Varieties of Self Disorder: A Bio-Pheno-Social Model of Schizophrenia

Explicit and implicit sense of agency in depersonalisation experiences

The sense of agency, the feeling of controlling one's bodily actions and the world is altered in Depersonalisation (DP), a condition that makes people feel detached from one's self and body. To investigate the link between depersonalisation and both implicit and explicit sense of agency, an online study was conducted using the influential Intentional Binding paradigm in a sample of non-clinical DP participants. The results did not reveal significant differences between individuals with low and high occurrences of DP experiences on the implicit and explicit sense of agency. However, participants with high occurrences of DP experiences showed a more time-sensitive explicit sense of agency and greater temporal distortions for short intervals in the absence of self-initiated motion. These results suggest that there is a discrepancy between implicit and explicit sense of agency in people with high levels of depersonalisation. Altogether, these findings call for further investigations of the key role of time perception on altered sense of self and agency in both non-clinical and clinical populations, to disentangle the mechanisms associated with the explicit and implicit sense of agency.

Global neural self-disturbance in schizophrenia: A systematic fMRI review

There is a general consensus that schizophrenia (SZ) is characterized by major changes in the sense of self. Phenomenological studies suggest that these changes in the sense of self stem from a basic disturbance, hence the term 'basic self-disturbance'. While imaging studies demonstrate changes in various regions during self-focused tasks, the exact neural correlates of such basic self-disturbances remain unclear. If the self-disturbance is indeed basic and thereby underlies all other symptoms, one would expect it to be related to more global rather than local changes in the brain. Testing this hypothesis, we conducted a systematic review of fMRI studies on self in SZ. Our main findings are 1. Abnormal activity related to the self can be observed in a variety of different regions ranging from higher-order transmodal to lower-order unimodal regions, 2. These findings hold true across different tasks including self-reflection, self-referentiality, and self-agency, and 3. The global neural abnormalities related to the self in SZ correspond to all layers of the self, predominantly the mental and exteroceptive self. Such global neural disturbance of self converges well with the basic self-disturbance as described in phenomenology.

Schizophrenia, the very idea: On self-disorder, hyperreflexivity, and the diagnostic concept

The purpose of the present article is to consider schizophrenia-the very idea-from the perspective of phenomenological psychopathology, with special attention to the problematic nature of the diagnostic concept as well as to the prospect and challenges inherent in focusing on subjective experience. First, we address historical and philosophical topics relevant to the legitimacy of diagnostic categorization-in general and regarding "schizophrenia" in particular. William James's pragmatist approach to categorization is discussed. Then we offer a version of the well-known basic-self or ipseity-disturbance model (IDM) of schizophrenia, but in a significantly revised form (IDMrevised). The revised model better acknowledges the diverse and even seemingly contradictory nature of schizophrenic symptoms while, at the same time, interpreting these in a more unitary fashion via the key concept of hyperreflexivity-a form of exaggerated self-awareness that tends to undermine normal world-directedness and the stability of self-experience. Particular attention is paid to forms of exaggerated "self-presence" that are sometimes neglected yet imbue classically schizophrenic experiences involving subjectivism or quasi-solipsism and/or all-inclusive or ontological forms of paranoia. We focus on the distinctively paradoxical nature of schizophrenic symptomatology. In concluding we consider precursors in the work of Klaus Conrad, Kimura Bin and Henri Grivois. Finally we defend the concept of schizophrenia by considering its distinctive way of altering certain core aspects of the human condition itself.

Self-Disorder in Schizophrenia: A Revised View (1. Comprehensive Review-Dualities of Self- and World-Experience)

A growing body of research supports the role of self-disorders as core phenotypic features of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Self-disorders comprise various alterations of conscious experience whose theoretical understanding continues to present a challenge. The following 2 articles aim to provide further clarification of the nature of self-disorders in schizophrenia by offering a comprehensive review (article 1) and theoretical revision (article 2) of the currently most influential model of altered selfhood in schizophrenia: the basic-self-disturbance or ipseity-disorder model (IDM). This article presents a state-of-the-art overview of the current self-disturbance model and critically assesses its descriptive adequacy with respect to the clinical variability and heterogeneity of the alterations in self- and world-awareness characteristic of schizophrenia. Special attention is paid to experiences of exaggerated basic self, increased "grip" or "hold" on the world, and paradoxical combinations. The next article proposes a theoretical revision of the self-disturbance model by considering how hyperreflexivity might form the crucial common thread or generating factor that unifies the phenomenologically heterogeneous, and sometimes even contradictory features of schizophrenic self-disorders. We outline the implications of our revised model for explanatory research, therapeutic practice, and our general understanding of the abnormalities in question.

Self-Disorder in Schizophrenia: A Revised View (2. Theoretical Revision-Hyperreflexivity)

A growing body of research supports the role of self-disorders as core phenotypic features of schizophrenia-spectrum conditions. Self-disorders comprise various alterations of conscious experience whose theoretical understanding continues to present a challenge. This is the second of two articles that aim to clarify the nature of self-disorders in schizophrenia by considering the currently most influential, phenomenological model of schizophrenia: the basic-self-disturbance or ipseity-disorder model (IDM). The previous paper (article 1) presented a state-of-the-art overview of this model and critically assessed its descriptive adequacy with respect to the clinical heterogeneity and variability of the alterations in self- and world-awareness characteristic of schizophrenia. This paper (article 2) proposes a theoretical revision by considering how hyperreflexivity might form the crucial common thread or generating factor that unifies the heterogeneous, and sometimes even contradictory features of schizophrenic self-disorders. We outline implications of our revised model (IDMrevised) for explanatory research, therapeutic practice, and our general understanding of the abnormalities in question.

Clarifying and measuring the characteristics of experiences that involve a loss of self or a dissolution of its boundaries

Mystical experience, non-dual awareness, selflessness, self-transcendent experience, and ego-dissolution have become increasingly prominent constructs in meditation and psychedelic research. However, these constructs and their measures tend to be highly overlapping, imprecise, and poorly integrated with similar pathological experiences. The present study seeks to clarify the common factors involved in the characteristics of these experiences using precise distinctions across an array of experience contexts (including meditation, psychedelics, and psychopathology). Participants (N = 386) completed an online survey about an experience that involved either a dissolution of self-boundaries or a loss of selfhood. Confirmatory factor analyses resulted in 16 experience characteristics, including multiple types of changes in sense of self, co-occurring phenomenology, and cognitive and affective responses. Qualitative thematic analysis provided rich descriptions of experience characteristics. Taken together, results lead to a more specific measurement model and descriptive account of experiences involving a loss of self or self-boundary.

Remember walking in their shoes? The relation of self-referential source memory and emotion recognition

Deficits in the ability to read the emotions of others have been demonstrated in mental disorders, such as dissociation and schizophrenia, which involve a distorted sense of self. This study examined whether weakened self-referential source memory, being unable to remember whether a piece of information has been processed with reference to oneself, is linked to ineffective emotion recognition. In two samples from a college and community, we quantified the participants' ability to remember the self-generated versus non-self-generated origins of sentences they had previously read or partially generated. We also measured their ability to read others' emotions accurately when viewing photos of people in affect-charged situations. Multinomial processing tree modelling was applied to obtain a measure of self-referential source memory that was not biased by non-mnemonic factors. Our first experiment with college participants revealed a positive correlation between correctly remembering the origins of sentences and accurately recognising the emotions of others. This correlation was successfully replicated in the second experiment with community participants. The current study offers evidence of a link between self-referential source memory and emotion recognition.

The self, neuroscience and psychosis study: Testing a neurophenomenological model of the onset of psychosis

AIM

Basic self disturbance is a putative core vulnerability marker of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. The primary aims of the Self, Neuroscience and Psychosis (SNAP) study are to: (1) empirically test a previously described neurophenomenological self-disturbance model of psychosis by examining the relationship between specific clinical, neurocognitive, and neurophysiological variables in UHR patients, and (2) develop a prediction model using these neurophenomenological disturbances for persistence or deterioration of UHR symptoms at 12-month follow-up.

METHODS

SNAP is a longitudinal observational study. Participants include 400 UHR individuals, 100 clinical controls with no attenuated psychotic symptoms, and 50 healthy controls. All participants complete baseline clinical and neurocognitive assessments and electroencephalography. The UHR sample are followed up for a total of 24 months, with clinical assessment completed every 6 months.

RESULTS

This paper presents the protocol of the SNAP study, including background rationale, aims and hypotheses, design, and assessment procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

The SNAP study will test whether neurophenomenological disturbances associated with basic self-disturbance predict persistence or intensification of UHR symptomatology over a 2-year follow up period, and how specific these disturbances are to a clinical population with attenuated psychotic symptoms. This may ultimately inform clinical care and pathoaetiological models of psychosis.

Smaller anterior hippocampal subfields in the early stage of psychosis

Hippocampal volume is smaller in schizophrenia, but it is unclear when in the illness the changes appear and whether specific regions (anterior, posterior) and subfields (CA1, CA2/3, dentate gyrus, subiculum) are affected. Here, we used a high-resolution T2-weighted sequence specialized for imaging hippocampal subfields to test the hypothesis that anterior CA1 volume is lower in early psychosis. We measured subfield volumes across hippocampal regions in a group of 90 individuals in the early stage of a non-affective psychotic disorder and 70 demographically similar healthy individuals. We observed smaller volume in the anterior CA1 and dentate gyrus subfields in the early psychosis group. Our findings support models that implicate anterior CA1 and dentate gyrus subfield deficits in the mechanism of psychosis.

Aberrant Salience Inventory: A meta-analysis to investigate its psychometric properties and identify screening cutoff scores

INTRODUCTION

The Aberrant Salience Inventory (ASI) is a useful tool to measure salience abnormalities among the general population. There is strong clinical and scientific evidence that salience alteration is linked to psychosis. To the present day, no meta-analysis evaluating ASI's psychometric properties and screening potential has been published.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Embase were searched using terms including "psychosis," "schizophrenia," and "Aberrant Salience Inventory." Observational and experimental studies employing ASI on populations of non-psychotic controls and patients with psychosis were included. ASI scores and other demographic measures (age, gender, ethnicity) were extracted as outcomes. Individual patients' data (IPD) were collected. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on the IPD.

RESULTS

Eight articles were finally included in the meta-analysis. ASI scores differ significantly between psychotic and non-psychotic populations; a novel three-factor model is proposed regarding subscales structure. Theoretical positive predictive values (PPVs) and negative predictive values (NPVs) were calculated and presented together with different cutoff points depending on preselected specific populations of interest.

DISCUSSION

PPV and NPV values reached levels adequate for ASI to be considered a viable screening tool for psychosis. The factor analysis highlights the presence of a novel subscale that was named "Unveiling experiences." Implications regarding the meaning of the new factor structure are discussed, as well as ASI's potential as a screening tool.

Psychotherapy for patients with schizotypal personality disorder: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Treatment of schizotypal personality disorder is complex. Currently, there are no clear evidence-based recommendations for use of psychotherapy for individuals suffering from this mental illness, and studies are sparse. Our aim in this review is to map and describe the existing research and to answer the research question: What do we know about the use of psychotherapy for people with schizotypal personality disorder?

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review using systematic searches in the Embase, MEDLINE and PsycINFO databases. Two reviewers screened possible studies and extracted data on subject samples, type of psychotherapy, outcomes and suggested mechanisms of change. The review is based on the PRISMA checklist for scoping reviews.

RESULTS

Twenty-three papers were included, and we found a wide variety of study types, psychotherapeutic orientations and outcomes. Few studies emerged that focused solely on schizotypal personality disorder.

CONCLUSION

Psychotherapy as a treatment for schizotypal personality disorder is understudied compared with diagnoses such as schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder. Our results included two randomized controlled studies, as well as mainly smaller studies with different approaches to diagnostic criteria, psychotherapeutic orientation and outcome measures. The findings are too sparse and too diverse to make any evidence-based recommendations. We found some indications that psychotherapy may support and assist individuals with schizotypal personality disorder.

The phenomenological model of depression: from methodological challenges to clinical advancements

In this article our overall aim is to illustrate how phenomenological psychopathology can advance the clinical work on depression. To do so, we start by unfolding the current phenomenological model of depression. We argue that this model faces a methodological challenge, which we define as 'the challenge of patho-description'. Mental disorders, such as depression, influence how people are able to access and describe their own experiences. This becomes a challenge for phenomenological psychopathology since its methodology is based on people's ability to describe their own experiences. To deal with this challenge, in the case of depression, we turn to the framework of phenomenological interview. We interview 12 participants (7 women, 5 men, age-range from 29 to 57 years) with moderate and severe depression. From the interview results, we show how phenomenological interview deals with the challenge of patho-description and how patho-description in depression conceals experiential nuances. We unfold these nuances and describe how people with depression pre-reflectively experience a variety of feelings, a type of agency, overly positive self-image, and relations in a hyper-social way. These descriptive nuances not only strengthen the phenomenological model of depression, but they also help advance the clinical work on depression. We firstly illustrate how the descriptive nuances can be added to current manuals and rating scales to advance diagnostic work. Secondly, we illustrate how phenomenological, 'bottom-up', and embodied approaches function at the pre-reflective level of experience, and that further effort at this level can help advance therapy for depression.

The (In)flexible self: Psychopathology, mindfulness, and neuroscience

Clinical and neuroscientific evidence indicates that transdiagnostic processes contribute to the generation and maintenance of psychopathological symptoms and disorders. Rigidity (inflexibility) appears a core feature of most transdiagnostic pathological processes. Decreasing rigidity may prove important to restore and maintain mental health. One of the primary domains in which rigidity and flexibility plays a role concerns the self. We adopt the pattern theory of self (PTS) for a working definition of self. This incorporates the pluralist view on self as constituted by multiple aspects or processes, understood to constitute a self-pattern, i.e. processes organized in non-linear dynamical relations across a number of time scales. The use of mindfulness meditation in the format of Mindfulness Based Interventions (MBIs) has been developed over four decades in Clinical Psychology. MBIs are promising as evidence-based treatments, shown to be equivalent to gold-standard treatments and superior to specific active controls in several randomized controlled trials. Notably, MBIs have been shown to target transdiagnostic symptoms. Given the hypothesized central role of rigid, habitual self-patterns in psychopathology, PTS offers a useful frame to understand how mindfulness may be beneficial in decreasing inflexibility. We discuss the evidence that mindfulness can alter the psychological and behavioral expression of individual aspects of the self-pattern, as well as favour change in the self-pattern as a whole gestalt. We discuss neuroscientific research on how the phenomenology of the self (pattern) is reflected in associated cortical networks and meditation-related alterations in cortical networks. Creating a synergy between these two aspects can increase understanding of psychopathological processes and improve diagnostic and therapeutic options.

Mental time travel for self and others in individuals with a high level of schizotypy

Mental time travel (MTT) is the ability to project oneself to the past or future through mental simulation. Moreover, MTT can involve self-related or other-related information. This study aimed to compare MTT in individuals with high levels of schizotypy and that in their counterparts with low levels of schizotypy. Participants with high (n = 37) and low (n = 37) levels of schizotypy completed an MTT task with four conditions [2 (Condition: self vs. other) × 2 (Time orientation: past vs. future)]. They were required to recall past events that had happened to themselves or to a non-intimate person, and to imagine possible future events that might happen to themselves or to a non-intimate person, related to cue words. Outcome measures included specificity, vividness, sense of experience, emotional valence, emotional intensity, proportion of first-person visual perspective in events, and difficulty in event generation. A 2 (Group: high vs. low levels of schizotypy) × 2 (Condition) × 2 (Time orientation) mixed analysis of variance was conducted on each index. Results showed that self-related MTT was more specific than other-related MTT in low levels of schizotypy participants but not in high levels of schizotypy participants. Participants with a high level of schizotypy reported fewer specific events, and reported events with lower vividness and positive emotion than did those with a low level of schizotypy. Self-related MTT showed higher levels of phenomenological characteristics than did other-related MTT. In conclusion, individuals with a high level of schizotypy have altered MTT, and cannot benefit from the self-advantage effect on the specificity of MTT.

Selfhood and alterity: schizophrenic experience between Blankenburg and Tatossian

This paper presents a critical comparison between two phenomenological accounts of schizophrenic experience: on the one side, Blankenburg's seminal work on the basal disturbance (Grundstörung) of schizophrenia as loss of natural self-evidence (Natürlichen Selbstverständlichkeit); on the other side, Tatossian's insight, briefly elaborated in a lecture presented in Heidelberg in 1994 and largely forgotten by the relevant literature. Whereas the former mainly develops an intersubjective reading of schizophrenia, the latter suggests an intrasubjective understanding. Indeed, for Blankenburg, schizophrenic experience can be broadly characterized as a progressive impoverishment of our rootedness in the social world, leading to derealization and depersonalization. In this respect, Tatossian takes schizophrenic autism not as the effect of a loss of originary sociality but as the result of a deeper disproportion. For Tatossian, schizophrenia is characterized, ultimately, by a basic self-disorder or alteration that consists in the breakdown of the twofold dimension of transcendental subjectivity, encompassing both constituting consciousness and phenomenologizing onlooker. In this sense, his interpretation of schizophrenic disorders is closer to the ipseity-disturbance model. I show that while Blankenburg and Tatossian share a dialectical understanding of schizophrenia by pointing to basic modifications of the "transcendental organization" of experience, their divergence originates from a different reading of the phenomenological epoché. Except for the clinical perspective, the point of contention between Blankenburg and Tatossian seems to concern their use of internal resources of the Husserlian phenomenology. By presenting the philosophical presuppositions of their analyses, I discuss two key figures of phenomenological psychopathology by showing how their debate on the meaning of schizophrenic experience can be reframed by looking at the relationship between transcendental subjectivity and intersubjectivity in Husserl's phenomenology.

The Self-Simulational Theory of temporal extension

Subjective experience is experience in time. Unfolding in a continuous river of moments, our experience, however, consists not only in the changing phenomenological content per se but, further, in additional retrodiction and prospection of the moments that immediately preceded and followed it. It is in this way that William James's 'specious present' presents itself as extending between the past and future. While the phenomenology of temporality always happens, in normal waking states, to someone, and the notions of self-representation and temporal experience have continuously been associated with each other, there has not yet been an explicit account of their relationship. In this paper, the emergence of the subjective experience of temporal extension will be conceived of as arising out of a difference-relation between counterfactual and actual self-representations. After presenting the proposed relationship on both a conceptual level and a formalized and neuronally realistic level of description using information theory, convergent empirical evidence from general findings about temporal experience and inference, altered states of consciousness, and mental illness is examined. The Self-Simulational Theory of temporal extension is able to explain systematic variations in the subjectively experienced length of the temporal Now across numerous domains and holds potentially wide implications for the neuroscience of consciousness, as well as for a deeper understanding of different forms of mental illness.

Self-disorder explained: Yasunaga's "Phantom Space Theory" on schizophrenia

The present article revisits the theoretical model of schizophrenia by Hiroshi YASUNAGA (1929-2011). Yasunaga restated ego disturbance in schizophrenia as the "Pattern Reversal" between selfhood and otherness, based on British philosopher Wauchope's concept of "pattern." This concept is meant as asymmetrical relatedness (A/B) within a pair of concepts, such as life and death, quality and quantity, and self and other, prioritizing the former (A side) over the latter (B side). When applied to the pair of self and other, the pattern is vital for human experiences, and its disruption fundamentally alters every lived experience. Subsequently, Yasunaga extended the theory of pattern and invented his original "Phantom Space Theory," in which he postulated "Phantom Space," an experiential space that constitutes system a (A-side-led and consciously determined distance) and system a' (B-side-dominated and extra-consciously given distance). He then constructed a kind of neural system model composed of systems a and a', and thereby schematically presented a novel viewpoint on experiences of self and the outside world. The theory further illustrated how the hypothesized imbalance (Phantom Space shrinkage or diminished elasticity of system a') causes symptoms of schizophrenia, such as ego disturbances, auditory hallucinations, and other unspecific symptoms. This article then examines the clinical and theoretical implications of Yasunaga's psychiatric works. Phantom Space Theory is a non-stigmatizing account of schizophrenia because it does not presuppose personal or existential causes of psychosis. The relationship between Phantom Space Theory and dual-process theory is also explored.

Towards a Neurophenomenological Understanding of Self-Disorder in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Anatomical, Physiological, and Neurocognitive Findings

The concept of anomalous self-experience, also termed Self-Disorder, has attracted both clinical and research interest, as empirical studies suggest such experiences specifically aggregate in and are a core feature of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. A comprehensive neurophenomenological understanding of Self-Disorder may improve diagnostic and therapeutic practice. This systematic review aims to evaluate anatomical, physiological, and neurocognitive correlates of Self-Disorder (SD), considered a core feature of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders (SSDs), towards developing a neurophenomenological understanding. A search of the PubMed database retrieved 285 articles, which were evaluated for inclusion using PRISMA guidelines. Non-experimental studies, studies with no validated measure of Self-Disorder, or those with no physiological variable were excluded. In total, 21 articles were included in the review. Findings may be interpreted in the context of triple-network theory and support a core dysfunction of signal integration within two anatomical components of the Salience Network (SN), the anterior insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, which may mediate connectivity across both the Default Mode Network (DMN) and Fronto-Parietal Network (FPN). We propose a theoretical Triple-Network Model of Self-Disorder characterized by increased connectivity between the Salience Network (SN) and the DMN, increased connectivity between the SN and FPN, decreased connectivity between the DMN and FPN, and increased connectivity within both the DMN and FPN. We go on to describe translational opportunities for clinical practice and provide suggestions for future research.

Thalamo-cortical circuits during sensory attenuation in emerging psychosis: a combined magnetoencephalography and dynamic causal modelling study

Evidence suggests that schizophrenia (ScZ) involves impairments in sensory attenuation. It is currently unclear, however, whether such deficits are present during early-stage psychosis as well as the underlying network and the potential as a biomarker. To address these questions, Magnetoencephalography (MEG) was used in combination with computational modeling to examine M100 responses that involved a "passive" condition during which tones were binaurally presented, while in an "active" condition participants were asked to generate a tone via a button press. MEG data were obtained from 109 clinical high-risk for psychosis (CHR-P) participants, 23 people with a first-episode psychosis (FEP), and 48 healthy controls (HC). M100 responses at sensor and source level in the left and right thalamus (THA), Heschl's gyrus (HES), superior temporal gyrus (STG) and right inferior parietal cortex (IPL) were examined and dynamic causal modeling (DCM) was performed. Furthermore, the relationship between sensory attenuation and persistence of attenuated psychotic symptoms (APS) and transition to psychosis was investigated in CHR-P participants. Sensory attenuation was impaired in left HES, left STG and left THA in FEP patients, while in the CHR-P group deficits were observed only in right HES. DCM results revealed that CHR-P participants showed reduced top-down modulation from the right IPL to the right HES. Importantly, deficits in sensory attenuation did not predict clinical outcomes in the CHR-P group. Our results show that early-stage psychosis involves impaired sensory attenuation in auditory and thalamic regions but may not predict clinical outcomes in CHR-P participants.

A seven-year longitudinal study of the association between neurocognitive function and basic self-disorders in schizophrenia

Introduction

Basic self-disorders (SDs) and neurocognitive impairments are fundamental trait-like aspects of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. There has been little research on the association between SDs and neurocognitive impairments in schizophrenia, and no longitudinal studies have investigated if they are related. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between SDs and neurocognitive function in a follow-up study of patients with schizophrenia.

Methods

SDs and neurocognition were examined in 35 patients with schizophrenia during their first treatment and 7 years later (mean 7.1, SD 0.42). SDs were examined with the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) instrument. The neurocognitive examination included assessments of psychomotor speed, executive- and memory functions.

Results

Poorer executive functions at baseline were significantly associated with more SDs 7 years later and smaller reductions in SDs over time. There were no significant associations between other neurocognitive functions and SDs.

Discussion

Executive functions are important for self-regulation, and impairments in these functions in everyday life may have an impact on the development and/or persistence of SDs.

Body transfer illusions in the schizophrenia spectrum: a systematic review

Schizophrenia has been viewed as a disorder of the self. Accordingly, the question arises if and how senses of ownership and agency are impaired in schizophrenia. To address this question, several body transfer illusions (BTIs) have been investigated in schizophrenia patients and other schizophrenia spectrum (SCZ-S) populations. The objective of the study was to systematically review the current evidence from BTIs in the SCZ-S. A systematic literature search in PubMed and CENTRAL (search date: February 12, 2022) was conducted on BTI studies carried out in SCZ-S populations. Studies were included if they were published in English after peer review, reported original research data, related to the SCZ-S, and used a BTI as its study method. Conference papers, study protocols, and reviews were excluded. For each included BTI study, various study characteristics and outcomes were retrieved, and a risk-of-bias score was calculated based on six study quality criteria. K = 40 studies were identified, of which k = 20 studies met the eligibility criteria. For BTI paradigms using visuotactile stimulation, most studies found elevated sense of ownership ratings in SCZ-S populations compared to healthy controls (HC). Implicit illusion measures (e.g., proprioceptive drift), in turn, did not generally indicate elevated embodiment levels in SCZ-S populations. Likewise, no consistent group differences emerged between SCZ-S populations and HC with respect to BTI paradigms using visuomotor stimulation. Furthermore, BTI vividness was found to correlate significantly with core symptoms of schizophrenia and various subclinical characteristics related to the SCZ-S. In line with the self-disturbance hypothesis, SCZ-S populations appear to be affected by aberrations in bodily self-awareness. Review registration: PROSPERO (identifier: CRD42022287960).

Disturbance of Ecological Self and Impairment of Affordance Perception

Affordance, a radical concept James Gibson introduced in the 1970s, remains controversial today. Defined as environmental properties taken with reference to an animal's anatomy and action capabilities, affordances are opportunities for action the environment offers. By perceiving affordances, organisms hold meaningful relationships with their surroundings. Affordance is not just a theoretical concept but, as the embodiment of meanings and values, has serious psychological implications. We contend that the lack of these meanings and values underlies the irrational behavior seen in patients with self disorders such as schizophrenia. We reason that it is by perceiving affordances that individuals keep in touch with their surroundings and stay mentally healthy. Using contrapositive reasoning, the reverse could also be true. That is, when individuals experience difficulty maintaining meaningful relations with their surroundings and suffer from mental health problems, we might anticipate that their affordance detection systems are impaired. In two studies conducted in our laboratory, patients with schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease were shown to have impaired capacity to perceive affordances, a result qualifying as contra-positive evidence corroborating the affordance concept. In addition, our results provide support for accepting contra-positive evidence as a complementary tool to positive evidence for empirically validating concepts such as affordance and meaning.

'Regarding the scientific viewpoint in psychiatry', lecture by Carl Wernicke (1880)

In 1880 Carl Wernicke gave this plenary lecture at an annual meeting of German physicians and natural scientists. He used principles from his 1874 aphasia monograph to build a neural model of mental illness. He proposed that the brain keeps a record of experiences in distinct areas of the sensory and motor cortices in the form of memory images, which allows for recognition of objects and the planning of motor acts. He conjectured that imperfections, partial defects and complete loss of such memory images lead, respectively, to mild, moderate and severe forms of psychopathology in sensory and motor realms. The lecture is an early presentation of Wernicke's system of psychiatry. Several of his concepts have remained relevant in contemporary neuroscience.

Aberrant Salience and Disorganized Symptoms as Mediators of Psychosis

Introduction

Ideas of reference (IR) are frequent in psychopathology, mainly in psychotic disorders. The frequency of IR and preoccupation about them are related to the psychotic dimension, and to a lesser extent, to negative or emotional disorganized dimensions. Aberrant salience (AS), has been proposed as an indicator of the onset of psychosis, particularly of schizophrenia. This study analyzed the mediating role of AS, disorganized symptoms and preoccupation about IR in the relationship between IR and the psychotic dimension.

Method

The sample consisted of 330 participants (116 university students and 214 clinically active patients), 62.4% of whom were women aged 18-79. The Referential Thinking Scale, the Aberrant Salience Inventory, and the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale were administered.

Results

Evidence of a partial mediation model showed that the relationships between IR and the psychotic dimension were mediated jointly by AS and the disorganized dimension, and preoccupation about IR no longer had a role. This relationship was significantly influenced by participant age. The variables in the model explained 54.16% of the variance.

Conclusion

The model proposed enabled a set of vulnerabilities (unusual thought content) to be predicted that could lead to a high-risk general pathological state and proneness to psychosis in particular. These findings are discussed with regard to early detection and prevention of psychosis.

Sex and gender associations with indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise in schizophrenia spectrum disorders

BACKGROUND

It has been proposed that sex and gender differences described in schizophrenia can be explained from a neurodevelopmental perspective.

AIM

In this study, we examined the associations of biological sex and gender role endorsement with putative indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise.

METHODS

We used the Bem Sex Role Inventory to calculate masculinity scores in 77 patients with a first episode of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, and selected the following indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise: family history of schizophrenia, obstetric complications, premorbid functioning, neurological soft signs, and cognitive function. Secondary objectives included the moderating effects of age of onset of illness, substance use and negative symptoms on these associations.

RESULTS

There were no significant sex differences across any of the indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise. However, lower masculinity scores correlated significantly with poorer premorbid adjustment, sensory integration deficits and worse overall cognitive performance. Stepwise linear regression identified poorer premorbid adjustment in early adolescence and lower verbal learning scores as independent predictors of lower masculinity scores. In contrast to sex, gender showed several associations with indicators of neurodevelopmental compromise.

CONCLUSIONS

Lower masculinity scores may represent part of a phenotype for a neurodevelopmental anomaly that places some individuals on a pathway to schizophrenia.

Development and validation of a scale of self-alienation-related attributes for the early diagnosis of schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

The onset of schizophrenia is often preceded by a prodromal phase. However, it is difficult to predict the future transition to schizophrenia from the prodromal symptoms. Based on the diagnostic significance of Schneider's first rank symptoms (FRS), especially those representing "ego disorders (Ichstörungen)", we developed a scale of self-alienation-related attributes (Self-A) to assess the psychological characteristics associated with ego disorders for the early diagnosis of schizophrenia.

METHODS

In total, 153 schizophrenia (Sz) patients, 83 at-risk mental state (ARMS) subjects, and 154 healthy control (HC) subjects participated in this study. The Self-A scale was constructed by items from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) based on the differences between schizophrenia patients with and without FRS representing ego-disorders designated as "self-alienation symptoms". The Self-A scale was tested for its reliability and validity in a different sample of schizophrenia patients, and was then applied to different cohorts including first-episode schizophrenia (FES) patients, ARMS individuals, and HC subjects.

RESULTS

The Self-A consisting of 27 items exhibited good internal consistency reliability. The validity was well demonstrated by the high correlation of the Self-A scores with the self-alienation symptom scores. The ARMS and FES groups had higher Self-A scores than the HC group. The Self-A score in the ARMS individuals who later developed schizophrenia was higher than that in the ARMS subjects who did not, and was comparable with that in the FES group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the newly developed Self-A scale assessing the self-alienation-related attributes can improve the early diagnosis of schizophrenia.

Anomalous self-experience, body image disturbance, and eating disorder symptomatology in first-onset anorexia nervosa

PURPOSE

Anorexia nervosa-restrictive subtype (AN-R) is a life-threatening disorder relying on behavioural abnormalities, such as excessive food restriction or exercise. Such abnormalities may be secondary to an "objectified" attitude toward body image and self. This is the first study exploring the impact of anomalous self-experience (ASEs) on abnormal body image attitude and eating disorder (ED) symptomatology in individuals with AN-R at onset.

METHODS

We recruited Italian female participants, 40 with AN-R (mean age 18.3 ± 2.3) and 45 age and educational level-matched healthy controls (HCs) (mean age 18.2 ± 2.6). ASEs, body image attitude, and ED symptom severity were assessed through the examination of anomalous self-experience (EASE), the body uneasiness test (BUT), and the eating disorder examination questionnaire (EDE-Q), respectively. We conducted multivariate analysis of variance to investigate distribution patterns of variables of interest, and mediation analysis to test the effect of ASEs and body image on ED symptomatology.

RESULTS

Individuals with AN-R scored higher than HCs on the EASE (p < .0001). A direct effect of ASEs on ED severity (p = 0.009; bootstrapped LLCI = 0.067, ULCI = 0.240) was found in AN-R. After modelling the effect of abnormal body image attitude, the relationship between EASE total score and ED symptomatology was significantly mediated by BUT (p = 0.002; bootstrapped LLCI = 0.001, ULCI = 0.172).

CONCLUSION

Although the exact pathways linking AN-R to self-disorder remain to be identified, a broader exploration of transdiagnostic features in AN, including explorations of different dimensions of self-experience and intersubjectivity, may shed further light on the clinical phenomenology of the disorder.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, case-control analytic study.

Centrality and Decentration: A Model for Understanding Disturbances in the Relationship of the Self to the World in Psychosis

ABSTRACT

A considerable body of phenomenological research has described different ways in which the relationship of the person to the world in psychosis is affected. This literature, however, has lacked an accepted unifying theoretical model and means of quantitatively measuring these disturbances. To address this, the current article seeks to integrate a novel phenomenological model of psychosis offered by Henri Grivois, which is explicitly concerned with centrality or a person's sense of being the center of all things, with empirical research on the integrative model of metacognition, which allows for measurements of decentration or the degree to which persons can form integrated ideas about their place in their larger community. It is proposed that this literature may allow for a model of how psychotherapy can address centrality through the building of intersubjectivity and enhancing metacognition.

Basic self-disturbance trajectories in clinical high risk for psychosis: a one-year follow-up study

Basic self-disturbance (BSD) has been proposed as a driver of symptom development in schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs). In a one-year follow-up of 32 patients (15-30 years) at putative risk for psychosis, we investigated trajectories of BSD levels from baseline to follow-up, and associations between clinical characteristics at baseline and follow-up, including follow-up levels of BSD (assessed with the EASE). Clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis status and symptom severity were assessed with the SIPS/SOPS scales and also according to the cognitive basic symptoms high-risk criteria (COGDIS). DSM-IV diagnoses, functioning and other clinical characteristics were assessed with standard clinical instruments. Higher severity of negative symptoms and meeting COGDIS criteria at baseline were associated with higher BSD levels at follow-up. All measured at follow-up, higher BSD levels correlated with higher severity of positive, negative, disorganization and general symptoms, and with a lower level of global functioning. We found higher BSD levels at follow-up in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) at baseline (n = 5) and in SSDs at follow-up (n = 12, including nine with SPD). Mean BSD levels decreased significantly from baseline to follow-up, but individual trajectories varied considerably. Increased BSD levels were associated with higher baseline BSD levels, non-remission of positive symptoms and functional decline. Overall, the current study indicates that subgroups in the CHR population with a higher risk of non-remission or deterioration may be identified by supplementing CHR criteria with assessment of BSD and negative symptoms.

Disembodied Language in Early-Onset Schizophrenia

A recent view on schizophrenia phenomenology underlines the impaired relations between the mind and the body. An aberrant feeling of ipseity may be the real source of suffering of the patients from psychosis and impacts general symptomatology. The disturbed connection between thinking processes and environmental stimuli may lead to language disembodiment. In the study, we aimed to experimentally test the presence of disembodied language and investigate its association with symptoms of psychosis in adolescents diagnosed with early-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Assessment of language embodiment was conducted using the Zabór Verbal Task (ZVT) with concurrent linguistic and clinical assessment using the Thought, Language, and Communication Scale (TLCS) and Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale (PANSS). The study group of patients (n = 31) aged 11-18 years, with the diagnosis of schizophrenia spectrum according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) criteria, was compared with a sex- and age-matched healthy control sample (n = 31). Patients with psychosis made more errors in ZVT than healthy controls (p = 0.01) and this parameter did not improve after 6-8 weeks of standard treatment (p = 0.55). A higher number of errors in ZVT were associated with the presence of auditory hallucinations (odds ratio [OR] 1.14; 95% CI 1.02-1.26). ZVT errors coincided with perception disorders, alternatively to the TLCS scores where we observed association with abnormal beliefs. The results of these preliminary studies indicate the value of the phenomenological approach in the diagnosis of schizophrenia spectrum and suggest a potential involvement of language disembodiment in symptomatology.

Recontextualizing the subject of phenomenological psychopathology: Establishing a new paradigm case

Recently, there have been calls to develop a more contextual approach to phenomenological psychopathology-an approach that attends to the socio-cultural as well as personal and biographical factors that shape experiences of mental illness. In this Perspective article, we argue that to develop this contextual approach, phenomenological psychopathology should adopt a new paradigm case. For decades, schizophrenia has served as the paradigmatic example of a condition that can be better understood through phenomenological investigation. And recent calls for a contextual approach continue to use schizophrenia as their primary example. We argue, in contrast, that substance misuse provides a better paradigm case around which to develop a contextually sensitive phenomenological psychopathology. After providing a brief vignette and analysis of a case of substance misuse, we explain why this kind of condition requires considerable sensitivity and attention to context, better motivating the incorporation and development of new contextually sensitive approaches.

Integration and Causality in Enactive Approaches to Psychiatry

In this paper I address what has been called the integration problem in psychiatry. This problem is tied to conceptions of causality and explanatory levels in our understanding of mind. I take an interdisciplinary enactive perspective to develop a 3-fold method for exploring the dynamics of integration, based on a concept of dynamical causation and a non-hierarchical (level-free) notion of gestalt. I also consider Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as a test case.

Integrating trauma, self-disturbances, cognitive biases, and personality into a model for the risk of psychosis: a longitudinal study in a non-clinical sample

The hypothesis of the psychosis continuum enables to study the mechanisms of psychosis risk not only in clinical samples but in non-clinical as well. The aim of this longitudinal study was to investigate self-disturbances (SD), a risk factor that has attracted substantial interest over the last two decades, in combination with trauma, cognitive biases and personality, and to test whether SD are associated with subclinical positive symptoms (PS) over a 12-month follow-up period. Our study was conducted in a non-clinical sample of 139 Polish young adults (81 females, age M = 25.32, SD = 4.51) who were selected for frequent experience of subclinical PS. Participants completed self-report questionnaires for the evaluation of SD (IPASE), trauma (CECA.Q), cognitive biases (DACOBS) and personality (TCI), and were interviewed for subclinical PS (CAARMS). SD and subclinical PS were re-assessed 12 months after baseline measurement. The hypothesized model for psychosis risk was tested using path analysis. The change in SD and subclinical PS over the 12-month period was investigated with non-parametric equivalent of dependent sample t-tests. The models with self-transcendence (ST) and harm avoidance (HA) as personality variables were found to be well-fitted and explained 34% of the variance in subclinical PS at follow-up. Moreover, we found a significant reduction of SD and subclinical PS after 12 months. Our study suggests that combining trauma, cognitive biases, SD and personality traits such as ST and HA into one model can enhance our understanding of appearance as well as maintenance of subclinical PS.

Self-disorders and psychopathology: a systematic review

In foundational texts on schizophrenia, the mental disorder was constitutively linked to a specific disintegration of subjectivity (often termed a self-disorder). Apart from Scharfetter's work on ego-pathology, research on self-disorders generally faded into oblivion, and self-disorders were only rediscovered as notable psychopathological features of the schizophrenia spectrum nearly two decades ago. Subsequently, the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) scale was constructed to allow systematic assessment of non-psychotic self-disorders. This Review is the first systematic review of empirical studies on self-disorders based on the EASE or other related scales. The results consistently show that self-disorders hyper-aggregate in schizophrenia spectrum disorders but not in other mental disorders; that self-disorders are found in individuals at a clinical risk of developing psychosis; that self-disorders show a high degree of temporal stability; that self-disorders predict the later development of schizophrenia spectrum disorders; and that self-disorders correlate with the canonical dimensions of the psychopathology of schizophrenia, impaired social functioning, and suicidality. Issues with the methods of the reviewed literature are critically discussed and the role of self-disorders in clinical psychiatry and future research is outlined.

Neural Correlates of Aberrant Salience and Source Monitoring in Schizophrenia and At-Risk Mental States-A Systematic Review of fMRI Studies

Cognitive biases are an important factor contributing to the development and symptom severity of psychosis. Despite the fact that various cognitive biases are contributing to psychosis, they are rarely investigated together. In the current systematic review, we aimed at investigating specific and shared functional neural correlates of two important cognitive biases: aberrant salience and source monitoring. We conducted a systematic search of fMRI studies of said cognitive biases. Eight studies on aberrant salience and eleven studies on source monitoring were included in the review. We critically discussed behavioural and neuroimaging findings concerning cognitive biases. Various brain regions are associated with aberrant salience and source monitoring in individuals with schizophrenia and the risk of psychosis. The ventral striatum and insula contribute to aberrant salience. The medial prefrontal cortex, superior and middle temporal gyrus contribute to source monitoring. The anterior cingulate cortex and hippocampus contribute to both cognitive biases, constituting a neural overlap. Our review indicates that aberrant salience and source monitoring may share neural mechanisms, suggesting their joint role in producing disrupted external attributions of perceptual and cognitive experiences, thus elucidating their role in positive symptoms of psychosis. Account bridging mechanisms of these two biases is discussed. Further studies are warranted.

Anomalous self-experiences in cognition are negatively associated with neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia

INTRODUCTION

Anomalous self-experiences (ASEs) are disturbances in the subjective experience of the self and are common in people with schizophrenia. Theorists have suggested that ASEs may underlie the neurocognitive deficits that are also common in people with schizophrenia; however, few studies have empirically investigated the relationship between these variables. Thus, the current study aimed to determine whether self-reported ASEs, particularly disturbances in cognitive or mental experiences, are meaningfully related to neurocognitive performance in individuals with schizophrenia.

METHODS

48 individuals with schizophrenia and 34 healthy comparison participants completed the Inventory of Psychotic-Like Anomalous Experiences (IPASE), which is composed of five subscales including disturbances in cognition, and the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB).

RESULTS

Participants with schizophrenia performed worse than controls on each MCCB domain and had higher ASE scores on the total IPASE and all five subscales. Only the IPASE-Cognition subscale was associated with cognitive performance. Specifically, IPASE-Cognition was negatively correlated with scores in attention, visual learning, reasoning, and working memory.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that self-reported subjective disturbances in cognition may be meaningfully associated with several objectively-measured domains of neurocognition. Severity of ASEs may therefore be an important consideration when analysing the extent of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia.

Do delusions have and give meaning?

Delusions are often portrayed as paradigmatic instances of incomprehensibility and meaninglessness. Here we investigate the relationship between delusions and meaning from a philosophical perspective, integrating arguments and evidence from cognitive psychology and phenomenological psychopathology. We review some of the empirical and philosophical literature relevant to two claims about delusions and meaning: (1) delusions are meaningful, despite being described as irrational and implausible beliefs; (2) some delusions can also enhance the sense that one's life is meaningful, supporting agency and creativity in some circumstances. Delusions are not incomprehensible representations of reality. Rather, they can help make sense of one's unusual experiences and in some circumstances even support one's endeavours, albeit temporarily and imperfectly. Acknowledging that delusions have meaning and can also give meaning to people's lives has implications for our understanding of psychotic symptoms and for addressing the stigma associated with psychiatric conditions.

Metacognition, social cognition, and mentalizing in psychosis: are these distinct constructs when it comes to subjective experience or are we just splitting hairs?

Research using the integrated model of metacognition has suggested that the construct of metacognition could quantify the spectrum of activities that, if impaired, might cause many of the subjective disturbances found in psychosis. Research on social cognition and mentalizing in psychosis, however, has also pointed to underlying deficits in how persons make sense of their experience of themselves and others. To explore the question of whether metacognitive research in psychosis offers unique insight in the midst of these other two emerging fields, we have offered a review of the constructs and research from each field. Following that summary, we discuss ways in which research on metacognition may be distinguished from research on social cognition and mentalizing in three broad categories: (1) experimental procedures, (2) theoretical advances, and (3) clinical applications or indicated interventions. In terms of its research methods, we will describe how metacognition makes a unique contribution to understanding disturbances in how persons make sense of and interpret their own experiences within the flow of life. We will next discuss how metacognitive research in psychosis uniquely describes an architecture which when compromised - as often occurs in psychosis - results in the loss of persons' sense of purpose, possibilities, place in the world and cohesiveness of self. Turning to clinical issues, we explore how metacognitive research offers an operational model of the architecture which if repaired or restored should promote the recovery of a coherent sense of self and others in psychosis. Finally, we discuss the concrete implications of this for recovery-oriented treatment for psychosis as well as the need for further research on the commonalities of these approaches.

The poetics of vulnerability: creative writing among young adults in treatment for psychosis in light of Ricoeur's and Kristeva's philosophy of language and subjectivity

There is a growing interest in the application of creative writing in the treatment of mental illness. Nonpharmacological approaches have shown that access to poetic, creative language can allow for the verbalisation of illness experiences, as well as for self-expressions that can include other facets of the subject outside of the disease. In particular, creative writing in a safe group context has proven to be of particular importance. In this article, we present a pilot on a creative writing group for young adults in treatment for psychosis. We set the texts and experiences from the writing group in dialogue with Paul Ricoeur's and Julia Kristeva's philosophies on poetic language as meaning making and part of subject formation. The focus is on language as materiality and potentiality and on the patient's inherent linguistic resources as founded in a group dynamic. As a whole, the project seeks to give an increased theoretical and empirical understanding of the potentiality of language and creativity for healing experiences, participation and meaning-making processes among vulnerable people. Furthermore, a practice founded in poetic language might critically address both the general and biomedical understanding of the subject and disease.

Basic self-disturbance in subjects at clinical high risk for psychosis: Relationship with clinical and functional outcomes at one year follow-up

Basic self-disturbance (BSD) is assumed to drive symptom development in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and in clinical high-risk (CHR) for psychosis. We investigated the relationship between BSD at baseline, assessed with the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE), and symptoms and functional outcome after one year in 32 patients, including 26 CHR and six with non-progressive attenuated psychotic symptoms. Correlations between baseline BSD levels and positive, negative and disorganization symptoms, and global functioning level at follow-up were significant. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that higher levels of baseline BSD predicted more severe positive symptoms and lower global functioning at follow-up, after adjusting for baseline positive symptoms and functioning. Subjects who were not in symptomatic and functional remission after one year had higher levels of BSD and negative symptoms, and lower functioning level, at baseline. Baseline BSD in participants with schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses at follow-up (9 of 12 were schizotypal personality disorder) were at the levels seen in schizotypal disorders in previous studies, but not significantly different from the other participants. Early identification and assessment of BSD may constitute a useful prognostic tool and a signal for therapeutic targets in CHR conditions. Further CHR studies investigating these relationships with larger samples are recommended.