1
|
Mostert I, Bester R, Burger JT, Maree HJ. Investigating Protein-Protein Interactions Between Grapevine Leafroll-Associated Virus 3 and Vitis vinifera. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2023; 113:1994-2005. [PMID: 37311734 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-03-23-0107-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Grapevine leafroll disease (GLD) is a globally important disease that affects the metabolic composition and biomass of grapes, leading to a reduction in grape yield and quality of wine produced. Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 (GLRaV-3) is the main causal agent for GLD. This study aimed to identify protein-protein interactions between GLRaV-3 and its host. A yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) library was constructed from Vitis vinifera mRNA and screened against GLRaV-3 open reading frames encoding structural proteins and those potentially involved in systemic spread and silencing of host defense mechanisms. Five interacting protein pairs were identified, three of which were demonstrated in planta. The minor coat protein of GLRaV-3 was shown to interact with 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonate 7-phosphate synthase 02, a protein involved in primary carbohydrate metabolism and the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids. Interactions were also identified between GLRaV-3 p20A and an 18.1-kDa class I small heat shock protein, as well as MAP3K epsilon protein kinase 1. Both proteins are involved in the response of plants to various stressors, including pathogen infections. Two additional proteins, chlorophyll a-b binding protein CP26 and a SMAX1-LIKE 6 protein, were identified as interacting with p20A in yeast but these interactions could not be demonstrated in planta. The findings of this study advance our understanding of the functions of GLRaV-3-encoded proteins and how the interaction between these proteins and those of V. vinifera could lead to GLD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilani Mostert
- Department of Genetics, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Rachelle Bester
- Department of Genetics, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
- Citrus Research International, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Johan T Burger
- Department of Genetics, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Hans J Maree
- Department of Genetics, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
- Citrus Research International, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gong Q, Wang Y, He L, Huang F, Zhang D, Wang Y, Wei X, Han M, Deng H, Luo L, Cui F, Hong Y, Liu Y. Molecular basis of methyl-salicylate-mediated plant airborne defence. Nature 2023; 622:139-148. [PMID: 37704724 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06533-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Aphids transmit viruses and are destructive crop pests1. Plants that have been attacked by aphids release volatile compounds to elicit airborne defence (AD) in neighbouring plants2-5. However, the mechanism underlying AD is unclear. Here we reveal that methyl-salicylate (MeSA), salicylic acid-binding protein-2 (SABP2), the transcription factor NAC2 and salicylic acid-carboxylmethyltransferase-1 (SAMT1) form a signalling circuit to mediate AD against aphids and viruses. Airborne MeSA is perceived and converted into salicylic acid by SABP2 in neighbouring plants. Salicylic acid then causes a signal transduction cascade to activate the NAC2-SAMT1 module for MeSA biosynthesis to induce plant anti-aphid immunity and reduce virus transmission. To counteract this, some aphid-transmitted viruses encode helicase-containing proteins to suppress AD by interacting with NAC2 to subcellularly relocalize and destabilize NAC2. As a consequence, plants become less repellent to aphids, and more suitable for aphid survival, infestation and viral transmission. Our findings uncover the mechanistic basis of AD and an aphid-virus co-evolutionary mutualism, demonstrating AD as a potential bioinspired strategy to control aphids and viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Gong
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yunjing Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Linfang He
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Danfeng Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang Wei
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Han
- Protein Research Technology Center, Protein Chemistry and Omics Platform, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Haiteng Deng
- Protein Research Technology Center, Protein Chemistry and Omics Platform, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Lan Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yiguo Hong
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation and College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- Research Centre for Plant RNA Signaling, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
- School of Science and the Environment, University of Worcester, Worcester, UK
| | - Yule Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liu M, Kang B, Wu H, Aranda MA, Peng B, Liu L, Fei Z, Hong N, Gu Q. Transcriptomic and metabolic profiling of watermelon uncovers the role of salicylic acid and flavonoids in the resistance to cucumber green mottle mosaic virus. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2023; 74:5218-5235. [PMID: 37235634 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms underlying plant resistance to virus infections is crucial for viral disease management in agriculture. However, the defense mechanism of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) against cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) infection remains largely unknown. In this study, we performed transcriptomic, metabolomic, and phytohormone analyses of a CGMMV susceptible watermelon cultivar 'Zhengkang No.2' ('ZK') and a CGMMV resistant wild watermelon accession PI 220778 (PI) to identify the key regulatory genes, metabolites, and phytohormones responsible for CGMMV resistance. We then tested several phytohormones and metabolites for their roles in watermelon CGMMV resistance via foliar application, followed by CGMMV inoculation. Several phenylpropanoid metabolism-associated genes and metabolites, especially those involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway, were found to be significantly enriched in the CGMMV-infected PI plants compared with the CGMMV-infected 'ZK' plants. We also identified a gene encoding UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT) that is involved in kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside biosynthesis and controls disease resistance, as well as plant height. Additionally, salicylic acid (SA) biogenesis increased in the CGMMV-infected 'ZK' plants, resulting in the activation of a downstream signaling cascade. SA levels in the tested watermelon plants correlated with that of total flavonoids, and SA pre-treatment up-regulated the expression of flavonoid biosynthesis genes, thus increasing the total flavonoid content. Furthermore, application of exogenous SA or flavonoids extracted from watermelon leaves suppressed CGMMV infection. In summary, our study demonstrates the role of SA-induced flavonoid biosynthesis in plant development and CGMMV resistance, which could be used to breed for CGMMV resistance in watermelon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mei Liu
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450009, China
- Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Baoshan Kang
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450009, China
| | - Huijie Wu
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450009, China
| | - Miguel A Aranda
- Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura (CEBAS)- CSIC, Apdo. correos 164, 30100 Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
| | - Bin Peng
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450009, China
| | - Liming Liu
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450009, China
| | - Zhangjun Fei
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ni Hong
- Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qinsheng Gu
- National Key Laboratory for Germplasm Innovation & Utilization of Horticultural Crops, Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450009, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Liu J, Wu X, Fang Y, Liu Y, Bello EO, Li Y, Xiong R, Li Y, Fu ZQ, Wang A, Cheng X. A plant RNA virus inhibits NPR1 sumoylation and subverts NPR1-mediated plant immunity. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3580. [PMID: 37328517 PMCID: PMC10275998 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39254-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
NONEXPRESSER OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 1 (NPR1) is the master regulator of salicylic acid-mediated basal and systemic acquired resistance in plants. Here, we report that NPR1 plays a pivotal role in restricting compatible infection by turnip mosaic virus, a member of the largest plant RNA virus genus Potyvirus, and that such resistance is counteracted by NUCLEAR INCLUSION B (NIb), the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. We demonstrate that NIb binds to the SUMO-interacting motif 3 (SIM3) of NPR1 to prevent SUMO3 interaction and sumoylation, while sumoylation of NIb by SUMO3 is not essential but can intensify the NIb-NPR1 interaction. We discover that the interaction also impedes the phosphorylation of NPR1 at Ser11/Ser15. Moreover, we show that targeting NPR1 SIM3 is a conserved ability of NIb from diverse potyviruses. These data reveal a molecular "arms race" by which potyviruses deploy NIb to suppress NPR1-mediated resistance through disrupting NPR1 sumoylation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Xiaoyun Wu
- College of Plant Protection, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
- Key Laboratory of Germplasm Enhancement, Physiology and Ecology of Food Crops in Cold Region of Chinese Education Ministry, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yue Fang
- College of Plant Protection, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Ye Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Esther Oreofe Bello
- College of Plant Protection, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yong Li
- College of Life Science, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Ruyi Xiong
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, N5V 4T3, ON, Canada
- A&L Canada Laboratories Lnc., London, N5V 3P5, ON, Canada
| | - Yinzi Li
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, N5V 4T3, ON, Canada
| | - Zheng Qing Fu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Aiming Wang
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, N5V 4T3, ON, Canada
| | - Xiaofei Cheng
- College of Plant Protection, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.
- Key Laboratory of Germplasm Enhancement, Physiology and Ecology of Food Crops in Cold Region of Chinese Education Ministry, Northeast Agricultural University, 150030, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Aknadibossian V, Huguet-Tapia JC, Golyaev V, Pooggin MM, Folimonova SY. Transcriptomic alterations in the sweet orange vasculature correlate with growth repression induced by a variant of citrus tristeza virus. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1162613. [PMID: 37138615 PMCID: PMC10150063 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1162613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Citrus tristeza virus (CTV, family Closteroviridae) is an economically important pathogen of citrus. CTV resides in the phloem of the infected plants and induces a range of disease phenotypes, including stem pitting and quick decline as well as a number of other deleterious syndromes. To uncover the biological processes underlying the poorly understood damaging symptoms of CTV, we profiled the transcriptome of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) phloem-rich bark tissues of non-infected, mock-inoculated trees and trees singly infected with two distinct variants of CTV, T36 or T68-1. The T36 and T68-1 variants accumulated in the infected plants at similar titers. With that, young trees infected with T68-1 were markedly repressed in growth, while the growth rate of the trees infected with T36 was comparable to the mock-inoculated trees. Only a small number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in the nearly asymptomatic T36-infected trees, whereas almost fourfold the number of DEGs were identified with the growth-restricting T68-1 infection. DEGs were validated using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. While T36 did not induce many noteworthy changes, T68-1 altered the expression of numerous host mRNAs encoding proteins within significant biological pathways, including immunity and stress response proteins, papain-like cysteine proteases (PLCPs), cell-wall modifying enzymes, vascular development proteins and others. The transcriptomic alterations in the T68-1-infected trees, in particular, the strong and persistent increase in the expression levels of PLCPs, appear to contribute to the observed stem growth repression. On the other hand, analysis of the viral small interfering RNAs revealed that the host RNA silencing-based response to the infection by T36 and that by T68-1 was comparable, and thus, the induction of this antiviral mechanism may not contribute to the difference in the observed symptoms. The DEGs identified in this study promote our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the yet unexplained growth repression induced by severe CTV isolates in sweet orange trees.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vicken Aknadibossian
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Jose C. Huguet-Tapia
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Victor Golyaev
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, University Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, IRD, Institute Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Mikhail M. Pooggin
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, University Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, IRD, Institute Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Svetlana Y. Folimonova
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Svetlana Y. Folimonova,
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gharib HA, Mandour AM. Effect of Populus nigra spring and autumn leaves extract on Capsicum annuum infected with pepper mild mottle virus. Sci Rep 2022; 12:22194. [PMID: 36564426 PMCID: PMC9789118 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24786-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Capsicum annuum is one of the main vegetable crops for the local market and exportation in Egypt. In this concern, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) infection caused a significant decrease in Capsicum sp. leading to large economic losses. An isolate of PMMoV was obtained from naturally infected pepper plants, exhibiting different patterns of mottling, leaf distortion, yellowing, and stunting of leaves. The virus was identified. The molecular detection of PMMoV was done using RT-PCR with specific primers designed for coat protein genes. An RT-PCR product (474) bp of the coat protein gene of (PMMoV) was cloned. The target of the investigation was the effect of spring and autumn ethanol extracts of Populus nigra leaves on C. annuum seedling growth and infected C. annuum with (PMMoV) under greenhouse conditions. The experimental data showed that treated spring leaf extract of P. nigra enhanced infected C. annuum seedling growth parameters and fruit quality compared to uninfected seedlings. P. nigra spring leaf extract containing some allo-chemicals had a negative effect on uninfected seedlings. P. nigra autumn leaf extract significantly improved the growth and fruit quality of infected C. annuum seedlings compared to the control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H. A. Gharib
- grid.418376.f0000 0004 1800 7673Timber Trees and Forestry Research Department, Horticulture Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, 9 St. Al-Gamaa, Giza, Egypt
| | - A. M. Mandour
- grid.418376.f0000 0004 1800 7673Plant Virus and Phytoplasma Research Department, Plant Pathology Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, 9 St. Al-Gamaa, Giza, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Defense Responses and Metabolic Changes Involving Phenylpropanoid Pathway and PR Genes in Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) following Cucumber mosaic virus Infection. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11151908. [PMID: 35893612 PMCID: PMC9332155 DOI: 10.3390/plants11151908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The current study focuses on the effects of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) infection on phytochemical changes and pathogenesis- and phenylpropanoid pathway-associated gene activities in squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) plants during a time course of 2 to 12 days post inoculation (dpi). The identity of the CMV isolate was confirmed by DAS-ELISA, TEM, and coat protein gene sequence. The CMV infection initially boosts and then suppresses transcript levels of the defense-related genes PR-1, PR-2, PAL, HQT, and CHS during the investigated time course compared to controls. The expression profile during the time-course study indicated that early, transient induction of PR-1 occurs during CMV infection, while CMV induced the expression of PR-2 in systemically infected squash tissues at all time points and suppressed the expression of PAL and HQT at 8-12 dpi. CHS transcript levels fluctuated between up- and down-regulation, but by 12 dpi, CHS expression reached its peak. The HPLC and GC–MS analyses of CMV-infected squash extracts revealed that different phenolic, flavonoid, and fatty acid compounds could be induced or suppressed upon CMV infection. In particular, CMV could suppress the synthesis of most phenolic compounds, specifically chlorogenic acid, possibly leading to the virus’s rapid spread.
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang C, Wang X, Li H, Wang J, Zeng Q, Huang W, Huang H, Xie Y, Yu S, Kan Q, Wang Q, Cheng Y. GLRaV-2 protein p24 suppresses host defenses by interaction with a RAV transcription factor from grapevine. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 189:1848-1865. [PMID: 35485966 PMCID: PMC9237672 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiac181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 2 (GLRaV-2) is a prevalent virus associated with grapevine leafroll disease, but the molecular mechanism underlying GLRaV-2 infection is largely unclear. Here, we report that 24-kDa protein (p24), an RNA-silencing suppressor (RSS) encoded by GLRaV-2, promotes GLRaV-2 accumulation via interaction with the B3 DNA-binding domain of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) RELATED TO ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE3/VIVIPAROUS1 (VvRAV1), a transcription factor belonging to the APETALA2/ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR (AP2/ERF) superfamily. Salicylic acid-inducible VvRAV1 positively regulates the grapevine pathogenesis-related protein 1 (VvPR1) gene by directly binding its promoter, indicating that VvRAV1 may function in the regulation of host basal defense responses. p24 hijacks VvRAV1 to the cytoplasm and employs the protein to sequester 21-nt double-stranded siRNA together, thereby enhancing its own RSS activity. Moreover, p24 enters the nucleus via interaction with VvRAV1 and weakens the latter's binding affinity to the VvPR1 promoter, leading to decreased expression of VvPR1. Our results provide a mechanism by which a viral RSS interferes with both the antiviral RNA silencing and the AP2/ERF-mediated defense responses via the targeting of one specific host factor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Xianyou Wang
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hanwei Li
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jinying Wang
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qi Zeng
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wenting Huang
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Haoqiang Huang
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yinshuai Xie
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shangzhen Yu
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qing Kan
- Department of Pomology/Lab of Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology for Tree Fruits, Key Lab of Beijing Municipality, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Shukla A, Hoffmann G, Kushwaha NK, López-González S, Hofius D, Hafrén A. Salicylic acid and the viral virulence factor 2b regulate the divergent roles of autophagy during cucumber mosaic virus infection. Autophagy 2022; 18:1450-1462. [PMID: 34740306 PMCID: PMC9225522 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2021.1987674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is a conserved intracellular degradation pathway that has recently emerged as an integral part of plant responses to virus infection. The known mechanisms of autophagy range from the selective degradation of viral components to a more general attenuation of disease symptoms. In addition, several viruses are able to manipulate the autophagy machinery and counteract autophagy-dependent resistance. Despite these findings, the complex interplay of autophagy activities, viral pathogenicity factors, and host defense pathways in disease development remains poorly understood. In the current study, we analyzed the interaction between autophagy and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) in Arabidopsis thaliana. We show that autophagy is induced during CMV infection and promotes the turnover of the major virulence protein and RNA silencing suppressor 2b. Intriguingly, autophagy induction is mediated by salicylic acid (SA) and dampened by the CMV virulence factor 2b. In accordance with 2b degradation, we found that autophagy provides resistance against CMV by reducing viral RNA accumulation in an RNA silencing-dependent manner. Moreover, autophagy and RNA silencing attenuate while SA promotes CMV disease symptoms, and epistasis analysis suggests that autophagy-dependent disease and resistance are uncoupled. We propose that autophagy counteracts CMV virulence via both 2b degradation and reduced SA-responses, thereby increasing plant fitness with the viral trade-off arising from increased RNA silencing-mediated resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aayushi Shukla
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Box 7080, 75007Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Gesa Hoffmann
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Box 7080, 75007Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Nirbhay Kumar Kushwaha
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Box 7080, 75007Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Silvia López-González
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Box 7080, 75007Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Daniel Hofius
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Box 7080, 75007Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anders Hafrén
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Box 7080, 75007Uppsala, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Importin/exportin-mediated nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of cucumber mosaic virus 2b protein is required for 2b's efficient suppression of RNA silencing. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010267. [PMID: 35081172 PMCID: PMC8820599 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2b protein (2b) of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), an RNA-silencing suppressor (RSS), is a major pathogenicity determinant of CMV. 2b is localized in the nucleus and cytoplasm, and its nuclear import is determined by two nuclear localization signals (NLSs); a carrier protein (importin [IMPα]) is predicted to be involved in 2b's nuclear transport. Cytoplasmic 2bs play a role in suppression of RNA silencing by binding to small RNAs and AGO proteins. A putative nuclear export signal (NES) motif was also found in 2b, but has not been proved to function. Here, we identified a leucine-rich motif in 2b's C-terminal half as an NES. We then showed that NES-deficient 2b accumulated abundantly in the nucleus and lost its RSS activity, suggesting that 2b exported from the nucleus can play a role as an RSS. Although two serine residues (S40 and S42) were previously found to be phosphorylated, we also found that an additional phosphorylation site (S28) alone can affect 2b's nuclear localization and RSS activity. Alanine substitution at S28 impaired the IMPα-mediated nuclear/nucleolar localization of 2b, and RSS activity was even stronger compared to wild-type 2b. In a subcellular fractionation assay, phosphorylated 2bs were detected in the nucleus, and comparison of the accumulation levels of nuclear phospho-2b between wild-type 2b and the NES mutant showed a greatly reduced level of the phosphorylated NES mutant in the nucleus, suggesting that 2bs are dephosphorylated in the nucleus and may be translocated to the cytoplasm in a nonphosphorylated form. These results suggest that 2b manipulates its nucleocytoplasmic transport as if it tracks down its targets, small RNAs and AGOs, in the RNA silencing pathway. We infer that 2b's efficient RSS activity is maintained by a balance of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, which are coupled to importin/exportin-mediated shuttling between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Collapse
|
11
|
Venturuzzi AL, Rodriguez MC, Conti G, Leone M, Caro MDP, Montecchia JF, Zavallo D, Asurmendi S. Negative modulation of SA signaling components by the capsid protein of tobacco mosaic virus is required for viral long-distance movement. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 106:896-912. [PMID: 33837606 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
An important aspect of plant-virus interaction is the way viruses dynamically move over long distances and how plant immunity modulates viral systemic movement. Salicylic acid (SA), a well-characterized hormone responsible for immune responses against virus, is activated through different transcription factors including TGA and WRKY. In tobamoviruses, evidence suggests that capsid protein (CP) is required for long-distance movement, although its precise role has not been fully characterized yet. Previously, we showed that the CP of Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)-Cg negatively modulates the SA-mediated defense. In this study, we analyzed the impact of SA-defense mechanism on the long-distance transport of a truncated version of TMV (TMV ∆CP virus) that cannot move to systemic tissues. The study showed that the negative modulation of NPR1 and TGA10 factors allows the long-distance transport of TMV ∆CP virus. Moreover, we observed that the stabilization of DELLA proteins promotes TMV ∆CP systemic movement. We also characterized a group of genes, part of a network modulated by CP, involved in TMV ∆CP long-distance transport. Altogether, our results indicate that CP-mediated downregulation of SA signaling pathway is required for the virus systemic movement, and this role of CP may be linked to its ability to stabilize DELLA proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Laura Venturuzzi
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Maria Cecilia Rodriguez
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Gabriela Conti
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Melisa Leone
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Maria Del Pilar Caro
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Juan Francisco Montecchia
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Diego Zavallo
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| | - Sebastian Asurmendi
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), De los Reseros y N. Repetto s/n, Hurlingham, B1686IGC, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sofy AR, Sofy MR, Hmed AA, Dawoud RA, Refaey EE, Mohamed HI, El-Dougdoug NK. Molecular Characterization of the Alfalfa mosaic virus Infecting Solanum melongena in Egypt and the Control of Its Deleterious Effects with Melatonin and Salicylic Acid. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10030459. [PMID: 33670990 PMCID: PMC7997183 DOI: 10.3390/plants10030459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
During the spring of 2019, distinct virus-like symptoms were observed in the Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate in Egypt in naturally infected eggplants. Leaves of affected plants showed interveinal leaf chlorosis, net yellow, chlorotic sectors, mottling, blisters, vein enation, necrotic intervention, and narrowing symptoms. The Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) was suspected of to be involved in this disease. Forty plant samples from symptomatic eggplants and 10 leaf samples with no symptoms were collected. The samples were tested by double antibody sandwich ELISA (DAS-ELISA) using AMV-IgG. Six of the 40 symptomatic leaf samples tested positive for AMV, while, DAS-ELISA found no AMV in the 10 leaf samples without symptoms. The AMV Egyptian isolate (AMV-Eggplant-EG) was biologically isolated from the six positive samples tested by DAS-ELISA and from the similar local lesions induced on Chenopodium amaranticolor and then re-inoculated in healthy Solanum melongena as a source of AMV-Eggplant-EG and confirmed by DAS-ELISA. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay with a pair of primers specific for coat protein (CP) encoding RNA 3 of AMV yielded an amplicon of 666 bp from infected plants of Solanum melongena with AMV-Eggplant-EG. The amplified PCR product was cloned and sequenced. Analysis of the AMV-Eggplant-EG sequence revealed 666 nucleotides (nt) of the complete CP gene (translating 221 amino acid (aa) residues). Analysis of phylogeny for nt and deduced aa sequences of the CP gene using the maximum parsimony method clustered AMV-Eggplant-EG in the lineage of Egyptian isolates (shark-EG, mans-EG, CP2-EG, and FRE-EG) with a high bootstrap value of 88% and 92%, respectively. In addition to molecular studies, melatonin (MTL) and salicylic acid (SA) (100 μM) were used to increase the resistance of eggplant to AMV- infection. Foliar spray with MLT and SA caused a significant increase in the morphological criteria (shoot, root length, number of leaves, leaf area, and leaf biomass), chlorophyll and carotenoid content, antioxidant enzymes, and gene expression of some enzymes compared to the infected plants. On the other hand, treatment with MLT and SA reduced the oxidative damage caused by AMV through the reduction of hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anions, hydroxyl radicals, and malondialdehyde. In conclusion, MLT and SA are eco-friendly compounds and can be used as antiviral compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed R. Sofy
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt; (A.A.H.); (E.E.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.R.S.); (M.R.S.)
| | - Mahmoud R. Sofy
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt; (A.A.H.); (E.E.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.R.S.); (M.R.S.)
| | - Ahmed A. Hmed
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt; (A.A.H.); (E.E.R.)
| | - Rehab A. Dawoud
- Virus and Phytoplasma Research Department, Plant Pathology Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Giza 12619, Egypt;
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Jazan University, P.O. Box 114, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ehab E. Refaey
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt; (A.A.H.); (E.E.R.)
| | - Heba I. Mohamed
- Department of Biological and Geological Sciences, Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt;
| | - Noha K. El-Dougdoug
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt;
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Brachypodium Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) Promotes Antiviral Defenses against Panicum mosaic virus and Its Satellites. mBio 2021; 12:mBio.03518-20. [PMID: 33593968 PMCID: PMC8545123 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03518-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Brachypodium distachyon has recently emerged as a premier model plant for monocot biology, akin to Arabidopsis thaliana We previously reported genome-wide transcriptomic and alternative splicing changes occurring in Brachypodium during compatible infections with Panicum mosaic virus (PMV) and its satellite virus (SPMV). Here, we dissected the role of Brachypodium phenylalanine ammonia lyase 1 (PAL1), a key enzyme for phenylpropanoid and salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis and the induction of plant defenses. Targeted metabolomics profiling of PMV-infected and PMV- plus SPMV-infected (PMV/SPMV) Brachypodium plants revealed enhanced levels of multiple defense-related hormones and metabolites such as cinnamic acid, SA, and fatty acids and lignin precursors during disease progression. The virus-induced accumulation of SA and lignin was significantly suppressed upon knockdown of B. distachyon PAL1 (BdPAL1) using RNA interference (RNAi). The compromised SA accumulation in PMV/SPMV-infected BdPAL1 RNAi plants correlated with weaker induction of multiple SA-related defense gene markers (pathogenesis related 1 [PR-1], PR-3, PR-5, and WRKY75) and enhanced susceptibility to PMV/SPMV compared to that of wild-type (WT) plants. Furthermore, exogenous application of SA alleviated the PMV/SPMV necrotic disease phenotypes and delayed plant death caused by single and mixed infections. Together, our results support an antiviral role for BdPAL1 during compatible host-virus interaction, perhaps as a last resort attempt to rescue the infected plant.IMPORTANCE Although the role of plant defense mechanisms against viruses are relatively well studied in dicots and in incompatible plant-microbe interactions, studies of their roles in compatible interactions and in grasses are lagging behind. In this study, we leveraged the emerging grass model Brachypodium and genetic resources to dissect Panicum mosaic virus (PMV)- and its satellite virus (SPMV)-compatible grass-virus interactions. We found a significant role for PAL1 in the production of salicylic acid (SA) in response to PMV/SPMV infections and that SA is an essential component of the defense response preventing the plant from succumbing to viral infection. Our results suggest a convergent role for the SA defense pathway in both compatible and incompatible plant-virus interactions and underscore the utility of Brachypodium for grass-virus biology.
Collapse
|
14
|
Lv X, Xiang S, Wang X, Wu L, Liu C, Yuan M, Gong W, Win H, Hao C, Xue Y, Ma L, Cheng D, Sun X. Synthetic chloroinconazide compound exhibits highly efficient antiviral activity against tobacco mosaic virus. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2020; 76:3636-3648. [PMID: 32418274 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Development of anti-plant-virus compounds and improvement of biosafety remain hot research topics in controlling plant viral disease. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infects all tobacco species as well as many other plants worldwide and causes severe losses in tobacco production. To date, no efficient chemical treatments are known to protect plants from virus infection. Therefore, the search for a highly active antiviral compound with high efficacy in field application is required. RESULTS We reported the synthesis of a novel antiviral halogenated acyl compound Chloroinconazide (CHI) using tryptophan as a substrate and examined its anti-TMV activity. We found that CHI displayed the ability to strongly inhibit the infection of TMV on Nicotiana benthamiana via multiple mechanisms. We observed that CHI was able to impair the virulence of TMV by directly altering the morphological structure of virions and increasing the activity of anti-oxidative enzymes, resulting in reduced TMV-induced ROS production during infection of the plant. In addition, the expression of salicylic acid-responsive genes was significantly increased after CHI application. However, after application of CHI on SA-deficient NahG plants no obvious anti-TMV activity was observed, suggesting that the SA signaling pathway was required for CHI-induced anti-TMV activity associated with reduced infection of TMV. CHI exhibited no effects on plant growth and development. CONCLUSION The easily synthesized CHI can actively induce plant resistance against TMV as well as act on virus particles and exhibits high biosafety, which provides a potential for commercial application of CHI in controlling plant virus disease in the future. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xing Lv
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shunyu Xiang
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiangchuan Wang
- National Center for Enterprise Technology of Jingbo Agrochemicals Technology Co. LED, Binzhou, China
| | - Lei Wu
- National Center for Enterprise Technology of Jingbo Agrochemicals Technology Co. LED, Binzhou, China
| | - Changyun Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mengting Yuan
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weiwei Gong
- National Center for Enterprise Technology of Jingbo Agrochemicals Technology Co. LED, Binzhou, China
| | - HsuMyat Win
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chunyan Hao
- National Center for Enterprise Technology of Jingbo Agrochemicals Technology Co. LED, Binzhou, China
| | - Yang Xue
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lisong Ma
- Division of Plant Science, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Daoquan Cheng
- National Center for Enterprise Technology of Jingbo Agrochemicals Technology Co. LED, Binzhou, China
| | - Xianchao Sun
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ma Q, Liu Y, Fang H, Wang P, Ahammed GJ, Zai W, Shi K. An Essential Role of Mitochondrial α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase E2 in the Basal Immune Response Against Bacterial Pathogens in Tomato. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:579772. [PMID: 33193523 PMCID: PMC7661389 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.579772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Plants intensely modulate respiration when pathogens attack, but the function of mitochondrial respiration-related genes in plant-bacteria interaction is largely unclear. Here, the functions of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-kGDH) E2 subunit and alternative oxidase (AOX) were investigated in the interaction between tomato and the virulent bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst). Pst inoculation suppressed the transcript abundance of α-kGDH E2, but enhanced AOX expression and salicylic acid (SA) accumulation. Gene silencing and transient overexpression approaches revealed that plant susceptibility to Pst was significantly reduced by silencing α-kGDH E2 in tomato, but increased by overexpressing α-kGDH E2 in Nicotiana benthamiana, whereas silencing or overexpressing of AOX1a did not affect plant defense. Moreover, silencing octanoyltransferase (LIP2), engaged in the lipoylation of α-kGDH E2, significantly reduced disease susceptibility and hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Use of transgenic NahG tomato plants that cannot accumulate SA as well as the exogenous SA application experiment evidenced that α-kGDH E2 acts downstream of SA defense pathway. These results demonstrate tomato α-kGDH E2 plays a negative role in plant basal defense against Pst in an AOX-independent pathway but was associated with lipoylation and SA defense pathways. The findings help to elucidate the mechanisms of mitochondria-involved plant basal immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiaomei Ma
- Department of Horticulture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yaru Liu
- Department of Horticulture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hanmo Fang
- Department of Horticulture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Horticulture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Golam Jalal Ahammed
- College of Forestry, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Wenshan Zai
- Wenzhou Vocational College of Science & Technology, Wenzhou, China
| | - Kai Shi
- Department of Horticulture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Czerwoniec P, Lewandowski P, Smiglak M. Derivatives of Isonicotinic Acid as New Efficient Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) Inducers. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202002818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrycja Czerwoniec
- Faculty of Chemistry Adam Mickiewicz University ul. Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8 61-614 Poznań Poland
- Poznan Science and Technology Park Adam Mickiewicz University Foundation ul. Rubiez 46 61-612 Poznan Poland
| | - Piotr Lewandowski
- Faculty of Chemistry Adam Mickiewicz University ul. Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8 61-614 Poznań Poland
- Poznan Science and Technology Park Adam Mickiewicz University Foundation ul. Rubiez 46 61-612 Poznan Poland
| | - Marcin Smiglak
- Poznan Science and Technology Park Adam Mickiewicz University Foundation ul. Rubiez 46 61-612 Poznan Poland
- Innosil sp. z o.o., ul. Rubież 46 61-612 Poznań Poland
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
An update on salicylic acid biosynthesis, its induction and potential exploitation by plant viruses. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 42:8-17. [PMID: 32330862 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a plant hormone essential for effective resistance to viral and non-viral pathogens. SA biosynthesis increases rapidly in resistant hosts when a dominant host resistance gene product recognizes a pathogen. SA stimulates resistance to viral replication, intercellular spread and systemic movement. However, certain viruses stimulate SA biosynthesis in susceptible hosts. This paradoxical effect limits virus titer and prevents excessive host damage, suggesting that these viruses exploit SA-induced resistance to optimize their accumulation. Recent work showed that SA production in plants does not simply recapitulate bacterial SA biosynthetic mechanisms, and that the relative contributions of the shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways to the SA pool differ markedly between plant species.
Collapse
|
18
|
Elicitor and Receptor Molecules: Orchestrators of Plant Defense and Immunity. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030963. [PMID: 32024003 PMCID: PMC7037962 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), herbivore-associated molecular patterns (HAMPs), and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are molecules produced by microorganisms and insects in the event of infection, microbial priming, and insect predation. These molecules are then recognized by receptor molecules on or within the plant, which activates the defense signaling pathways, resulting in plant’s ability to overcome pathogenic invasion, induce systemic resistance, and protect against insect predation and damage. These small molecular motifs are conserved in all organisms. Fungi, bacteria, and insects have their own specific molecular patterns that induce defenses in plants. Most of the molecular patterns are either present as part of the pathogen’s structure or exudates (in bacteria and fungi), or insect saliva and honeydew. Since biotic stresses such as pathogens and insects can impair crop yield and production, understanding the interaction between these organisms and the host via the elicitor–receptor interaction is essential to equip us with the knowledge necessary to design durable resistance in plants. In addition, it is also important to look into the role played by beneficial microbes and synthetic elicitors in activating plants’ defense and protection against disease and predation. This review addresses receptors, elicitors, and the receptor–elicitor interactions where these components in fungi, bacteria, and insects will be elaborated, giving special emphasis to the molecules, responses, and mechanisms at play, variations between organisms where applicable, and applications and prospects.
Collapse
|
19
|
Guzmán-Benito I, Donaire L, Amorim-Silva V, Vallarino JG, Esteban A, Wierzbicki AT, Ruiz-Ferrer V, Llave C. The immune repressor BIR1 contributes to antiviral defense and undergoes transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation during viral infections. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:421-438. [PMID: 31111491 PMCID: PMC6711825 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BIR1 is a receptor-like kinase that functions as a negative regulator of basal immunity and cell death in Arabidopsis. Using Arabidopsis thaliana and Tobacco rattle virus (TRV), we investigate the antiviral role of BIR1, the molecular mechanisms of BIR1 gene expression regulation during viral infections, and the effects of BIR1 overexpression on plant immunity and development. We found that SA acts as a signal molecule for BIR1 activation during infection. Inactivating mutations of BIR1 in the bir1-1 mutant cause strong antiviral resistance independently of constitutive cell death or SA defense priming. BIR1 overexpression leads to severe developmental defects, cell death and premature death, which correlate with the constitutive activation of plant immune responses. Our findings suggest that BIR1 acts as a negative regulator of antiviral defense in plants, and indicate that RNA silencing contributes, alone or in conjunction with other regulatory mechanisms, to define a threshold expression for proper BIR1 function beyond which an autoimmune response may occur. This work provides novel mechanistic insights into the regulation of BIR1 homeostasis that may be common for other plant immune components.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Guzmán-Benito
- Departmento de Biotecnología Microbiana y de Plantas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, 28040-Madrid, Spain
- Doctorado en Biotecnología y Recursos Genéticos de Plantas y Microorganismos Asociados, ETSI Agronómica, Alimentaria y de Biosistemas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - Livia Donaire
- Departmento de Biotecnología Microbiana y de Plantas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - Vítor Amorim-Silva
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Bioquímica, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterranea “La Mayora”, Universidad de Málaga-CSIC (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Universidad de Málaga, Campus Teatinos, 29071-Málaga, Spain
| | - José G. Vallarino
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Bioquímica, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterranea “La Mayora”, Universidad de Málaga-CSIC (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Universidad de Málaga, Campus Teatinos, 29071-Málaga, Spain
| | - Alicia Esteban
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Bioquímica, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterranea “La Mayora”, Universidad de Málaga-CSIC (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Universidad de Málaga, Campus Teatinos, 29071-Málaga, Spain
| | - Andrzej T. Wierzbicki
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Virginia Ruiz-Ferrer
- Departmento de Biotecnología Microbiana y de Plantas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - César Llave
- Departmento de Biotecnología Microbiana y de Plantas, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Yuan W, Jiang T, Du K, Chen H, Cao Y, Xie J, Li M, Carr JP, Wu B, Fan Z, Zhou T. Maize phenylalanine ammonia-lyases contribute to resistance to Sugarcane mosaic virus infection, most likely through positive regulation of salicylic acid accumulation. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2019; 20:1365-1378. [PMID: 31487111 PMCID: PMC6792131 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) is a pathogen of worldwide importance that causes dwarf mosaic disease on maize (Zea mays). Until now, few maize genes/proteins have been shown to be involved in resistance to SCMV. In this study, we characterized the role of maize phenylalanine ammonia-lyases (ZmPALs) in accumulation of the defence signal salicylic acid (SA) and in resistance to virus infection. SCMV infection significantly increased SA accumulation and expression of SA-responsive pathogenesis-related protein genes (PRs). Interestingly, exogenous SA treatment decreased SCMV accumulation and enhanced resistance. Both reverse transcription-coupled quantitative PCR and RNA-Seq data confirmed that expression levels of at least four ZmPAL genes were significantly up-regulated upon SCMV infection. Knockdown of ZmPAL expression led to enhanced SCMV infection symptom severity and virus multiplication, and simultaneously resulted in decreased SA accumulation and PR gene expression. Intriguingly, application of exogenous SA to SCMV-infected ZmPAL-silenced maize plants decreased SCMV accumulation, showing that ZmPALs are required for SA-mediated resistance to SCMV infection. In addition, lignin measurements and metabolomic analysis showed that ZmPALs are also involved in SCMV-induced lignin accumulation and synthesis of other secondary metabolites via the phenylpropanoid pathway. In summary, our results indicate that ZmPALs are required for SA accumulation in maize and are involved in resistance to virus infection by limiting virus accumulation and moderating symptom severity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yuan
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Tong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Kaitong Du
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Hui Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Yanyong Cao
- Cereal Crops InstituteHenan Academy of Agricultural ScienceZhengzhou450002China
| | - Jipeng Xie
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Mengfei Li
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - John P. Carr
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
| | - Boming Wu
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Zaifeng Fan
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| | - Tao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Agro‐BiotechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory for Pest Monitoring and Green Management, Department of Plant PathologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijing100193China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Prigigallo MI, Melillo MT, Bubici G, Dobrev PI, Vankova R, Cillo F, Veronico P. Ozone treatments activate defence responses against Meloidogyne incognita and Tomato spotted wilt virus in tomato. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2019; 75:2251-2263. [PMID: 30701652 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ozonated water (O3 wat) soil drench and/or foliar spray applications were evaluated for their potential to control the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita (RKN) and the airborne pathogen Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) in tomato. We investigated how O3 wat modulates the salicylic acid/jasmonic acid/ethylene (SA/JA/ET) signalling network in the host, locally and systemically, to induce resistance to nematode and virus. RESULTS The application as soil drench was effective in reducing the number of galls and egg masses, but did not reduce the incidence and severity of TSWV infection. Conversely, O3 wat applied by foliar spray decreased TSWV disease incidence and severity (-20%), but was not able to control M. incognita infection. SA-related genes were generally upregulated in both locally treated and systemically reached tissues, showing a positive action of the O3 wat treatment on SA signalling. Neither O3 wat application method significantly altered JA-related gene expression in either direction. ET-related genes were differentially regulated by root or leaf treatments, indicating that O3 wat may have different effects on ET-mediated signalling in different organs. JA/ET/SA related pathways were differentially modulated by O3 wat in the presence of either RKN or TSWV. CONCLUSION O3 wat had a higher efficacy when applied directly to organs challenged by the pathogens, although it was potentially able to stimulate defence responses through the activation of SA signalling. Owing to its safety and effectiveness in controlling nematode and virus infections, O3 wat can be considered as a possible alternative tool for sustainable disease management practices. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria I Prigigallo
- Department of Bio Agro-Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, CNR, Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Melillo
- Department of Bio Agro-Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, CNR, Bari, Italy
| | - Giovanni Bubici
- Department of Bio Agro-Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, CNR, Bari, Italy
| | - Petre I Dobrev
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Radomira Vankova
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Fabrizio Cillo
- Department of Bio Agro-Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, CNR, Bari, Italy
| | - Pasqua Veronico
- Department of Bio Agro-Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, CNR, Bari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Kang SH, Sun YD, Atallah OO, Huguet-Tapia JC, Noble JD, Folimonova SY. A Long Non-Coding RNA of Citrus tristeza virus: Role in the Virus Interplay with the Host Immunity. Viruses 2019; 11:E436. [PMID: 31091710 PMCID: PMC6563247 DOI: 10.3390/v11050436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
During infection, Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) produces a non-coding subgenomic RNA referred to as low-molecular-weight tristeza 1 (LMT1), which for a long time has been considered as a by-product of the complex CTV replication machinery. In this study, we investigated the role of LMT1 in the virus infection cycle using a CTV variant that does not produce LMT1 (CTV-LMT1d). We showed that lack of LMT1 did not halt virus ability to replicate or form proper virions. However, the mutant virus demonstrated significantly reduced invasiveness and systemic spread in Nicotiana benthamiana as well as an inability to establish infection in citrus. Introduction of CTV-LMT1d into the herbaceous host resulted in elevation of the levels of salicylic acid (SA) and SA-responsive pathogenesis-related genes beyond those upon inoculation with wild-type (WT) virus (CTV-WT). Further analysis showed that the LMT1 RNA produced by CTV-WT or via ectopic expression in the N. benthamiana leaves suppressed SA accumulation and up-regulated an alternative oxidase gene, which appeared to mitigate the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a plant viral long non-coding RNA being involved in counter-acting host response by subverting the SA-mediated plant defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hwan Kang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Yong-Duo Sun
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Osama O Atallah
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | | | - Jerald D Noble
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Svetlana Y Folimonova
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
- Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Inhibition of Satellite RNA Associated Cucumber Mosaic Virus Infection by Essential Oil of Micromeria croatica (Pers.) Schott. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24071342. [PMID: 30959741 PMCID: PMC6479972 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24071342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The present results dealing with the antiphytoviral activity of essential oil indicate that these plant metabolites can trigger a response to viral infection. The essential oil from Micromeria croatica and the main oil components β-caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide were tested for antiphytoviral activity on plants infected with satellite RNA associated cucumber mosaic virus. Simultaneous inoculation of virus with essential oil or with the dominant components of oil, and the treatment of plants prior to virus inoculation, resulted in a reduction of virus infection in the local and systemic host plants. Treatment with essential oil changed the level of alternative oxidase gene expression in infected Arabidopsis plants indicating a connection between the essential oil treatment, aox gene expression and the development of viral infection.
Collapse
|
24
|
Carr JP, Murphy AM, Tungadi T, Yoon JY. Plant defense signals: Players and pawns in plant-virus-vector interactions. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 279:87-95. [PMID: 30709497 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2018.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 04/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Plant viruses face an array of host defenses. Well-studied responses that protect against viruses include effector-triggered immunity, induced resistance (such as systemic acquired resistance mediated by salicylic acid), and RNA silencing. Recent work shows that viruses are also affected by non-host resistance mechanisms; previously thought to affect only bacteria, oomycetes and fungi. However, an enduring puzzle is how viruses are inhibited by several inducible host resistance mechanisms. Many viruses have been shown to encode factors that inhibit antiviral silencing. A number of these, including the cucumoviral 2b protein, the poytviral P1/HC-Pro and, respectively, geminivirus or satellite DNA-encoded proteins such as the C2 or βC1, also inhibit defensive signaling mediated by salicylic acid and jasmonic acid. This helps to explain how viruses can, in some cases, overcome host resistance. Additionally, interference with defensive signaling provides a means for viruses to manipulate plant-insect interactions. This is important because insects, particularly aphids and whiteflies, transmit many viruses. Indeed, there is now substantial evidence that viruses can enhance their own transmission through their effects on hosts. Even more surprisingly, it appears that viruses may be able to manipulate plant interactions with beneficial insects by, for example, 'paying back' their hosts by attracting pollinators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John P Carr
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom.
| | - Alex M Murphy
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom
| | - Trisna Tungadi
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom
| | - Ju-Yeon Yoon
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, United Kingdom; Virology Unit, Department of Horticultural and Herbal Environment, National Institute of Horticultural and Herbal Science, Rural Development Agency, Wanju, 55365, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Torun H. Time-course analysis of salicylic acid effects on ROS regulation and antioxidant defense in roots of hulled and hulless barley under combined stress of drought, heat and salinity. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2019; 165:169-182. [PMID: 29984429 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Greater crop losses can result from simultaneous exposure to a combination of drought, heat and salinity in the field. Salicylic acid (SA), a phenolic phytohormone, can affect a range of physiological and biochemical processes in plants and significantly impacts their resistance to these abiotic stresses. Despite numerous reports involving the positive effects of SA by applying each abiotic stress separately, the mechanism of SA-mediated adaptation to combined stresses remains elusive. This study, via a time-course analysis, investigated the role of SA on the roots of hulled and hulless (naked) barley (Hordeum vulgare L. 'Tarm' and 'Özen', respectively), which differed in salt tolerance, under the combined stress of drought, heat and salt. The combined stress caused marked reductions in root length and increases in proline content in both genotypes; however, Tarm exhibited better adaptation to the triple stress. Under the first 24 h of stress, superoxide dismutase (SOD; EC.1.15.1.1) and peroxidase (POX; EC.1.11.1.7) activity in the Tarm roots increased remarkably, while decreasing in the Özen roots. Furthermore, the Tarm roots showed higher catalase (CAT; EC 1.11.1.6), ascorbate peroxidase (APX; EC 1.11.1.11) and glutathione reductase (GR; EC 1.6.4.2) activity than the Özen during the combined stresses. The sensitivity of hulless barley roots may be related to decreasing SOD, POX, CAT and GR activity under stress. Over 72 h of stress, the SA pretreatment improved the APX and GR activity in Tarm and that of POX and CAT in Özen, demonstrating that exogenously applied SA regulates antioxidant defense enzymes in order to detoxify reactive oxygen species. The results of this study suggest that SA treatment may improve the triple-stress combination tolerance in hulled and hulless barley cultivars by increasing the level of antioxidant enzyme activity and promoting the accumulation of proline. Thus, SA alleviated the damaging effects of the triple stress by improving the antioxidant system, although these effects differed depending on characteristic of the hull of the grain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hülya Torun
- Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Science, Düzce University, 81620, Düzce, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Qi G, Chen J, Chang M, Chen H, Hall K, Korin J, Liu F, Wang D, Fu ZQ. Pandemonium Breaks Out: Disruption of Salicylic Acid-Mediated Defense by Plant Pathogens. MOLECULAR PLANT 2018; 11:1427-1439. [PMID: 30336330 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) or 2-hydroxybenoic acid is a phenolic plant hormone that plays an essential role in plant defense against biotrophic and semi-biotrophic pathogens. In Arabidopsis, SA is synthesized from chorismate in the chloroplast through the ICS1 (isochorismate synthase I) pathway during pathogen infection. The transcription co-activator NPR1 (Non-Expresser of Pathogenesis-Related Gene 1), as the master regulator of SA signaling, interacts with transcription factors to induce the expression of anti-microbial PR (Pathogenesis-Related) genes. To establish successful infections, plant bacterial, oomycete, fungal, and viral pathogens have evolved at least three major strategies to disrupt SA-mediated defense. The first strategy is to reduce SA accumulation directly by converting SA into its inactive derivatives. The second strategy is to interrupt SA biosynthesis by targeting the ICS1 pathway. In the third major strategy, plant pathogens deploy different mechanisms to interfere with SA downstream signaling. The wide array of strategies deployed by plant pathogens highlights the crucial role of disruption of SA-mediated plant defense in plant pathogenesis. A deeper understanding of this topic will greatly expand our knowledge of how plant pathogens cause diseases and consequently pave the way for the development of more effective ways to control these diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guang Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science and College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Jian Chen
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210014, China; Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Ming Chang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210014, China; Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Huan Chen
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210014, China; Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Katherine Hall
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - John Korin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Fengquan Liu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety-State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base of Ministry of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Daowen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat and Maize Crop Science and College of Agronomy, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Zheng Qing Fu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Cheng Z, Yu X, Li S, Wu Q. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis and identification of benzothiadiazole-induced genes and pathways potentially associated with defense response in banana. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:454. [PMID: 29898655 PMCID: PMC6001172 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-4830-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bananas (Musa spp.) are the most important fruit crops worldwide due to their high nutrition value. Fusarium wilt of banana, caused by fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (Foc 4), is considered as the most destructive disease in the world and results in extensive damage leading to productivity loss. The widespread use of plant resistance inducers (PRIs), such as benzothiadiazole (BTH), is a novel strategy to stimulate defense responses in banana plants to protect against pathogens infection. The recent focus on the crop defense against fungal infections has led to a renewed interest on understanding the molecular mechanisms of specific PRIs-mediated resistance. This transcriptome study aimed to identify genes that are associated with BTH-induced resistance. Patterns of gene expression in the leaves and roots of BTH-sprayed banana plants were studied using RNA-Seq. Results In this study, 18 RNA-Seq libraries from BTH-sprayed and untreated leaves and roots of the Cavendish plants, the most widely grown banana cultivar, were used for studying the transcriptional basis of BTH-related resistance. Comparative analyses have revealed that 6689 and 3624 differentially expressed genes were identified in leaves and roots, respectively, as compared to the control. Approximately 80% of these genes were differentially expressed in a tissue-specific manner. Further analysis showed that signaling perception and transduction, transcription factors, disease resistant proteins, plant hormones and cell wall organization-related genes were stimulated by BTH treatment, especially in roots. Interestingly, the ethylene and auxin biosynthesis and response genes were found to be up-regulated in leaves and roots, respectively, suggesting a choice among BTH-responsive phytohormone regulation. Conclusions Our data suggests a role for BTH in enhancing banana plant defense responses to Foc 4 infection, and demonstrates that BTH selectively affect biological processes associated with plant defenses. The genes identified in the study could be further studied and exploited to develop Foc 4-resistant banana varieties. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4830-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Cheng
- Haikou Experimental Station, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 570102, China
| | - Xiang Yu
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Shuxia Li
- Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- Haikou Experimental Station, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 570102, China.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Leibman D, Kravchik M, Wolf D, Haviv S, Weissberg M, Ophir R, Paris HS, Palukaitis P, Ding S, Gaba V, Gal‐On A. Differential expression of cucumber RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 1 genes during antiviral defence and resistance. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2018; 19:300-312. [PMID: 27879040 PMCID: PMC6637986 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 11/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/20/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 1 (RDR1) plays a crucial role in plant defence against viruses. In this study, it was observed that cucumber, Cucumis sativus, uniquely encodes a small gene family of four RDR1 genes. The cucumber RDR1 genes (CsRDR1a, CsRDR1b and duplicated CsRDR1c1/c2) shared 55%-60% homology in their encoded amino acid sequences. In healthy cucumber plants, RDR1a and RDR1b transcripts were expressed at higher levels than transcripts of RDR1c1/c2, which were barely detectable. The expression of all four CsRDR1 genes was induced by virus infection, after which the expression level of CsRDR1b increased 10-20-fold in several virus-resistant cucumber cultivars and in a broad virus-resistant transgenic cucumber line expressing a high level of transgene small RNAs, all without alteration in salicylic acid (SA) levels. By comparison, CsRDR1c1/c2 genes were highly induced (25-1300-fold) in susceptible cucumber cultivars infected with RNA or DNA viruses. Inhibition of RDR1c1/c2 expression led to increased virus accumulation. Ectopic application of SA induced the expression of cucumber RDR1a, RDR1b and RDRc1/c2 genes. A constitutive high level of RDR1b gene expression independent of SA was found to be associated with broad virus resistance. These findings show that multiple RDR1 genes are involved in virus resistance in cucumber and are regulated in a coordinated fashion with different expression profiles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Leibman
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed ResearchAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Michael Kravchik
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed ResearchAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Dalia Wolf
- Department of Vegetable and Field CropsAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Sabrina Haviv
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed ResearchAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Mira Weissberg
- Department of Fruit Tree SciencesAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Ron Ophir
- Department of Fruit Tree SciencesAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Harry S. Paris
- Department of Vegetable Crops and Plant GeneticsAgricultural Research Organization, Newe Ya'ar Research Center, PO Box 1021RamatYishay30‐095Israel
| | - Peter Palukaitis
- Department of Horticultural SciencesSeoul Women's UniversityNowon‐guSeoul01797South Korea
| | - Shou‐Wei Ding
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology & Institute for Integrative Genome BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaRiverside, CA92521USA
| | - Victor Gaba
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed ResearchAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| | - Amit Gal‐On
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed ResearchAgricultural Research Organization, Volcani CenterBet Dagan50250Israel
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Yoodee S, Kobayashi Y, Songnuan W, Boonchird C, Thitamadee S, Kobayashi I, Narangajavana J. Phytohormone priming elevates the accumulation of defense-related gene transcripts and enhances bacterial blight disease resistance in cassava. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2018; 122:65-77. [PMID: 29190504 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Cassava bacterial blight (CBB) disease caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam) is a severe disease in cassava worldwide. In addition to causing significant cassava yield loss, CBB disease has not been extensively studied, especially in terms of CBB resistance genes. The present research demonstrated the molecular mechanisms underlining the defense response during Xam infection in two cassava cultivars exhibiting different degrees of disease resistance, Huay Bong60 (HB60) and Hanatee (HN). Based on gene expression analysis, ten of twelve putative defense-related genes including, leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinases (LRR-RLKs), resistance (R), WRKY and pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, were differentially expressed between these two cassava cultivars during Xam infection. The up-regulation of defense-related genes observed in HB60 may be the mechanism required for the reduction of disease severity in the resistant cultivar. Interestingly, priming with salicylic acid (SA) or methyl jasmonate (MeJA) for 24 h before Xam inoculation could enhance the defense response in both cassava cultivars. The disease severity was decreased 10% in the resistant cultivar (HB60) and was remarkably reduced 21% in the susceptible cultivar (HN) by SA/MeJA priming. Priming with Xam inoculation modulated cassava4.1_013417, cassava4.1_030866 and cassava4.1_020555 (highest similarity to MeWRKY59, MePR1 and AtPDF2.2, respectively) expression and led to enhanced resistance of the susceptible cultivar in the second infection. The putative cis-regulatory elements were predicted in an upstream region of these three defense-related genes. The different gene expression levels in these genes between the two cultivars were due to the differences in cis-regulatory elements in their promoter regions. Taken together, our study strongly suggested that the induction of defense-related genes correlated with defense resistance against Xam infection, and exogenous application of SA or MeJA could elevate the defense response in both cultivars of cassava. This finding should pave the way for management to reduce yield loss from disease and genetic improvement in cassava.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sunisa Yoodee
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Phayathai, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yohko Kobayashi
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetics, Graduate School of Regional Innovation Studies, Mie University, Japan
| | - Wisuwat Songnuan
- Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Phayathai, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chuenchit Boonchird
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Phayathai, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siripong Thitamadee
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Phayathai, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Issei Kobayashi
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetics, Graduate School of Regional Innovation Studies, Mie University, Japan
| | - Jarunya Narangajavana
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Phayathai, Bangkok, Thailand; Center of Excellence on Agricultural Biotechnology: (AG-BIO/PERDO-CHE), Bangkok, Thailand.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Fernández-Crespo E, Navarro JA, Serra-Soriano M, Finiti I, García-Agustín P, Pallás V, González-Bosch C. Hexanoic Acid Treatment Prevents Systemic MNSV Movement in Cucumis melo Plants by Priming Callose Deposition Correlating SA and OPDA Accumulation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:1793. [PMID: 29104580 PMCID: PMC5655017 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Unlike fungal and bacterial diseases, no direct method is available to control viral diseases. The use of resistance-inducing compounds can be an alternative strategy for plant viruses. Here we studied the basal response of melon to Melon necrotic spot virus (MNSV) and demonstrated the efficacy of hexanoic acid (Hx) priming, which prevents the virus from systemically spreading. We analysed callose deposition and the hormonal profile and gene expression at the whole plant level. This allowed us to determine hormonal homeostasis in the melon roots, cotyledons, hypocotyls, stems and leaves involved in basal and hexanoic acid-induced resistance (Hx-IR) to MNSV. Our data indicate important roles of salicylic acid (SA), 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA), jasmonic-isoleucine, and ferulic acid in both responses to MNSV. The hormonal and metabolites balance, depending on the time and location associated with basal and Hx-IR, demonstrated the reprogramming of plant metabolism in MNSV-inoculated plants. The treatment with both SA and OPDA prior to virus infection significantly reduced MNSV systemic movement by inducing callose deposition. This demonstrates their relevance in Hx-IR against MNSV and a high correlation with callose deposition. Our data also provide valuable evidence to unravel priming mechanisms by natural compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma Fernández-Crespo
- Grupo de Bioquímica y Biotecnología, Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon de la Plana, Spain
| | - Jose A. Navarro
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (IBMCP), UPV-CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Marta Serra-Soriano
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (IBMCP), UPV-CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Iván Finiti
- Departament de Bioquímica, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Pilar García-Agustín
- Grupo de Bioquímica y Biotecnología, Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon de la Plana, Spain
| | - Vicente Pallás
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas (IBMCP), UPV-CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Carmen González-Bosch
- Departament de Bioquímica, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Brenya E, Trusov Y, Dietzgen RG, Botella JR. Heterotrimeric G-proteins facilitate resistance to plant pathogenic viruses in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2016; 11:e1212798. [PMID: 27454415 PMCID: PMC5022408 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2016.1212798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Heterotrimeric G-proteins, consisting of Gα, Gβ and Gγ subunits, are important signal transducers in eukaryotes. In plants, G-protein-mediated signaling contributes to defense against a range of fungal and bacterial pathogens. Here we studied response of G-protein-deficient mutants to ssRNA viruses representing 2 different families: Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) (Bromoviridae) and Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) (Potyviridae). We found that development of spreading necrosis on infected plants was suppressed in the Gβ-deficient mutant (agb1-2) compared to wild type and Gα-deficient mutant (gpa1-4). In accordance, ion leakage caused by viral infection was also significantly reduced in agb1-2 compared to wild type and gpa1-4. Nevertheless, both viruses replicated better in agb1-2 plants, while gpa1-4 was similar to wild type. Analysis of pathogenesis-related genes showed that Gβ negatively regulated salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and abscisic acid marker genes during CMV and TuMV infections. Interestingly, analysis of salicylic acid deficient transgenic plants indicated that salicylic acid did not affect resistance against these viruses and did not influence the Gβ-mediated defense response. We conclude that heterotrimeric G-proteins play a positive role in defense against viral pathogens probably by promoting cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric Brenya
- Plant Genetic Engineering Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Yuri Trusov
- Plant Genetic Engineering Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ralf Georg Dietzgen
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - José Ramón Botella
- Plant Genetic Engineering Laboratory, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- CONTACT José Ramón Botella
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Silva MDS, Silva RPD, Souza AVLD, Xavier YPM, Oliveira ACD, Coqueiro DSO. Aplicação exógena do ácido salicílico em maracujazeiro-amarelo para o controle do vírus do endurecimento dos frutos. ARQUIVOS DO INSTITUTO BIOLÓGICO 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/1808-1657000082015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO: Foram avaliados o efeito do ácido salicílico (AS) no controle do Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV), vírus que induz o endurecimento dos frutos do maracujazeiro (EFM), e a sua influência na expressão dos sintomas e na ativação das enzimas peroxidase e polifenoloxidase. O experimento foi delineado e conduzido de forma inteiramente casualizada. Os tratamentos consistiram em AS (2,5 mM) e controle (etanol 10%), aplicados 12 horas antes da inoculação mecânica do CABMV, agente causal do EFM no Brasil. Um experimento similar foi conduzido sob as mesmas condições, porém, quatro aplicações do AS foram realizadas semanalmente após a inoculação mecânica do CABMV. Em ambos os experimentos a avaliação da severidade da doença foi realizada empregando escala de notas que variaram de 0 a 3. Para avaliar a atividade das enzimas peroxidase e polifenoloxidase, as plantas foram tratadas (AS e controle) e, após 12 horas, inoculadas com o isolado de CABMV. Foram realizadas amostragens foliares 0, 12, 24 e 48 horas após os tratamentos (HAT), que foram processadas e analisadas em espectrofotômetro para a constatação da ativação da peroxidase e polifenoloxidase. Aos 30 dias após a inoculação (DAI), o AS aplicado uma única vez promoveu redução da severidade de 57,1%, quando comparado com o controle. Nas plantas submetidas às aplicações semanais de AS foi constatada a redução significativa da expressão dos sintomas aos 45 DAI. Nos ensaios bioquímicos foi observado aumento significativo de peroxidase nos intervalos de 12 horas (DAI)/24 horas (HAT). Para polifenoloxidase foi observado um aumento significativo de sua atividade nos intervalos de 24 horas (DAI)/48 horas (HAT). Sugere-se que o AS pode representar uma ferramenta adicional no manejo do EFM.
Collapse
|
33
|
Fernández-Calvino L, Guzmán-Benito I, Del Toro FJ, Donaire L, Castro-Sanz AB, Ruíz-Ferrer V, Llave C. Activation of senescence-associated Dark-inducible (DIN) genes during infection contributes to enhanced susceptibility to plant viruses. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2016; 17:3-15. [PMID: 25787925 PMCID: PMC6638341 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Virus infections in plants cause changes in host gene expression that are common to other environmental stresses. In this work, we found extensive overlap in the transcriptional responses between Arabidopsis thaliana plants infected with Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) and plants undergoing senescence. This is exemplified by the up-regulation during infection of several senescence-associated Dark-inducible (DIN) genes, including AtDIN1 (Senescence 1, SEN1), AtDIN6 (Asparagine synthetase 1, AtASN1) and AtDIN11. DIN1, DIN6 and DIN11 homologues were also activated in Nicotiana benthamiana in response to TRV and Potato virus X (PVX) infection. Reduced TRV levels in RNA interference (RNAi) lines targeting AtDIN11 indicate that DIN11 is an important modulator of susceptibility to TRV in Arabidopsis. Furthermore, low accumulation of TRV in Arabidopsis protoplasts from RNAi lines suggests that AtDIN11 supports virus multiplication in this species. The effect of DIN6 on virus accumulation was negligible in Arabidopsis, perhaps as a result of gene or functional redundancy. However, TRV-induced silencing of NbASN, the DIN6 homologue in N. benthamiana, compromises TRV and PVX accumulation in systemically infected leaves. Interestingly, NbASN inactivation correlates with the appearance of morphological defects in infected leaves. We found that DIN6 and DIN11 regulate virus multiplication in a step prior to the activation of plant defence responses. We hypothesize on the possible roles of DIN6 and DIN11 during virus infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lourdes Fernández-Calvino
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Irene Guzmán-Benito
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco J Del Toro
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Livia Donaire
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana B Castro-Sanz
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Virginia Ruíz-Ferrer
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - César Llave
- Department of Environmental Biology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Zhu F, Deng XG, Xu F, Jian W, Peng XJ, Zhu T, Xi DH, Lin HH. Mitochondrial alternative oxidase is involved in both compatible and incompatible host-virus combinations in Nicotiana benthamiana. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 239:26-35. [PMID: 26398788 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The alternative oxidase (AOX) functions in the resistance to biotic stress. However, the mechanisms of AOX in the systemic antiviral defense response and N (a typical resistance gene)-mediated resistance to Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) are elusive. A chemical approach was undertaken to investigate the role of NbAOX in the systemic resistance to RNA viruses. Furthermore, we used a virus-induced gene-silencing (VIGS)-based genetics approach to investigate the function of AOX in the N-mediated resistance to TMV. The inoculation of virus significantly increased the NbAOX transcript and protein levels and the cyanide-resistant respiration in the upper un-inoculated leaves. Pretreatment with potassium cyanide greatly increased the plant's systemic resistance, whereas the application of salicylhydroxamic acid significantly compromised the plant's systemic resistance. Additionally, in NbAOX1a-silenced N-transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana plants, the inoculated leaf collapsed and the movement of TMV into the systemic tissue eventually led to the spreading of HR-PCD and the death of the whole plant. The hypersensitive response marker gene HIN1 was significantly increased in the NbAOX1a-silenced plants. Significant amounts of TMV-CP mRNA and protein were detected in the NbAOX1a-silenced plants but not in the control plants. Overall, evidence is provided that AOX plays important roles in both compatible and incompatible plant-virus combinations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China; College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Xing-Guang Deng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Fei Xu
- Applied Biotechnology Center, Wuhan Bioengineering Insititute, 430415, China
| | - Wei Jian
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xing-Ji Peng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Tong Zhu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - De-Hui Xi
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Hong-Hui Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Alazem M, Lin NS. Roles of plant hormones in the regulation of host-virus interactions. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2015; 16:529-40. [PMID: 25220680 PMCID: PMC6638471 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Hormones are tuners of plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. They are involved in various complicated networks, through which they modulate responses to different stimuli. Four hormones primarily regulate plant defence to pathogens: salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene (Et) and abscisic acid (ABA). In susceptible plants, viral infections result in hormonal disruption, which manifests as the simultaneous induction of several antagonistic hormones. However, these antagonistic hormones may exhibit some sequential accumulation in resistant lines. Virus propagation is usually restricted by the activation of the small interfering RNA (siRNA) antiviral machinery and/or SA signalling pathway. Several studies have investigated these two systems, using different model viruses. However, the roles of hormones other than SA, especially those with antagonistic properties, such as ABA, have been neglected. Increasing evidence indicates that hormones control components of the small RNA system, which regulates many processes (including the siRNA antiviral machinery and the microRNA system) at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional level. Consequently, cross-talk between the antagonistic SA and ABA pathways modulates plant responses at multiple levels. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the different roles of hormones in the regulation of plant-virus interactions, which are helping us to elucidate the fine tuning of viral and plant systems by hormones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mazen Alazem
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Nankang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Faoro F, Gozzo F. Is modulating virus virulence by induced systemic resistance realistic? PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 234:1-13. [PMID: 25804804 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 01/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Induction of plant resistance, either achieved by chemicals (systemic acquired resistance, SAR) or by rhizobacteria (induced systemic resistance, ISR) is a possible and/or complementary alternative to manage virus infections in crops. SAR mechanisms operating against viruses are diverse, depending on the pathosystem, and may inhibit virus replication as well as cell-to-cell and long-distance movement. Inhibition is often mediated by salicylic acid with the involvement of alternative oxidase and reactive oxygen species. However, salicylate may also stimulate a separate downstream pathway, leading to the induction of an additional mechanism, based on RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 1-mediated RNA silencing. Thus, SAR and RNA silencing would closely cooperate in the defence against virus infection. Despite tremendous recent progress in the knowledge of SAR mechanisms, only a few compounds, including benzothiadiazole and chitosan have been shown to reduce the severity of systemic virus disease in controlled environment and, more modestly, in open field. Finally, ISR induction, has proved to be a promising strategy to control virus disease, particularly by seed bacterization with a mixture of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. However, the use of any of these treatments should be integrated with cultivation practices that reduce vector pressure by the use of insecticides, or by Bt crops.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franco Faoro
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy; CNR, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, Strada delle Cacce 73, 10135 Turin, Italy.
| | - Franco Gozzo
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Section of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milano, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Salicylic Acid Signaling in Plant Innate Immunity. PLANT HORMONE SIGNALING SYSTEMS IN PLANT INNATE IMMUNITY 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-9285-1_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
38
|
Lee YH, Kim SH, Yun BW, Hong JK. Altered cultivar resistance of kimchi cabbage seedlings mediated by salicylic Acid, jasmonic Acid and ethylene. THE PLANT PATHOLOGY JOURNAL 2014; 30:323-9. [PMID: 25289020 PMCID: PMC4181111 DOI: 10.5423/ppj.nt.06.2014.0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Two cultivars Buram-3-ho (susceptible) and CR-Hagwang (moderate resistant) of kimchi cabbage seedlings showed differential defense responses to anthracnose (Colletotrichum higginsianum), black spot (Alternaria brassicicola) and black rot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, Xcc) diseases in our previous study. Defense-related hormones salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene led to different transcriptional regulation of pathogenesis-related (PR) gene expression in both cultivars. In this study, exogenous application of SA suppressed basal defenses to C. higginsianum in the 1st leaves of the susceptible cultivar and cultivar resistance of the 2nd leaves of the resistant cultivar. SA also enhanced susceptibility of the susceptible cultivar to A. brassicicola. By contrast, SA elevated disease resistance to Xcc in the resistant cultivar, but not in the susceptible cultivar. Methyl jasmonate (MJ) treatment did not affect the disease resistance to C. higginsianum and Xcc in either cultivar, but it compromised the disease resistance to A. brassicicola in the resistant cultivar. Treatment with 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) ethylene precursor did not change resistance of the either cultivar to C. higginsianum and Xcc. Effect of ACC pretreatment on the resistance to A. brassicicola was not distinguished between susceptible and resistant cultivars, because cultivar resistance of the resistant cultivar was lost by prolonged moist dark conditions. Taken together, exogenously applied SA, JA and ethylene altered defense signaling crosstalk to three diseases of anthracnose, black spot and black rot in a cultivar-dependent manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Young Hee Lee
- Department of Horticultural Science, Gyeongnam National University of Science and Technology (GNTech), 33 Dongjinro, Jinju 660-758, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Hee Kim
- Division of Plant Sciences, Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center and Interdisciplinary Plant Group, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Byung-Wook Yun
- Division of Plant Biosciences, School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeum Kyu Hong
- Department of Horticultural Science, Gyeongnam National University of Science and Technology (GNTech), 33 Dongjinro, Jinju 660-758, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Mauck KE, De Moraes CM, Mescher MC. Biochemical and physiological mechanisms underlying effects of Cucumber mosaic virus on host-plant traits that mediate transmission by aphid vectors. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2014; 37:1427-39. [PMID: 24329574 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The transmission of insect-vectored diseases entails complex interactions among pathogens, hosts and vectors. Chemistry plays a key role in these interactions; yet, little work has addressed the chemical ecology of insect-vectored diseases, especially in plant pathosystems. Recently, we documented effects of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) on the phenotype of its host (Cucurbita pepo) that influence plant-aphid interactions and appear conducive to the non-persistent transmission of this virus. CMV reduces host-plant quality for aphids, causing rapid vector dispersal. Nevertheless, aphids are attracted to the elevated volatile emissions of CMV-infected plants. Here, we show that CMV infection (1) disrupts levels of carbohydrates and amino acids in leaf tissue (where aphids initially probe plants and acquire virions) and in the phloem (where long-term feeding occurs) in ways that reduce plant quality for aphids; (2) causes constitutive up-regulation of salicylic acid; (3) alters herbivore-induced jasmonic acid biosynthesis as well as the sensitivity of downstream defences to jasmonic acid; and (4) elevates ethylene emissions and free fatty acid precursors of volatiles. These findings are consistent with previously documented patterns of aphid performance and behaviour and provide a foundation for further exploration of the genetic mechanisms responsible for these effects and the evolutionary processes that shape them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kerry E Mauck
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA; Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Zhou T, Murphy AM, Lewsey MG, Westwood JH, Zhang HM, González I, Canto T, Carr JP. Domains of the cucumber mosaic virus 2b silencing suppressor protein affecting inhibition of salicylic acid-induced resistance and priming of salicylic acid accumulation during infection. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:1408-1413. [PMID: 24633701 PMCID: PMC4027040 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.063461-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) 2b silencing suppressor protein allows the virus to overcome resistance to replication and local movement in inoculated leaves of plants treated with salicylic acid (SA), a resistance-inducing plant hormone. In Arabidopsis thaliana plants systemically infected with CMV, the 2b protein also primes the induction of SA biosynthesis during this compatible interaction. We found that CMV infection of susceptible tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) also induced SA accumulation. Utilization of mutant 2b proteins expressed during infection of tobacco showed that the N- and C-terminal domains, which had previously been implicated in regulation of symptom induction, were both required for subversion of SA-induced resistance, while all mutants tested except those affecting the putative phosphorylation domain had lost the ability to prime SA accumulation and expression of the SA-induced marker gene PR-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhou
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
- Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Rd, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Alex M. Murphy
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Mathew G. Lewsey
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Jack H. Westwood
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Heng-Mu Zhang
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base for Zhejiang Sustainable Pest and Disease Control, Institute of Virology and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 198 Shiqiao Rd, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Inmaculada González
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CIB, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Tomás Canto
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CIB, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - John P. Carr
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Yang W, Zhu C, Ma X, Li G, Gan L, Ng D, Xia K. Hydrogen peroxide is a second messenger in the salicylic acid-triggered adventitious rooting process in mung bean seedlings. PLoS One 2013; 8:e84580. [PMID: 24386397 PMCID: PMC3874037 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In plants, salicylic acid (SA) is a signaling molecule that regulates disease resistance responses, such as systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and hypertensive response (HR). SA has been implicated as participating in various biotic and abiotic stresses. This study was conducted to investigate the role of SA in adventitious root formation (ARF) in mung bean (Phaseolus radiatus L) hypocotyl cuttings. We observed that hypocotyl treatment with SA could significantly promote the adventitious root formation, and its effects were dose and time dependent. Explants treated with SA displayed a 130% increase in adventitious root number compared with control seedlings. The role of SA in mung bean hypocotyl ARF as well as its interaction with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) were also elucidated. Pretreatment of mung bean explants with N, N’-dimethylthiourea (DMTU), a scavenger for H2O2, resulted in a significant reduction of SA-induced ARF. Diphenyleneiodonium (DPI), a specific inhibitor of membrane-linked NADPH oxidase, also inhibited the effect of adventitious rooting triggered by SA treatment. The determination of the endogenous H2O2 level indicated that the seedlings treated with SA could induce H2O2 accumulation compared with the control treatment. Our results revealed a distinctive role of SA in the promotion of adventitious rooting via the process of H2O2 accumulation. This conclusion was further supported by antioxidant enzyme activity assays. Based on these results, we conclude that the accumulation of free H2O2 might be a downstream event in response to SA-triggered adventitious root formation in mung bean seedlings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yang
- Laboratory of Plant hormone, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Changhua Zhu
- Laboratory of Plant hormone, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoling Ma
- Laboratory of Plant hormone, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guijun Li
- Laboratory of Plant hormone, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lijun Gan
- Laboratory of Plant hormone, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Denny Ng
- CP Bio, Inc., Chino, California, United States of America
| | - Kai Xia
- Laboratory of Plant hormone, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Lin KY, Hsu YH, Chen HC, Lin NS. Transgenic resistance to Bamboo mosaic virus by expression of interfering satellite RNA. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2013; 14:693-707. [PMID: 23675895 PMCID: PMC6638707 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Plant genetic engineering has broadened the options for plant virus resistance and is mostly based on pathogen-derived resistance. Previously, we have shown that interfering satellite RNA (satRNA) of Bamboo mosaic virus (satBaMV) greatly reduces Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) accumulation and BaMV-induced symptoms in co-inoculated plants. Here, we generated a nonviral source of virus-resistant transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana by introducing interfering satBaMV. Asymptomatic transgenic N. benthamiana lines were highly resistant to BaMV virion and viral RNA infection, and the expression of the transgene BSL6 was higher in asymptomatic than mildly symptomatic lines. In addition, BaMV- and satBaMV-specific small RNAs were detectable only after BaMV challenge, and their levels were associated with genomic viral RNA or satRNA levels. By transcriptomic analysis, the salicylic acid (SA) signalling pathway was not induced in satBaMV transgenic A. thaliana in mock conditions, suggesting that two major antiviral mechanisms, RNA silencing and SA-mediated resistance, are not involved directly in transgenic satBaMV-mediated BaMV interference. In contrast, resistance is associated with the level of the interfering satBaMV transgene. We propose satBaMV-mediated BaMV interference in transgenic plants by competition for replicase with BaMV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Yu Lin
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Elsharkawy MM, Shimizu M, Takahashi H, Ozaki K, Hyakumachi M. Induction of Systemic Resistance against Cucumber mosaic virus in Arabidopsis thaliana by Trichoderma asperellum SKT-1. THE PLANT PATHOLOGY JOURNAL 2013; 29:193-200. [PMID: 25288946 DOI: 10.5423/ppj.si.07.2012.0117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Revised: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma asperellum SKT-1 is a microbial pesticide that is very effective against various diseases. Our study was undertaken to evaluate T. asperellum SKT-1 for induction of resistance against yellow strain of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV-Y) in Arabidopsis plants. Disease severity was rated at 2 weeks post inoculation (WPI). CMV titre in Arabidopsis leaves was determined by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) at 2 WPI. Our results demonstrated that among all Arabidopsis plants treated with barley grain inoculum (BGI) of SKT-1 NahG and npr1 plants showed no significant reduction in disease severity and CMV titre as compared with control plants. In contrast, disease severity and CMV titre were significantly reduced in all Arabidopsis plants treated with culture filtrate (CF) of SKT-1 as compared with control plants. RT-PCR results showed increased expression levels of SA-inducible genes, but not JA/ET-inducible genes, in leaves of BGI treated plants. Moreover, expression levels of SA- and JA/ET-inducible genes were increased in leaves of CF treated plants. In conclusion, BGI treatment induced systemic resistance against CMV through SA signaling cascade in Arabidopsis plants. While, treatment with CF of SKT-1 mediated the expression of a majority of the various pathogen related genes, which led to the increased defense mechanism against CMV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Mohamed Elsharkawy
- United Graduate School of Agriculture Science, Gifu University, Gifu City 501-1193, Japan Department of Agricultural Botany, Faculty of Agriculture, Kafr El-Sheikh University, 33516, Egypt
| | - Masafumi Shimizu
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu City 501-1193, Japan
| | - Hideki Takahashi
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 981-8555, Japan
| | - Kouichi Ozaki
- Life Science Research Institute, Kumiai Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, Kikugawa, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Mitsuro Hyakumachi
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu City 501-1193, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Hipper C, Brault V, Ziegler-Graff V, Revers F. Viral and cellular factors involved in Phloem transport of plant viruses. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:154. [PMID: 23745125 PMCID: PMC3662875 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2013] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Phloem transport of plant viruses is an essential step in the setting-up of a complete infection of a host plant. After an initial replication step in the first cells, viruses spread from cell-to-cell through mesophyll cells, until they reach the vasculature where they rapidly move to distant sites in order to establish the infection of the whole plant. This last step is referred to as systemic transport, or long-distance movement, and involves virus crossings through several cellular barriers: bundle sheath, vascular parenchyma, and companion cells for virus loading into sieve elements (SE). Viruses are then passively transported within the source-to-sink flow of photoassimilates and are unloaded from SE into sink tissues. However, the molecular mechanisms governing virus long-distance movement are far from being understood. While most viruses seem to move systemically as virus particles, some viruses are transported in SE as viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNP). The nature of the cellular and viral factors constituting these RNPs is still poorly known. The topic of this review will mainly focus on the host and viral factors that facilitate or restrict virus long-distance movement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Véronique Ziegler-Graff
- Laboratoire Propre du CNRS (UPR 2357), Virologie Végétale, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, Université de StrasbourgStrasbourg, France
| | - Frédéric Revers
- UMR 1332 de Biologie du Fruit et Pathologie, INRA, Université de BordeauxVillenave d’Ornon, France
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Mejía-Teniente L, de Dalia Durán-Flores F, Chapa-Oliver AM, Torres-Pacheco I, Cruz-Hernández A, González-Chavira MM, Ocampo-Velázquez RV, Guevara-González RG. Oxidative and molecular responses in Capsicum annuum L. after hydrogen peroxide, salicylic acid and chitosan foliar applications. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:10178-96. [PMID: 23676352 PMCID: PMC3676835 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140510178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is an important ROS molecule (Reactive oxygen species) that serves as a signal of oxidative stress and activation of signaling cascades as a result of the early response of the plant to biotic stress. This response can also be generated with the application of elicitors, stable molecules that induce the activation of transduction cascades and hormonal pathways, which trigger induced resistance to environmental stress. In this work, we evaluated the endogenous H2O2 production caused by salicylic acid (SA), chitosan (QN), and H2O2 elicitors in Capsicum annuum L. Hydrogen peroxide production after elicitation, catalase (CAT) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) activities, as well as gene expression analysis of cat1, pal, and pathogenesis-related protein 1 (pr1) were determined. Our results displayed that 6.7 and 10 mM SA concentrations, and, 14 and 18 mM H2O2 concentrations, induced an endogenous H2O2 and gene expression. QN treatments induced the same responses in lesser proportion than the other two elicitors. Endogenous H2O2 production monitored during several days, showed results that could be an indicator for determining application opportunity uses in agriculture for maintaining plant alert systems against a stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mejía-Teniente
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| | - Flor de Dalia Durán-Flores
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| | - Angela María Chapa-Oliver
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| | - Irineo Torres-Pacheco
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| | - Andrés Cruz-Hernández
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| | - Mario M. González-Chavira
- Biotechnology Group, National Institute for Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Research (INIFAP), Celaya-San Miguel de Allende, km 6, CP 38010, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico; E-Mail:
| | - Rosalía V. Ocampo-Velázquez
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| | - Ramón G. Guevara-González
- Biosystems Engineering Group, School of Engineering, Queretaro Autonomous University, C.U Cerro de las Campanas, S/N, colonia Las Campanas, CP 76010, Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; E-Mails: (L.M.-T.); (F.D.D.-F.); (A.M.C.-O.); (I.T.-P.); (A.C.-H.); (R.V.O.-V.)
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Song GC, Choi HK, Ryu CM. The folate precursor para-aminobenzoic acid elicits induced resistance against Cucumber mosaic virus and Xanthomonas axonopodis. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2013; 111:925-34. [PMID: 23471007 PMCID: PMC3631333 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/21/2013] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The use of vitamins including vitamin B1, B2 and K3 for the induction of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) to protect crops against plant pathogens has been evaluated previously. The use of vitamins is beneficial because it is cost effective and safe for the environment. The use of folate precursors, including ortho-aminobenzoic acid, to induce SAR against a soft-rot pathogen in tobacco has been reported previously. METHODS In the present study, para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA, also referred to as vitamin Bx) was selected owing to its effect on the induction of SAR against Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria in pepper plants through greenhouse screening. KEY RESULTS Dipping of pepper seedlings in a 1 mm PABA solution in field trials induced SAR against artificially infiltrated X. axonopodis pv. vesicatoria and naturally occurring cucumber mosaic virus. Expression of the Capsicum annuum pathogenesis-related 4 gene was primed in response to pathogen infection as assessed by quantitative real-time PCR. The accumulation of cucumber mosaic virus RNA was reduced in PABA-treated pepper plants at 40 and 105 d post-treatment. Unexpectedly, fruit yield was increased in PABA-treated plants, indicating that PABA-mediated SAR successfully protected pepper plants from infection by bacterial and viral pathogens without significant fitness allocation costs. CONCLUSIONS The present study is the first to demonstrate the effective elicitation of SAR by a folate precursor under field conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Geun Cheol Song
- Molecular Phytobacteriology Laboratory, Systems & Synthetic Biology Research Center, KRIBB, Daejeon 305-806, South Korea
- Biosystems and Bioengineering Program, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 305-350, South Korea
| | - Hye Kyung Choi
- Molecular Phytobacteriology Laboratory, Systems & Synthetic Biology Research Center, KRIBB, Daejeon 305-806, South Korea
| | - Choong-Min Ryu
- Molecular Phytobacteriology Laboratory, Systems & Synthetic Biology Research Center, KRIBB, Daejeon 305-806, South Korea
- Biosystems and Bioengineering Program, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 305-350, South Korea
- * For correspondence. E-mail
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Love AJ, Geri C, Laird J, Carr C, Yun BW, Loake GJ, Tada Y, Sadanandom A, Milner JJ. Cauliflower mosaic virus protein P6 inhibits signaling responses to salicylic acid and regulates innate immunity. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47535. [PMID: 23071821 PMCID: PMC3469532 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) encodes a multifunctional protein P6 that is required for translation of the 35S RNA and also acts as a suppressor of RNA silencing. Here we demonstrate that P6 additionally acts as a pathogenicity effector of an unique and novel type, modifying NPR1 (a key regulator of salicylic acid (SA)- and jasmonic acid (JA)-dependent signaling) and inhibiting SA-dependent defence responses We find that that transgene-mediated expression of P6 in Arabidopsis and transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana has profound effects on defence signaling, suppressing expression of representative SA-responsive genes and increasing expression of representative JA-responsive genes. Relative to wild-type Arabidopsis P6-expressing transgenics had greatly reduced expression of PR-1 following SA-treatment, infection by CaMV or inoculation with an avirulent bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst). Similarly transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana of P6 (including a mutant form defective in translational transactivation activity) suppressed PR-1a transcript accumulation in response to Agrobacterium infiltration and following SA-treatment. As well as suppressing the expression of representative SA-regulated genes, P6-transgenic Arabidopsis showed greatly enhanced susceptibility to both virulent and avirulent Pst (titres elevated 10 to 30-fold compared to non-transgenic controls) but reduced susceptibility to the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Necrosis following SA-treatment or inoculation with avirulent Pst was reduced and delayed in P6-transgenics. NPR1 an important regulator of SA/JA crosstalk, was more highly expressed in the presence of P6 and introduction of the P6 transgene into a transgenic line expressing an NPR1:GFP fusion resulted in greatly increased fluorescence in nuclei even in the absence of SA. Thus in the presence of P6 an inactive form of NPR1 is mislocalized in the nucleus even in uninduced plants. These results demonstrate that P6 is a new type of pathogenicity effector protein that enhances susceptibility to biotrophic pathogens by suppressing SA- but enhancing JA-signaling responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Love
- Plant Science Research Theme, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Chiara Geri
- Plant Science Research Theme, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Istituto di Biologia e Biotechnologia Agraria, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Richerche, Pisa, Italy
| | - Janet Laird
- Plant Science Research Theme, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Carr
- Plant Science Research Theme, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Byung-Wook Yun
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Gary J. Loake
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Yasuomi Tada
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ari Sadanandom
- Plant Science Research Theme, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Joel J. Milner
- Plant Science Research Theme, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Abstract
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is an important virus because of its agricultural impact in the Mediterranean Basin and worldwide, and also as a model for understanding plant-virus interactions. This review focuses on those areas where most progress has been made over the past decade in our understanding of CMV. Clearly, a deep understanding of the role of the recently described CMV 2b gene in suppression of host RNA silencing and viral virulence is the most important discovery. These findings have had an impact well beyond the virus itself, as the 2b gene is an important tool in the studies of eukaryotic gene regulation. Protein 2b was shown to be involved in most of the steps of the virus cycle and to interfere with several basal host defenses. Progress has also been made concerning the mechanisms of virus replication and movement. However, only a few host proteins that interact with viral proteins have been identified, making this an area of research where major efforts are still needed. Another area where major advances have been made is CMV population genetics, where contrasting results were obtained. On the one hand, CMV was shown to be prone to recombination and to show high genetic diversity based on sequence data of different isolates. On the other hand, populations did not exhibit high genetic variability either within plants, or even in a field and the nearby wild plants. The situation was partially clarified with the finding that severe bottlenecks occur during both virus movement within a plant and transmission between plants. Finally, novel studies were undertaken to elucidate mechanisms leading to selection in virus population, according to the host or its environment, opening a new research area in plant-virus coevolution.
Collapse
|
49
|
Ma H, Song C, Borth W, Sether D, Melzer M, Hu J. Modified expression of alternative oxidase in transgenic tomato and petunia affects the level of tomato spotted wilt virus resistance. BMC Biotechnol 2011; 11:96. [PMID: 22014312 PMCID: PMC3226446 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6750-11-96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) has a very wide host range, and is transmitted in a persistent manner by several species of thrips. These characteristics make this virus difficult to control. We show here that the over-expression of the mitochondrial alternative oxidase (AOX) in tomato and petunia is related to TSWV resistance. RESULTS The open reading frame and full-length sequence of the tomato AOX gene LeAox1au were cloned and introduced into tomato 'Healani' and petunia 'Sheer Madness' using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Highly expressed AOX transgenic tomato and petunia plants were selfed and transgenic R1 seedlings from 10 tomato lines and 12 petunia lines were used for bioassay. For each assayed line, 22 to 32 tomato R1 progeny in three replications and 39 to 128 petunia progeny in 13 replications were challenged with TSWV. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays showed that the TSWV levels in transgenic tomato line FKT4-1 was significantly lower than that of wild-type controls after challenge with TSWV. In addition, transgenic petunia line FKP10 showed significantly less lesion number and smaller lesion size than non-transgenic controls after inoculation by TSWV. CONCLUSION In all assayed transgenic tomato lines, a higher percentage of transgenic progeny had lower TSWV levels than non-transgenic plants after challenge with TSWV, and the significantly increased resistant levels of tomato and petunia lines identified in this study indicate that altered expression levels of AOX in tomato and petunia can affect the levels of TSWV resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Ma
- Department of Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Lee WS, Fu SF, Verchot-Lubicz J, Carr JP. Genetic modification of alternative respiration in Nicotiana benthamiana affects basal and salicylic acid-induced resistance to potato virus X. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 11:41. [PMID: 21356081 PMCID: PMC3058079 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-11-41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salicylic acid (SA) regulates multiple anti-viral mechanisms, including mechanism(s) that may be negatively regulated by the mitochondrial enzyme, alternative oxidase (AOX), the sole component of the alternative respiratory pathway. However, studies of this mechanism can be confounded by SA-mediated induction of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 1, a component of the antiviral RNA silencing pathway. We made transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana plants in which alternative respiratory pathway capacity was either increased by constitutive expression of AOX, or decreased by expression of a dominant-negative mutant protein (AOX-E). N. benthamiana was used because it is a natural mutant that does not express a functional RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 1. RESULTS Antimycin A (an alternative respiratory pathway inducer and also an inducer of resistance to viruses) and SA triggered resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Resistance to TMV induced by antimycin A, but not by SA, was inhibited in Aox transgenic plants while SA-induced resistance to this virus appeared to be stronger in Aox-E transgenic plants. These effects, which were limited to directly inoculated leaves, were not affected by the presence or absence of a transgene constitutively expressing a functional RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (MtRDR1). Unexpectedly, Aox-transgenic plants infected with potato virus X (PVX) showed markedly increased susceptibility to systemic disease induction and virus accumulation in inoculated and systemically infected leaves. SA-induced resistance to PVX was compromised in Aox-transgenic plants but plants expressing AOX-E exhibited enhanced SA-induced resistance to this virus. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that AOX-regulated mechanisms not only play a role in SA-induced resistance but also make an important contribution to basal resistance against certain viruses such as PVX.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Sham Lee
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Shih-Feng Fu
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Jeanmarie Verchot-Lubicz
- Oklahoma State University, Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, 127 Noble Research Center, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - John P Carr
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| |
Collapse
|