawal or failure. Understanding what influences student performance in bachelor level nursing studies is imperative so educators can develop programs that straddle the art and science conundrum and lead to graduate success. Grit is a non-cognitive trait, a drive that keeps an individual on task through difficult circumstances for sustained periods of time. Grit might well represent a key factor in our understanding of why one student succeeds while another withdraws.

OBJECTIVES

To examine measures of grit in the context of demographic characteristics of nursing students and their impact on student self-perceived academic and clinical performance.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional design.

SETTING

A single School of Nursing at a multi-campus, regional, peri-urban Australian University.

PARTICIPANTS

All nursing students (n = 2349) studying a three-year bachelor of nursing degree were invited to participate.

METHODS

Data were collected using a questionnaire that included several demographic items, questions relating to the student's perceived level of academic and clinical performance, and the eight-item Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) used to measure trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals.

RESULTS

Students, regardless of their year of study or any other demographic factor, showed grit was the only significant predictor of clinical and academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The strength between grit and perceived performance both academically and clinically, makes grit a valuable factor for development in students as a vehicle for success in nursing programs of study. This paper culminates in suggestions for creative approaches to grit development.

The tenacious brain: How the anterior mid-cingulate contributes to achieving goals

Tenacity-persistence in the face of challenge-has received increasing attention, particularly because it contributes to better academic achievement, career opportunities and health outcomes. We review evidence from non-human primate neuroanatomy and structural and functional neuroimaging in humans suggesting that the anterior mid cingulate cortex (aMCC) is an important network hub in the brain that performs the cost/benefit computations necessary for tenacity. Specifically, we propose that its position as a structural and functional hub allows the aMCC to integrate signals from diverse brain systems to predict energy requirements that are needed for attention allocation, encoding of new information, and physical movement, all in the service of goal attainment. We review and integrate research findings from studies of attention, reward, memory, affect, multimodal sensory integration, and motor control to support this hypothesis. We close by discussing the implications of our framework for educational achievement, exercise and eating disorders, successful aging, and neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression and dementia.

The relationship among resting-state brain activity and connectivity, agreeableness and displaced aggression: Two possible mediation models

BACKGROUND

Displaced aggression is a specific form of attack prompted by rumination on anger experiences and revenge thought which might lead to expression of anger on innocent people. There is sufficient evidence demonstrating the potential role of agreeableness in reducing displaced aggression in theory. However, little is known about the neural basis of displaced aggression and how agreeableness and the underlying neural mechanisms link to displaced aggression.

METHODS

In this investigation, we examined these issues on 123 college students by assessing resting-state brain activity (i.e. amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation, ALFF) and connectivity (i.e. resting-state functional connectivity, RSFC).

RESULTS

Whole-brain correlation analysis revealed that a higher level of displaced aggression was linked with decreased ALFF in the left dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and decreased RSFC between the left dmPFC and left ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). Mediation analysis further revealed that left dmPFC activity and the left dmPFC-vmPFC connectivity mediated the relationship between agreeableness and displaced aggression, as well as agreeableness mediated the relation between left dmPFC activity and the left dmPFC-vmPFC connectivity and displaced aggression.

LIMITATIONS

Only ALFF and RSFC were used as indicators of brain function in this study. The two mediation models need to be further tested by longitudinal design or experimental methods in further studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggested that dmPFC and vmPFC might be the functional neural markers of displaced aggression and provided two possible mediation models regarding the relationship among the resting-state brain activity and connectivity, agreeableness and displaced aggression.

Understanding stone tool-making skill acquisition: Experimental methods and evolutionary implications

Despite its theoretical importance, the process of stone tool-making skill acquisition remains understudied and poorly understood. The challenges and costs of skill learning constitute an oft-neglected factor in the evaluation of alternative adaptive strategies and a potential source of bias in cultural transmission. Similarly, theory and data indicate that the most salient neural and cognitive demands of stone tool-making should occur during learning rather than expert performance. Unfortunately, the behavioral complexity and extensive learning requirements that make stone knapping skill acquisition an interesting object of study are the very features that make it so challenging to investigate experimentally. Here we present results from a multidisciplinary study of Late Acheulean handaxe-making skill acquisition involving twenty-six naïve participants and up to 90 hours training over several months, accompanied by a battery of psychometric, behavioral, and neuroimaging assessments. In this initial report, we derive a robust quantitative skill metric for the experimental handaxes using machine learning algorithms, reconstruct a group-level learning curve, and explore sources of individual variation in learning outcomes. Results identify particular cognitive targets of selection on the efficiency or reliability of tool-making skill acquisition, quantify learning costs, highlight the likely importance of social support, motivation, persistence, and self-control in knapping skill acquisition, and illustrate methods for reliably reconstructing ancient learning processes from archaeological evidence.

Motivation in the Service of Allostasis: The Role of anterior Mid Cingulate Cortex

In this article, we suggest that motivation serves to anticipate the energy of the body and meet those needs before they arise, called allostasis. We describe motivation as the output of energy computations that include estimates about future energy/metabolic needs and the value of effort required for potential behaviors (i.e., whether the cost of effort is worthwhile). We bring neuroscience evidence to bear to support this hypothesis. We outline a system of brain networks that have been shown to be important for motivation, and focus in on one hub in this network, the anterior mid-cingulate cortex (aMCC), and discuss its importance for establishing motivation in the service of allostasis. We present evidence that the aMCC, positioned at the intersection of multiple brain networks, is wired to integrate signals relating to allostasis with its sensory consequences, termed interoception, as well as with cognitive control processes, sensory and motor functions. This integration guides the nervous system towards the optimal effort required to achieve a desired goal. Across a variety of task domains, we discuss the role of aMCC in motivation, including a) processing of the value of prior and expected rewards, b) assessment of energetic costs in the brain and the body, c) selectively learning and encoding prediction errors (unexpected changes) that are relevant for allostasis, d) computations for monitoring of internal states of the body and e) modulating the internal state of the body to prepare for action. Finally, we discuss the link between individual differences in aMCC processing and variation in two extreme ends of the range of motivational states, tenacity and apathy.

All That Glitters Is Not Grit: Three Studies of Grit in University Students

The present research looked at the importance of the concept of grit in University students based on a mixed-method approach. Study 1 comprised 440 University students. All were given the Grit Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, the short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale, the Office of National Statistics Well-being items and the Self-Control Scale. Levels of grit were significantly higher in female students, older students and postgraduates. Grit correlated highest with self-control. Study 2 looked at 340 University students. In addition to measuring self-control, mental well-being and grit, measures of resilience and mindsets were also added. A construct validity test of the Grit Scale showed that high grit scorers had significantly higher levels of self-control and mental well-being, were more resilient and were more likely to have a more growth oriented mindset. Grit varies with age and is most closely associated with the concept of self-control. The third study was a qualitative investigation with 10 successful graduates. Semi-structured interviews were coded using thematic analysis. Three broad themes emerged. The first, Passion and Perseverance, included themes of having short and long terms goals, resilience, dedication, and endurance. The second, Self-Control, included time management, self-awareness, prioritizing tasks and knowing strengths and weaknesses. The third theme identified was Positive Mindsets. This included having a positive attitude toward learning, the importance of feedback and constructive criticism and that success is not materialistic. The qualitative research has helped "unpack" concepts from the grit research and may enable University tutors to guide students better. Though these studies were only conducted in one English University, they have been stepping stones in our quest to discover what are the most important factors in determining student academic success? The development and piloting of our new Uni-Stride Scale, is the next step in this process.

The neurocognitive correlates of academic diligence in adolescent girls

Academic diligence is the ability to regulate behavior in the service of goals, and a predictor of educational attainment. Here we combined behavioral, structural MRI, functional MRI and connectivity data to investigate the neurocognitive correlates of diligence. We assessed whether individual differences in diligence are related to the interplay between frontal control and striatal reward systems, as predicted by the dual-systems hypothesis of adolescent development. We obtained behavioral measures of diligence from 40 adolescent girls (aged 14-15 years) using the Academic Diligence Task. We collected structural imaging data for each participant, as well as functional imaging data during an emotional go-no-go self-control task. As predicted by the dual-systems hypothesis, we found that inferior frontal activation and gyrification correlated with academic diligence. However, neither striatal activation nor structure, nor fronto-striatal connectivity, showed clear associations with diligence. Instead, we found prominent activation of temporal areas during the go-no-go task. This suggests that academic diligence is associated with an extended network of brain regions.

The optimistic brain: Trait optimism mediates the influence of resting-state brain activity and connectivity on anxiety in late adolescence

As a hot research topic in the field of psychology and psychiatry, trait optimism reflects the tendency to expect positive outcomes in the future. Consistent evidence has demonstrated the role of trait optimism in reducing anxiety among different populations. However, less is known about the neural bases of trait optimism and the underlying mechanisms for how trait optimism protects against anxiety in the healthy brain. In this investigation, we examined these issues in 231 healthy adolescent students by assessing resting-state brain activity (i.e., fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations, fALFF) and connectivity (i.e., resting-state functional connectivity, RSFC). Whole-brain correlation analyses revealed that higher levels of trait optimism were linked with decreased fALFF in the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and increased RSFC between the right OFC and left supplementary motor cortex (SMC). Mediation analyses further showed that trait optimism mediated the influence of the right OFC activity and the OFC-SMC connectivity on anxiety. Our results remained significant even after excluding the impact of head motion, positive and negative affect and depression. Taken together, this study reveals that fALFF and RSFC are functional neural markers of trait optimism and provides a brain-personality-symptom pathway for protection against anxiety in which fALFF and RSFC affect anxiety through trait optimism.

Neuroanatomical correlates of grit: Growth mindset mediates the association between gray matter structure and trait grit in late adolescence

There is a long-standing interest in exploring the factors related to student achievement. As a newly explored personality trait, grit is defined as a person's tendency to pursue long-term goals with continual perseverance and passion, and grit plays a critical role in student achievement. Increasing evidence has shown that growth mindset, the belief that one's basic abilities are malleable and can be developed through effort, is a potential factor for cultivating grit. However, less is known about the association between grit and the brain and the role of growth mindset in this association. Here, we utilized voxel-based morphometry to examine the neuroanatomical correlates of grit in 231 healthy adolescent students by performing structural magnetic resonance imaging. The whole-brain regression analyses revealed that the regional gray matter volume (rGMV) in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) negatively predicted grit. In contrast, the rGMV in the right putamen positively predicted grit. Furthermore, mediating analyses suggested that growth mindset served as a mediator in the association between left DLPFC volume and grit. Our results persisted even after controlling for the influences of self-control and delayed gratification. Overall, our study presents novel evidence for the neuroanatomical basis of grit and highlights that growth mindset might play an essential role in cultivating a student's grit level.

Delay discounting is associated with the fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations and resting-state functional connectivity in late adolescence

As a component of self-regulation, delay discounting (DD) refers to an individual’s tendency to prefer smaller-but-sooner rewards over larger-but-later rewards and plays an essential role in many aspects of human behavior. Although numerous studies have examined the neural underpinnings of DD in adults, there are far fewer studies focusing on the neurobiological correlates underlying DD in adolescents. Here, we investigated the associations between individual differences in DD and the fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF) and resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) in 228 high school students using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (RS-fMRI). At the regional level, we found an association between higher DD and greater fALFF in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), which is involved in conflict monitoring and strategy adaptation. At the connectivity level, DD was positively correlated with the RSFC between the dACC and the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), a critical functional circuit in the cognitive control network. Furthermore, these effects persisted even after adjusting for the influences of general intelligence and trait impulsivity. Overall, this study reveals the fALFF and RSFC as the functional brain basis of DD in late adolescents, aiding to strengthen and corroborate our understanding of the neural underpinnings of DD.