Depressed mood during the menopausal transition and early postmenopause: observations from the Seattle Midlife Women's Health Study

Depressive symptoms over the final menstrual period: Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN)

BACKGROUND

Women may be vulnerable to elevated depressive symptoms during the menopause transition (MT). Studies generally have not considered premenopausal depressive symptom history or examined symptoms in relation to the final menstrual period (FMP).

OBJECTIVE

To identify specific time points in relation to the FMP when depressive symptoms increase or decrease.

METHODS

Participants were 1582 multiracial/ethnic women from the longitudinal Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Biological, psychosocial, and depressive symptom data were collected approximately annually. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CESD) scale.

RESULTS

Women with high baseline depressive symptoms (CES-D ≥ 16) declined in symptoms (M = -1.04/yr., 95 % CI = -1.58, -0.50) until 4 years before the FMP, followed by a smaller decrease (M = -0.50/yr., 95 % CI = -0.72, -0.28) until 18 months after the FMP. Depressive symptoms increased (M = 0.21/yr., 95 % CI = 0.11, 0.30) in those with low baseline symptoms until 1 year before the FMP, and decreased (M = -0.06/yr., 95 % CI = -0.11, -0.008) going forward. Greater social support, higher levels of follicle stimulating hormone and estradiol, and less sleep disturbance contributed to greater decline in depressive symptoms among those with high baseline depressive symptoms. Anxiety, experiencing stressful life events, lower body mass index, and poor role-physical function contributed to an increase in depressive symptoms among those with low baseline symptoms.

LIMITATIONS

Excluded women had higher baseline CES-D scores. Lacked pre-MT depression for pre/early perimenopausal women at baseline.

CONCLUSION

Accounting for baseline depressive symptom level and focusing on the FMP more precisely characterize depressive symptom change over the MT.

A novel method for quantifying affective sensitivity to endogenous ovarian hormones

Increased sensitivity to ovarian hormone changes is implicated in the etiology of reproductive mood disorders across the female lifespan, including menstrually-related mood disorders, perinatal mood disorders, and perimenopausal depression. Developing a method to accurately quantify sensitivity to endogenous hormone fluctuations may therefore facilitate the prediction and prevention of these mental health conditions. Here, we propose one such method applying a synchrony analysis to compute time-lagged cross-correlations between repeated assessments of endogenous hormone levels and self-reported affect. We apply this method to a dataset containing frequent repeated assessments of affective symptoms and the urinary metabolites of estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) in 94 perimenopausal females. These preliminary findings suggest that, with further refinement and validation, the proposed method holds promise as a diagnostic tool to be used in clinical practice and to advance research investigating the etiology of reproductive mood disorders.

Sleep, Mood, and Nutrition Patterns of Postmenopausal Women Diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder by Menopause Periods

Menopausal women experience changes in ovarian activity and fluctuating hormone levels. The aim of this study was to detect ongoing sleep and nutritional problems in postmenopausal women. This study was conducted with 62 postmenopausal women who had been diagnosed with major depressive disorder, were aged 42-64, were not dieting for at least 1 month, and had been using antidepressants for at least 6 months. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-42 were used. Anthropometric measurements were taken and body composition analysis was performed. The prevalence of obesity and overweight were 12.9% and 71%, respectively. Hot flashes, night sweats, and mood swing were more common in those who had been through menopause for <5 years. Also, the PSQI, Depression, and Stress scores of those women were higher. Women who had been menopausal for ≥5 years had a higher BMI, waist/hip ratio, and fat mass and better sleep quality and lower daytime dysfunction according to the PSQI. Energy and fat intake were higher, while protein, vitamin C, and calcium intakes were lower in women who had been menopausal for ≥5 years. It is crucial for healthcare professionals to review approaches for early and late menopausal periods and to individualize treatment options, especially in patients whose symptoms persist.

Early-onset vasomotor symptoms and development of depressive symptoms among premenopausal women

BACKGROUND

We investigated the association between vasomotor symptoms (VMSs) and the onset of depressive symptoms among premenopausal women.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 4376 premenopausal women aged 42-52 years, and the cohort study included 2832 women without clinically relevant depressive symptoms at baseline. VMSs included the symptoms of hot flashes and night sweats. Depressive symptoms were evaluated using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; a score of ≥16 was considered to define clinically relevant depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Premenopausal Women with VMSs at baseline exhibited a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms compared with women without VMSs at baseline (multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio 1.76, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 1.47-2.11). Among the 2832 women followed up (median, 6.1 years), 406 developed clinically relevant depressive symptoms. Women with versus without VMSs had a significantly higher risk of developing clinically relevant depressive symptoms (multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio, 1.72; 95 % CI 1.39-2.14). VMS severity exhibited a dose-response relationship with depressive symptoms (P for trend <0.05).

LIMITATIONS

Self-reported questionnaires were only used to obtain VMSs and depressive symptoms, which could have led to misclassification. We also could not directly measure sex hormone levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Even in the premenopausal stage, women who experience hot flashes or night sweats have an increased risk of present and developed clinically relevant depressive symptoms. It is important to conduct mental health screenings and provide appropriate support to middle-aged women who experience early-onset VMSs.

A comprehensive investigation of the association between menopause symptoms and problematic eating behavior in peri- and post-menopause cisgender women

Midlife individuals assigned female at birth are at risk for problematic eating behavior, associated with negative health outcomes. Little is known about how menopausal symptoms may increase risk in this population. The current study aimed to understand how a comprehensive range of menopause symptoms were globally associated with problematic eating behaviors. A total of 281 cisgender women (176 post-menopause, 105 peri-menopause) from the United States aged 40 to 64 were recruited utilizing Prolific, an online survey platform. Participants answered questionnaires about menopause symptoms and problematic eating. Participants were selected using demographic and health information provided in a screener survey. Participants also completed the Eating Disorder Questionnaire (EDE-Q), Women's Health Questionnaire (WHQ), Patient Health Questionnaire-8 (PHQ-8), Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Using Structural Equation Modeling, menopause symptoms explained 16.7 percent of the variance in problematic eating. Higher frequency and severity of anxiety, depression, sleep concerns, cognitive complaints, pain, and vasomotor symptoms was associated with greater frequency and severity of problematic eating behaviors, β = .40, p < .001. Invariance testing showed no significant differences between peri- and postmenopausal women. These findings support the association between menopause symptoms and problematic eating in Midlife cisgender women and highlight the need for continued investigation.

Promoting good mental health over the menopause transition

The potential risk for mental health conditions over the menopause transition shapes women's expectations and informs putative physiological mechanisms regulating women's mental health. We review evidence from prospective studies reporting on associations between mental health conditions and the menopause transition. Major depressive disorder and the more prevalent subthreshold depressive symptoms are the most common conditions studied. We reviewed 12 prospective studies reporting depressive symptoms, major depressive disorder, or both over the menopause transition and found no compelling evidence for a universal increased risk for either condition. However, specific subgroups of participants, primarily defined by menopause-related risk factors (ie, vasomotor symptoms that are severe or disturb sleep, a long duration of the transition, or reproductive hormone dynamics) and psychosocial risk factors (eg, stressful life events), were vulnerable to depressive symptoms. The increased risk of major depressive disorder over the menopause transition appears predominantly in individuals with previous major depressive disorder. Greater focus on recognising risk factors in primary care is warranted. On the basis of scarce data, we found no compelling evidence that risk of anxiety, bipolar disorder, or psychosis is universally elevated over the menopause transition. Potential misattribution of psychological distress and psychiatric disorders to menopause could harm women by delaying accurate diagnosis and the initiation of effective psychotropic treatments, and by creating negative expectations for people approaching menopause. A paradigm shift is needed. We conclude with recommendations for the detection and treatment of depressive symptoms or major depressive disorder and strategies to promote good mental health over the menopause transition, while responsibly preparing and supporting those at risk.

Key Findings from Mental Health Research During the Menopause Transition for Racially and Ethnically Minoritized Women Living in the United States: A Scoping Review

Background: Racially and ethnically minoritized (REM) women experience social and structural factors that may affect their response to mental health treatment and menopausal symptoms during the menopause transition (MT). This scoping review on mental health during the MT for REM women in the United States was conducted to characterize factors associated with mental health challenges. Materials and Methods: Five databases were searched. Articles were included if focused on MT in REM women in the United States and its territories with specific mental illnesses and published in English from 2005 to 2021. Titles and abstracts and full text were screened. Screening and data collection were completed in duplicate by two reviewers in Covidence. Results: Sixty-five articles were included and indicate that REM women experience a disproportionate burden of depressive symptoms during the MT. Less evidence is reported about anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, psychosis, schizophrenia, and other mental illnesses. The risk factors associated with mental illness during MT are social, structural, and biological. Treatment response to therapeutic interventions is often underpowered to explain REM differences. Conclusion: Depression during the MT is associated with negative outcomes that may impact REM women differentially. Incorporating theoretical frameworks (e.g., intersectionality, weathering) into mental health research will reduce the likelihood that scientists mislabel race as the cause of these inequities, when racism and intersecting systems of oppression are the root causes of differential expression of mental illness among REM women during the MT. There is a need for interdisciplinary research to advance the mental health of REM women.

[Features of the clinical picture of affective disorders in women during the menopausal transition and early postmenopause]

OBJECTIVE

To determine the clinical and psychopathological features of affective disorders in women in the perimenopausal and early postmenopausal periods.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study included 90 female patients receiving inpatient psychiatric care for affective disorders, among them 41 patients were perimenopausal (group 1) and 49 were early postmenopausal (group 2). Clinical and psychopathological, psychometric (the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale - HADS, the Hamilton Depression and Anxiety Scales - HAM-D and HAM-A, the Hypomania Checklist-32 - HCL-32, the Bipolarity Index (BI), the Insomnia Severity Index - ISI, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index - PSQI) and statistical methods were used.

RESULTS

Symptoms of atypical (63.4%) and anxious (87.8%) depression predominated among perimenopausal patients, and melancholic depression (59.2%) prevailed in early postmenopause. Patients in group 1 had higher anxiety scores on HADS and HAM-A compared to group 2 (p=0.003 and p=0.01). At the same time, early postmenopausal women had higher depression scores on the HADS and HAM-D (p=0.001). ISI and PSQI scores in postmenopause were significantly higher than in perimenopause (p=0.001 and p=0.009).

CONCLUSION

The clinical features of affective disorders as well as severity and nature of the accompanying sleep disturbances vary depending on the stage of menopause, which must be considered when prescribing additional methods for examination and treatment of these disorders.

The role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in depression across the female reproductive lifecycle: current knowledge and future directions

The aim of this narrative review is to consolidate knowledge on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in depression pathophysiology at different reproductive stages across the female lifespan. Despite growing evidence about the impact of gonadal hormones on mood disorders, no previous review has examined the interaction between such hormonal changes and the HPA axis within the context of depressive disorders in women. We will focus on HPA axis function in depressive disorders at different reproductive stages including the menstrual cycle (e.g., premenstrual dysphoric disorder [PMDD]), perinatally (e.g., postpartum depression), and in perimenopausal depression. Each of these reproductive stages is characterized by vast physiological changes and presents major neuroendocrine reorganization. The HPA axis is one of the main targets of such functional alterations, and with its key role in stress response, it is an etiological factor in vulnerable windows for depression across the female lifespan. We begin with an overview of the HPA axis and a brief summary of techniques for measuring HPA axis parameters. We then describe the hormonal milieu of each of these key reproductive stages, and integrate information about HPA axis function in depression across these reproductive stages, describing similarities and differences. The role of a history of stress and trauma exposure as a contributor to female depression in the context of HPA axis involvement across the reproductive stages is also presented. This review advances the pursuit of understanding common biological mechanisms across depressive disorders among women. Our overarching goal is to identify unmet needs in characterizing stress-related markers of depression in women in the context of hormonal changes across the lifespan, and to support future research in women's mental health as it pertains to pathophysiology, early diagnosis, and treatment targets.

Obstetric and psychiatric history as predictors for psychosomatic symptoms among Korean perimenopausal women

OBJECTIVES

Menopause presents various physical and psychological disturbances for women and comes at a high financial cost. Therefore, this study aimed to identify factors influencing menopause symptoms.

STUDY DESIGN

Data of Korean perimenopausal women aged 40-60 (n = 1060; mean age, 46.03 ± 4.08) were collected by a research company. Participants were classified into a "functional" group (n = 716) or a "dysfunctional" group (n = 344) according to the severity of their perimenopausal psychosomatic symptoms. To investigate the association of obstetric and psychiatric history with membership of the "dysfunctional" group, a hierarchical logistic regression analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

The outcomes of all three hierarchical logistic regression models presented significant overall model fit. Among the independent variables, family history of menopausal symptoms, menarcheal age, number of pregnancies, history of postpartum depression, postpartum psychosis, and other psychiatric disorders were positively associated with being in the "dysfunctional" group, whereas age and number of deliveries were negatively associated with being in the "dysfunctional" group.

CONCLUSION

A short reproductive period and short exposure to estrogen due to late menarche and early menopausal transition may be related to severe perimenopausal symptoms. The relationship between the history of postpartum mental illness and severe perimenopausal symptoms may be associated with heightened sensitivity to hormonal triggers when a woman is exposed to fluctuating ovarian sex steroid levels. The relationship between parity or gravidity and the severity of menopausal symptoms in Korean women differed from that in studies conducted in other countries, possibly due to the low birth rate in Korea.

Diet and Depression during Peri- and Post-Menopause: A Scoping Review Protocol

The aim of the proposed scoping review is to describe and summarize studies assessing the associations between diet-related variables and depression in peri- and post-menopausal women. Studies examining the associations between diet-related variables and mental health indicators in women undergoing menopausal transition or in the post-menopausal period will be systematically retrieved via Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. All articles identified through the database searches will be imported into Covidence. Following the removal of duplicates, two authors will independently perform title and abstract screening, as well as full-text assessment against eligibility criteria. Data will be extracted using tables developed for observational and experimental studies. The methodological quality of randomized trials, cohort and cross-sectional studies, and case-control studies, will be assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias (RoB-2) tool, the NHLBI Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, and the NHLBI Quality Assessment Tool for Case-Control studies, respectively. Data extraction tables will be used to produce two tables summarizing the main characteristics and findings of the studies included in the review. In the proposed review, we will systematically identify and summarize the currently available evidence on the association between diet-related variables and depression in peri- and post-menopausal women. To our knowledge, this is the first review focusing on this subgroup of the population. Protocol registration: osf.io/b89r6.

Impact of symptomatic menopausal transition on the occurrence of depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders: A real-world multi-site study

BACKGROUND

The menopause transition is a vulnerable period that can be associated with changes in mood and cognition. The present study aimed to investigate whether a symptomatic menopausal transition increases the risks of depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders.

METHODS

This population-based, retrospective cohort study analysed data from five electronic health record databases in South Korea. Women aged 45-64 years with and without symptomatic menopausal transition were matched 1:1 using propensity-score matching. Subgroup analyses were conducted according to age and use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT). A primary analysis of 5-year follow-up data was conducted, and an intention-to-treat analysis was performed to identify different risk windows over 5 or 10 years. The primary outcome was first-time diagnosis of depression, anxiety, and sleep disorder. We used Cox proportional hazard models and a meta-analysis to calculate the summary hazard ratio (HR) estimates across the databases.

RESULTS

Propensity-score matching resulted in a sample of 17,098 women. Summary HRs for depression (2.10; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.63-2.71), anxiety (1.64; 95% CI 1.01-2.66), and sleep disorders (1.47; 95% CI 1.16-1.88) were higher in the symptomatic menopausal transition group. In the subgroup analysis, the use of HRT was associated with an increased risk of depression (2.21; 95% CI 1.07-4.55) and sleep disorders (2.51; 95% CI 1.25-5.04) when compared with non-use of HRT.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that women with symptomatic menopausal transition exhibit an increased risk of developing depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders. Therefore, women experiencing a symptomatic menopausal transition should be monitored closely so that interventions can be applied early.

Detrimental Changes in Health during Menopause: The Role of Physical Activity

Midlife women experience changes in cardiometabolic, physical, and psychosocial health during menopause that negatively impacts their overall quality of life. Factors that contribute to these increases in cardiometabolic risk include weight gain as well as increases in fat mass (particularly abdominal adiposity), insulin resistance, and vascular dysfunction. Other deleterious changes in physical health (e. g. reduced sleep health, bone density, and balance) as well as changes in psychosocial health (e. g. mood, anxiety, and depression) often coincide and are linked to these increases in cardiometabolic risk. Physical activity and exercise are important lifestyle components that have been demonstrated to improve cardiometabolic, physical, and psychosocial health, yet physical activity and exercise is known to decline during perimenopause and into the postmenopausal years. In this narrative review, we summarize these changes in overall health during menopause as well as how declining physical activity contributes to these changes. Additionally, we discuss how incorporating physical activity and exercise during menopause can potentially ameliorate health declines. We conclude that there exists a significant, positive impact of physical activity on cardiometabolic, physical, and psychological health among midlife women, particularly if undertaken during the perimenopausal and postmenopausal years.

Depression in Mid- and Later-Life and Risk of Dementia in Women: A Prospective Study within the Danish Nurses Cohort

BACKGROUND

Depression and dementia confer substantial global health burdens, particularly in women. Understanding the association between depression and dementia may inform new targets for prevention and/or early intervention.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between depression in mid- and later-life and dementia (all-cause, Alzheimer's disease (AD) or vascular dementia (VaD)) in women.

METHODS

A prospective study design. Nurses were followed from age 60 years or entry into the cohort, whichever came last, until date of dementia, death, emigration, or end of follow-up, whichever came first. Cox regression models with age as the underlying timeline were used to estimate the associations between time-varying depression and incident dementia.

RESULTS

The study included 25,651 female Danish nurses (≥45 years) participating in the Danish Nurse Cohort. During an average of 23 years of follow-up, 1,232 (4.8%) nurses developed dementia and 8,086 (31.5%) were identified with at least two episodes of treated depression. In adjusted analyses, nurses with depression were at a statistically significant 5.23-fold higher risk of all-cause dementia (aHR 5.23:95% CI, 4.64-5.91) compared to those with no history of depression. The differential effects of depression were greater for VaD (aHR 7.96:95% CI, 5.26-12.0) than AD (aHR 4.64:95% CI, 3.97-5.42). Later life depression (>60 years) (aHR 5.85:95% CI, 5.17-6.64) and recurrent depression (aHR 3.51:95% CI, 2.67-4.61) elevated dementia risk. Severe depression tripled the risk of all cause dementia (aHR 3.14:95% CI, 2.62-3.76).

CONCLUSION

Both later life and severe depression substantially increase dementia risk in women, particularly VaD.

The association between postpartum depression and perimenopausal depression: A nationwide register-based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the study was to investigate whether postpartum depression is associated with a risk of depression during perimenopause.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a Danish nationwide register-based cohort study of 270,613 individuals who were born in 1960-1968, who gave birth to a liveborn child recorded in the Medical Birth Register before the age of 40, and who lived in Denmark when turning 47 years old. The association between postpartum depression and depression during perimenopause was analyzed using a Cox Proportional Hazards model adjusted for education level, marital status, and age at first delivery.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Depression during perimenopause was identified by a diagnosis of depression during nine years of follow-up registered in the Danish National Patient Registry.

RESULTS

A total of 7694 (2.9 %) study participants were diagnosed with depression during perimenopause. Postpartum depression was associated with 12.82 [95 % confidence interval (CI): 8.93;18.41] times higher hazard of depression during perimenopause, while depression prior to study baseline was associated with 11.91 [95 % CI: 11.14;12.73] times higher hazard compared with individuals with no history of depression. There was no difference in the association between postpartum depression and depression prior to study baseline for depression during perimenopause.

CONCLUSION

Prior depression, no matter the timing, is associated with markedly higher risk of depression during perimenopause. Thus, individuals who have experienced postpartum depression do not experience a greater risk of depression during perimenopause compared with individuals who have experienced depression unrelated to periods of hormonal changes during their fertile life.

Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety

Depression and anxiety disorders carry a tremendous worldwide burden and emerge as a significant cause of disability among western societies. Both disorders are known to disproportionally affect women, as they are twice more likely to be diagnosed and moreover, they are also prone to suffer from female-specific mood disorders. Importantly, the prevalence of these affective disorders has notably risen after the COVID pandemic, especially in women. In this chapter, we describe factors that are possibly contributing to the expression of such sex differences in depression and anxiety. For this, we overview the effect of transcriptomic and genetic factors, the immune system, neuroendocrine aspects, and cognition. Furthermore, we also provide evidence of sex differences in antidepressant response and their causes. Finally, we emphasize the importance to consider sex as a biological variable in preclinical and clinical research, which may facilitate the discovery and development of new and more efficacious antidepressant and anxiolytic pharmacotherapies for both women and men.

Prevalence and risk factors for depressive and anxiety symptoms in middle-aged Chinese women: a community-based cross-sectional study

Background

Depression and anxiety have become main public health concerns globally. However, risk factors for depression and anxiety remain unclear. This study was to examine the prevalence and risk factors of depressive and anxiety symptoms in middle-aged Chinese women.

Methods

This cross-sectional study, conducted in 2018, included 7,727 women aged 40–60 years from the eastern, central and western regions of China. Depressive and anxiety symptoms were determined by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and the Generalized Anxiety Disorders-7, respectively. Logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) for depressive and anxiety symptoms in relation to sociodemographic, lifestyle and menopausal factors.

Results

Among all participants, 19.5% (1 422/7 275) and 14.2% (1 035/7 275) of participants experienced depressive and anxiety symptoms, respectively. The multivariable logistic regression models showed that age, household income, regular physical activity, chronic diseases, menopausal status, vasomotor symptoms, somatic symptoms and urogenital symptoms were associated with depressive symptoms, while place of residence, regular physical activity, chronic diseases, vasomotor, somatic and urogenital symptoms were associated with anxiety symptoms.

Conclusion

Depressive and anxiety symptoms were common among middle-aged Chinese women, and certain sociodemographic, lifestyle and menopausal symptoms have an important impact on the risk of depressive and anxiety symptoms.

Biopsychosocial risk factors of depression during menopause transition in southeast China

Objective

More than 2 billion women are experiencing menopause transition in China and some of them suffered from depression; while the risk factors of depression during menopause transition were still unclearin China. We aimed to investigate the risk factors in mid-life women in Southeast China.

Method

This study included 1748 Chinese women aged 40–65 years-old who visited gynecology outpatient department of Women’s hospital School of Medicine, Zhejiang University during 2010–2018. Demographic information was collected, and the modified Kupperman Menopausal Index (mKMI) and Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression were assessed. Circulating levels of sex hormones were tested. Ordinal logistic regression analysis was performed to identify risk factors for depression.

Results

The prevalence of depression symptoms was 47.43%. The majority of women had mild (38.56%) or moderate depressive symptoms (8.00%); only 0.86% had severe depressive symptoms. Compared with perimenopausal women, postmenopausal women had increased risks of more severe depression. The associations between menopausal syndromes and the intensity of depression were strongly positive (OR 6.69, 95% CI 5.39–8.29). Elder age, higher follicle stimulating hormone levels, lower estradiol levels, and fewer parity were positively related with the intensity of depression. Among postmenopausal women, underweight, mKMI > 14, earlier age at menopause, shorter reproductive period, and longer duration after menopause were risk factors for incresed intensity of depression.

Conclusions

The results demonstrated a high proportion of depression in women complaining of menopause. Menopausal symptoms were strongly related to the intensity of depression. In postmenopausal women, estrogen related events are associated with the intensity of depression. Gynecological endocrinologists in China should consider screening for depression in high-risk women.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12905-022-01710-4.

Perimenopause meets life: observations from the Women Living Better Survey

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of these analyses was to test a predictive quantitative model relating personal characteristics, reproductive aging stages, health behaviors, roles, stressors, and satisfaction with life roles to bothersome symptoms experienced during the late reproductive stage and the menopausal transition (MT).

METHODS

Participants (N = 2,406) aged 35 to 55 years completed the Women Living Better Survey online between March to August 2020, and 1,529 met the inclusion criteria and provided menstrual cycle data for staging reproductive aging. They were recruited from the Women Living Better newsletter and from other online groups of midlife women. Hierarchical regression analysis using a two-stage model tested the effect of several factors on each of five bothersome symptom groups: brain fog, volatile mood, fatigue/pain, vasomotor/sleep disruption, and anxiety/vigilance symptoms. In stage I, personal characteristics, reproductive aging stage, and health behaviors were examined, and in stage II roles (ie, caregiver, partner, employment-related), satisfaction with life roles and stressors associated with roles were added.

RESULTS

More bothersome brain fog symptoms were associated with less education, MT (vs late reproductive stage), low satisfaction with life roles, and greater health-related and overcommitment stress (all P < 0.005). More bothersome volatile mood symptoms were associated with health-related, partner relationship, and other relationship stress. More bothersome fatigue/pain symptoms were associated with less education and greater difficulty paying for basics and health-related and other relationship stress. Vasomotor/sleep-onset symptoms were associated with less education, MT, and health-related and work stress. More bothersome anxiety/vigilance symptoms were associated with less education, more difficulty paying for basics, and health and work stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Recognizing that midlife stress comes from many role- and relationship-related sources and that several of these stressors are associated with greater symptom bother supports the importance of proactive identification and management of sources of stress.

Anterior Insula Activation During Cardiac Interoception Relates to Depressive Symptom Severity in HIV-Positive and HIV-Negative Postmenopausal Women

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine whether subclinical symptoms of depression in postmenopausal women are associated with blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) activity within the anterior insula during cardiac interoceptive awareness and whether this association differs for persons living with the human immunodeficiency virus (PWH).

METHOD

Twenty-three postmenopausal (mean [standard deviation] age = 56.5 [4.8] years) and 27 HIV-negative women (mean [standard deviation] age = 56.4 [8.0]) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while performing a heartbeat detection task. BOLD activation within the bilateral anterior insula based on the contrast of a heartbeat detection condition with and without a distracting tone was entered along with age, HIV status, and psychological stress into two multivariate regression models with self-reported depressive symptom severity as the outcome.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms did not vary by HIV status, nor was there a main effect or interaction for PWH on insula BOLD activation. Depressive symptoms were positively associated with psychological stress for the left ( β = 0.310, t (49) = 2.352, p = .023) and right brain models ( β = 0.296, t (49) = 2.265, p = .028) as well as the magnitude of BOLD activation in the left insula ( β = 0.290, t (49) = 2.218, p = .032) and right insula ( β = 0.318, t (49) = 2.453, p = .018), respectively. Exploratory analyses revealed that greater magnitude of BOLD activation attributed to exteroceptive noise (tone) was also correlated with self-reported distrust and preoccupation with interoceptive sensations.

CONCLUSIONS

Results support an active interference model for interoceptive awareness wherein greater BOLD signal in the anterior insula in the presence of distracting exteroceptive stimuli may reflect greater prediction error, a feature of depression.

Baseline anxiety-sensitivity to estradiol fluctuations predicts anxiety symptom response to transdermal estradiol treatment in perimenopausal women - A randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

The menopausal transition (perimenopause) is associated with an increased risk of major depression, characterized by anxiety and anhedonia phenotypes. Greater estradiol (E2) variability predicts the development of perimenopausal depression, especially within the context of stressful life events (SLEs). While transdermal E2 (TE2) reduces perimenopausal depressive symptoms, the mechanisms underlying TE2 efficacy and predictors of TE2 treatment response remain unknown. This study aimed at determining relationships between E2 fluctuations, mood symptoms, and physiologic stress-reactivity (cortisol and interleukin-6) and whether differences in mood-sensitivity to E2 fluctuations predict mood responses to TE2 treatment.

METHODS

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigated medically healthy women (46-60 years) in the early or late menopause transition. Baseline E2-sensitivity strength was calculated from eight weekly individual correlations between week-to-week E2 change and index week anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) and anhedonia (Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale). Women then received eight weeks of TE2 or transdermal placebo.

RESULTS

Analyses included 73 women (active TE2 n = 35). Greater baseline E2 fluctuations predicted greater anhedonia (p = .002), particularly in women with more SLEs. Greater E2 fluctuations also predicted higher cortisol (p = .012) and blunted interleukin-6 (p = .02) stress-responses. Controlling for baseline symptoms, TE2 was associated with lower post-treatment anxiety (p < .001) and anhedonia (p < .001) versus placebo. However, the efficacy of TE2 for anxiety (p = .007) and also for somatic complaints (p = .05) was strongest in women with greater baseline E2 sensitivity strength.

CONCLUSIONS

TE2 treatment reduced perimenopausal anxiety and anhedonia. The ability of baseline mood-sensitivity to E2 fluctuations to predict greater TE2 efficacy has implications for individualized treatment of perimenopausal anxiety disorders.

The reduction of vitamin D in females with major depressive disorder is associated with worse cognition mediated by abnormal brain functional connectivity

Low vitamin D is linked to major depressive disorder (MDD) through affecting the brain. Gender difference is apparent in MDD and vitamin D level. We aimed to examine the association between gender, vitamin D, clinical presentations, and brain functional connectivity in a large cohort of MDD patients and comparison subjects. Resting-state functional MRI data from 122 patients and 119 controls were collected to perform a combined analysis of functional connectivity density (FCD) and seed-based functional connectivity (FC). Peripheral venous blood samples were obtained to measure serum concentration of vitamin D (SCVD). Clinical presentations (symptoms profiles and cognition) were also assessed. We found an interaction of group and gender on SCVD in which MDD patients demonstrated lower SCVD than controls in females rather than males. Concurrently, lower SCVD was associated with worse cognitive performance (prospective memory and sustained attention). Compared with controls, female MDD patients showed reduced FCD and FC of the left middle frontal gyrus, which were related to lower SCVD. Importantly, these FCD and FC changes mediated the relationship between lower SCVD and cognitive dysfunction. Our findings suggest that functional connectivity abnormalities may serve as neural substrates underlying the associations between low vitamin D and cognitive impairments in female MDD patients, providing unique insight into treatment and prevention of MDD and its related cognitive dysfunction from the perspective of regulating circulating vitamin D.

Depressive symptoms and suicidality by menopausal stages among middle-aged Korean women

AIMS

There has been increasing evidence of hormonal changes during reproductive events that lead to mood changes. However, studies on the severity of psychological problems according to the menopausal stage are limited. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the association between menopausal stages, depression and suicidality.

METHODS

A total of 45 177 women who underwent regular health check-ups between 2015 and 2018 at Kangbuk Samsung Hospital were included. Participants were stratified into four groups (pre-menopause, early transition, late transition and post-menopause) based on the Stages of Reproductive Aging Workshop Criteria. The Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale (CESD) was used to evaluate depressive symptoms, and the degree of depressive symptoms was classified as moderate (CESD score 16-24) or severe (CESD score ⩾ 25). To measure suicide risk, we administered questionnaires related to suicidal ideation.

RESULTS

Overall, the prevalence of CESD scores of 16-24 and ⩾ 25 was 7.6 and 2.8%, respectively. Menopausal stages were positively associated with depressive symptoms in a dose-dependent manner. Multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratios (PRs, 95% confidence intervals) for CESD scores of 16-24 comparing the stages of the early menopausal transition (MT), late MT and post-menopause to pre-menopause was 1.28 (1.16-1.42), 1.21 (1.05-1.38) and 1.58 (1.36-1.84), respectively. The multivariable-adjusted PRs for CESD scores ⩾ 25 comparing the stages of the early MT, late MT and post-menopause to pre-menopause were 1.31 (1.11-1.55), 1.39 (1.12-1.72), 1.86 (1.47-2.37), respectively. In addition, the multivariable-adjusted PRs for suicidal ideation comparing the early MT, late MT and post-menopause stages to the pre-menopause stage were 1.24 (1.12-1.38), 1.07 (0.93-1.24) and 1.46 (1.25-1.70) (p for trend <0.001), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that the prevalence of depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation increases with advancing menopausal stage, even pre-menopause.

Depression in midlife women attending a menopause clinic is associated with a history of childhood maltreatment

A growing body of literature has suggested that the perimenopause and the early postmenopausal years are associated with an increased risk of experiencing symptoms of depression and the development of first-onset and recurrent episodes of major depressive disorder. Multiple risk factors have been identified, including stressful life events and lower socioeconomic status, as well as early life adversity. The objective of the current study was to characterize the influence of early life childhood maltreatment and incident depression among women experiencing bothersome menopausal symptoms. Participants were recruited from two university-affiliated specialty clinics caring for women with bothersome menopausal symptoms. Assessments included the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Center for Epidemiological Studies - Depression (CES-D) scale and the Greene Climacteric Scale. Findings from this cross-sectional study indicate that adverse childhood experiences, as measured using the CTQ, were highly prevalent among women seeking care for bothersome menopausal symptoms (66%). Further, a greater score on the CTQ was significantly associated with higher CES-D scores, as well as with a greater burden of menopausal symptoms, after adjusting for confounding. Our findings lend support to the growing body of literature suggesting that early life stress affects mental health well into adulthood.

The Relationship Between Vitamin D, Clinical Manifestations, and Functional Network Connectivity in Female Patients With Major Depressive Disorder

Evidence suggests the pivotal role of vitamin D in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) via its effects on the brain. Gender differences exist in both depression and vitamin D level. Our objective was to investigate the association between gender, vitamin D, clinical manifestations, and functional network connectivity in a large sample of MDD patients and healthy controls. Resting-state functional MRI data were collected from 122 patients and 119 controls, with independent component analysis adopted to examine large-scale inter- and intranetwork functional connectivity. Serum concentration of vitamin D (SCVD) and clinical manifestations were also assessed. MDD patients exhibited lower SCVD than controls in females but not males. Moreover, we identified a female-specific association between lower SCVD and poorer cognitive performance. Concurrently, MDD-related functional network connectivity changes were correlated with SCVD in females as well as depression and anxiety symptoms in female patients. Remarkably, MDD- and SCVD-related functional network connectivity alterations mediated the associations between SCVD and cognition in females. Aside from providing evidence for a female-specific neurobiological mechanism whereby low vitamin D might contribute to MDD and its associated clinical characteristics, our findings inform a novel conceptualization that adjuvant vitamin D supplementation therapy may yield clinical benefits in improving treatment outcomes in female patients with MDD.

The long-term association between bilateral oophorectomy and depression: a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Depression is a leading cause of disability globally and affects more women than men. Ovarian sex steroids are thought to modify depression risk in women and interventions such as bilateral oophorectomy that permanently change the sex steroid milieu may increase the risk of depression. This study aimed to investigate the associations between unilateral and bilateral oophorectomy and depression over a 25-year period (1993-2018) and whether this varied by age at oophorectomy or use of menopausal hormone therapy.

METHODS

Twenty-five thousand one hundred eighty-eight nurses aged ≥45 years from the Danish Nurse Cohort were included. Nurses with depression prior to baseline were excluded. Poisson regression models, with log-transformed person-years as offset, were used to assess the associations between oophorectomy and incident depression. Nurses who retained their ovaries were the reference group.

RESULTS

Compared with nurses with retained ovaries, bilateral oophorectomy was associated with a slightly higher rate of depression (rate ratio [RR], 1.08; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.95-1.23), but without statistical significance. However, when stratified by age at oophorectomy, compared with nurses with retained ovaries, bilateral oophorectomy at age ≥51 years was associated with higher rates of depression (RR 1.16; 95% CI, 1.00-1.34), but not bilateral oophorectomy at age <51 years (RR 0.86; 95% CI, 0.69-1.07); P value for difference in estimates = 0.02. No association between unilateral oophorectomy and depression was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of Danish female nurses, bilateral oophorectomy at age ≥51 years, but not at younger ages, was associated with a slightly higher rate of depression compared with those who retained their ovaries.

Prevalence of post-menopausal depression and associated factors: A web-based cross-sectional study in Greece

OBJECTIVES

The impact of depression on post-menopausal women is an important public health issue but remains largely unknown. The purpose of this study was to identify the prevalence of post-menopausal depression in Greece and outline the profile of the women it affects.

STUDY DESIGN

A sample of post-menopausal women completed an anonymous, self-administered, web-based survey which included the Beck Depression Inventory-ΙΙ (BDI-II) and questions regarding socio-demographic data.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The dependent variable of interest was a BDI-II score ≥ 20 (the cut-off for moderate depression according to the BDI).

RESULTS

Overall, 502 post-menopausal women participated in the study. The median BDI-II score was 13 (range 0-50); 136 (27.1%) of the women scored ≥ 20 and were considered screen-positive for depression. According to the multivariate logistic regression model, age< 55 years (OR: 1.621; 95% CI: 1.036-2.535), not working (OR: 1.580; 95% CI: 1.013-2.465), smoking (OR: 1.656; 95% CI: 1.081-2.536) and history of depression (OR: 1.650; 95% CI: 1.045-2.604) were independently associated with post-menopausal depression. Subgroup analyses revealed that current smokers (OR: 2.514; 95% CI: 1.485-4.256) had higher odds of moderate depression, while obesity (OR: 2.455; 95% CI: 1.206-4.996), absence of healthcare insurance (OR: 4.413; 95% CI: 1.970-9.887) and a history of depression (OR: 2.253; 95% CI: 1.212-4.190) were identified as independent risk factors for severe post-menopausal depression.

CONCLUSIONS

More than one out of four post-menopausal women were screen-positive for symptoms indicative of depression, while a personal history of depression, age < 55 years, smoking and current working status were independent predictors of its emergence.

The role of estradiol fluctuation in the pathophysiology of perimenopausal depression: A hypothesis paper

The menopause transition, which constitutes the five or so years surrounding the final menstrual period, has been established as a time of increased risk for depressive symptoms. While mounting research suggests that exposure to more extreme and fluctuating levels of estradiol (E2) plays a role, it remains unclear which specific trigger is most strongly implicated in the development of depressive mood: acute E2 withdrawal or extreme increases in E2. The current review summarises the literature supporting the role of each, considering research pertaining to perimenopausal depression as well as other reproductive mood disorders in which ovarian hormone change is believed to play a key role, namely premenstrual dysphoric disorder and postpartum depression. Taking together the available research pertaining to the various reproductive mood disorders, we propose that women may exhibit one of four E2 sensitivity profiles, each of which may have important implications for the expected timing and severity of depressive mood during the menopause transition: the E2-increase sensitive profile, developing depressive mood in response to elevations in E2, the E2-decrease sensitive profile, for whom E2 withdrawal triggers negative mood, the E2-change sensitive profile, characterised by mood sensitivity to E2 change in either direction, and the E2 insensitive profile for whom changes in E2 have negligible psychological effects. The evidence supporting the existence of such profiles are summarised, potential biological mechanisms are briefly highlighted, and implications for future research are discussed.

Perimenopause and First-Onset Mood Disorders: A Closer Look

Perimenopause is often a time of social, emotional, and physical change. Various factors contribute to the development of mood disorders during this time. There is a known association among women with previous history of major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder and relapse during the menopausal transition. First-onset mood disorders during this time have been less studied. A literature review in PsycInfo Ovid of records pertaining to first-onset mood disorders during perimenopause showed that this multifactorial process involves hormonal fluctuations, with estrogen being a key player. In addition, vasomotor symptoms, previous negative life events, and socioeconomic status were found to contribute to first-onset mood disorders during perimenopause. Treatment options include established medication regimens for psychiatric conditions; however, hormone therapy also has proven beneficial for this patient population. Further research, particularly on bipolar disorder, is needed to develop a clear association between perimenopause and first-onset mood disorders.

Endocrine and psychosocial moderators of mindfulness-based stress reduction for the prevention of perimenopausal depressive symptoms: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The menopause transition is associated with an increased risk of depressive symptoms. The current study aimed to test whether Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, an 8-week group intervention involving meditation and yoga, might reduce the risk of depressive symptoms among perimenopausal women. A secondary aim was to examine baseline characteristics, including sensitivity to estradiol fluctuation, as a moderator of treatment effects.

METHODS

104 healthy women from the community in the menopause transition were enrolled and randomized to MBSR (n = 52) or a waitlist control condition (n = 52). Randomization was carried out using a random number generator and opaque sealed envelopes. Depressive symptoms, the main outcome, were assessed every two weeks for 6 months using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). The occurrence of an elevated CES-D score (≥16) and of a major depressive episode were pre-identified secondary outcomes. The following surveys were used to assess additional outcomes of interest every two months: the Perceived Stress Scale, Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Baseline characteristics examined as potential moderators of treatment benefit included: baseline CES-D score, past depressive episodes, recent stressful life events, a history of physical or sexual abuse, and emotional sensitivity to reproductive hormone fluctuation. Outcome assessors were blinded to the participants' assigned treatment arm.

RESULTS

Outcome data were available for 44 women assigned to MBSR and 51 women in the waitlist condition. Women randomized to MBSR reported fewer depressive symptoms, less perceived stress, less anxiety, increased resilience, and improved sleep (ps < 0.001). Furthermore, several baseline characteristics predicted a greater mood benefit of MBSR, including: a history of major depression (p for the interaction <0.001), a greater number of recent stressful life events (p < .001), being in the early menopause transition (p = .002), and an increased emotional sensitivity to reproductive hormone fluctuation (p = .004). There were no group differences in the occurrence of major depressive episodes (p > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

MBSR appears to be an effective intervention for the prevention of depressive symptoms in the menopause transition.

Testosterone and depressive symptoms during the late menopause transition

BACKGROUND

The menopause transition is associated with an increased risk of depression. While the mechanisms behind this increased risk are not well understood, the changing perimenopausal hormonal environment has been hypothesized to play a role. The current study examined the potential influence of testosterone and the ratio of testosterone to estradiol as a potential contributor to depressed mood in the menopause transition.

METHODS

Fifty non-depressed perimenopausal women ages 45-55 were recruited for this study. Once every 3 weeks, for a total of four times, the women completed the Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale for the measurement of depressive symptoms and provided a first-morning urine sample for the measurement of urinary testosterone as well as estrone-3-glucuronide (E1G), a urinary metabolite of estradiol. The week-to-week and mean effects of testosterone, E1G, and the testosterone/E1G ratio on CES-D score were examined. Self-reported sleep quality and vasomotor symptoms were also assessed at each of the four time points.

RESULTS

Testosterone levels rose with increasing months since last menstrual period associated with testosterone levels (β(SE) = 175.3(63.2), p = .006), though this effect was moderated by body mass index (p for the interaction = .001) such that overweight women showed a less pronounced increase over time. Past and current smokers also had higher testosterone levels compared to never smokers. Week-to-week testosterone/E1G ratio was positively associated with CES-D score (β(SE) = 1.57(0.76), p = .041) but not sleep quality or vasomotor symptoms (ps > .05). Mean testosterone/E1G ratio was also positively associated with vasomotor symptom bother (β(SE) = 0.14(0.06), p = .018) and poorer sleep quality (β(SE) = - 0.34(0.09), p = .0001).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that, within the context of the menopause transition, times that are characterized by a higher testosterone-to-estradiol ratio may be associated with higher depressive symptoms. Perimenopausal women with a higher average ratio of testosterone relative to estradiol may also experience more sleep difficulties and vasomotor symptom bother.

Symptom experience during the late reproductive stage and the menopausal transition: observations from the Women Living Better survey

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the occurrence of a variety of symptoms, their frequency, bother, burden, and interference in the lives of women in the late reproductive stage (LRS) and compare their experiences to that of women in the menopausal transition (MT) stage.

METHODS

Women ages 35 to 55 years responded to an 82-question online survey offered by Women Living Better. Participants reported current menstrual patterns, recent changes and symptom frequency, bother, and interference. Women's cycles were classified as LRS or MT using Stages of Reproductive Aging Workshop +10 criteria.

RESULTS

Of 2,406 respondents, 946 met criteria for LRS and 583 for MT. Participants included 30% from outside the United States, 31% from diverse racial/ethnic groups, and 18% reported having difficulty paying for basics. A similar proportion of women in the LRS and MT+ groups reported each of the symptoms: there was a less than 10% difference for 54 of the 61 symptoms. Of mean bother ratings for all symptoms, only hot flashes differed significantly between the LRS and MT groups. LRS women experienced similar levels of symptom-related interference with personal relationships and daily living to those in the MT stage but did not anticipate these symptoms occurring until they were 50 years old.

CONCLUSIONS

Women in the LRS experience symptoms strikingly similar to those often associated with the MT. Women do not expect these changes until the age of 50 years or later and are surprised by such symptoms before cycle irregularity. Research about the epidemiology and management of LRS symptoms, anticipatory guidance for women, and education for clinicians who care for them warrant increased attention.

Mood sensitivity to estradiol predicts depressive symptoms in the menopause transition

BACKGROUND

The risk for depression markedly rises during the 5-6 years leading up to the cessation of menstruation, known as the menopause transition. Exposure to extreme estradiol levels may help explain this increase but few studies have examined individual sensitivity to estradiol in predicting perimenopausal depression.

METHOD

The current study recruited 101 perimenopausal women. During Phase 1, we quantified each woman's sensitivity to changes in estradiol using 12 weekly measures of estrone-3-glucuronide (E1G), a urinary metabolite of estradiol, and concurrent depressive symptoms. The weekly cortisol awakening response was measured to examine the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in mediating mood sensitivity to estradiol. In Phase 2, depressive symptoms and major depression diagnoses were assessed monthly for 9 months. The relationship between Phase 1 E1G sensitivity and Phase 2 depressive symptoms and major depressive episodes was examined. Several baseline characteristics were examined as potential moderators of this relationship.

RESULTS

The within-person correlation between weekly E1G and mood varied greatly from woman to woman, both in strength and direction. Phase 1 E1G mood sensitivity predicted the occurrence of clinically significant depressive symptoms in Phase 2 among certain subsets of women: those without a prior history of depression, reporting a low number of baseline stressful life events, and reporting fewer months since their last menstrual period. HPA axis sensitivity to estradiol fluctuation did not predict Phase 2 outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Mood sensitivity to estradiol predicts risk for perimenopausal depression, particularly among women who are otherwise at low risk and among those who are early in the transition.

Variation in genes and hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis in female mood disorders - A systematic review and meta-analysis

Women's increased risk for depression during reproductive transitions suggests an involvement of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis. This is the first systematic review and meta-analysis of HPO functioning in female mood disorders. Inclusionary criteria were: i) women suffering from premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) or a depressive disorder, ii) assessment of HPO-axis related biomarkers, iii) a case-control design. Sixty-three studies (N = 5,129) were included. There was evidence for PMDD to be paralleled by lower luteal oestradiol levels. Women with depression unrelated to reproductive transition showed lower testosterone levels than healthy controls and there was some evidence for lower dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels. There were no differences in HPO-related parameters between women with pregnancy, postpartum, and perimenopausal depression and controls. Women with PMDD and depression unrelated to reproductive transitions exhibit specific changes in the HPO-axis, which potentially contribute to their symptoms. Further research into reproductive mood disorders characterised by extreme endocrine changes is warranted.

Exploring the Relationship between Depression on Menopausal Symptoms and Personality Trails

The aim of the present study was to explore the potential relationships between menopausal symptoms, sleep quality, hot flash, and depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women. A cross-sectional study was designed with 150 healthy postmenopausal women (45-60 years of age) who had referred to the menopausal clinic in Babol. The participants completed the following instruments throughout the study: the Beck Depression Inventory for depressive symptoms, the Modified Blatt-Kupperman Menopausal Index for measuring menopausal symptoms, and the NEO-FFI for identifying the personality traits. After controlling all the covariates, high depressive symptoms were found to be associated with moderate/sever menopausal symptoms, poor sleep quality, and the average and high level of neuroticism. The results also demonstrated that the risk of depressive symptoms was lower in menopausal women with high level extroversion, high level agreeableness, and the average and high level of conscientiousness. The findings of the present study indicated that personality traits, menopausal symptoms, and poor sleep quality in particular can partially account for depression in Iranian menopausal women. It is highly imperative that effective health education or implement appropriate strategies to improve the quality of life for these women.

A meta-analysis on the prevalence of depression in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women in India

INTRODUCTION

The mental health of perimenopausal and postmenopausal women is a relatively understudied area. This review formally explores the prevalence of depression in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women in India.

METHODS

Databases like PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, Web of Science and Scopus were systematically searched for cross-sectional or cohort studies, providing prevalence of depression in Indian perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Systematic study selection and data extraction procedures were followed. Quality assessment of individual study was done using AXIS tool. For pooling of effect sizes, the random effects model was used. Funnel plot and Egger's test were used to ascertain publication bias. Subgroup analyses and meta-regression analysis were used to explore heterogeneity in the summary estimates.

RESULTS

After a thorough search, ten studies were found to be eligible and included in this review. Pooled estimate for prevalence of depression (random effects model) in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women in India is 42.47 % (95 % CI: 28.73-57.49, I² = 97.7 %). On visual inspection of the funnel plot and interpreting egger's test (bias: 3.49, SE bias: 3.68, p = 0.37), there was absence of publication bias.

CONCLUSION

We documented 42.47 % pooled prevalence of depression in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women in India.

The 2020 Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for mood disorders

OBJECTIVES

To provide advice and guidance regarding the management of mood disorders, derived from scientific evidence and supplemented by expert clinical consensus to formulate s that maximise clinical utility.

METHODS

Articles and information sourced from search engines including PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Google Scholar were supplemented by literature known to the mood disorders committee (e.g. books, book chapters and government reports) and from published depression and bipolar disorder guidelines. Relevant information was appraised and discussed in detail by members of the mood disorders committee, with a view to formulating and developing consensus-based recommendations and clinical guidance. The guidelines were subjected to rigorous consultation and external review involving: expert and clinical advisors, key stakeholders, professional bodies and specialist groups with interest in mood disorders.

RESULTS

The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists mood disorders clinical practice guidelines 2020 (MDcpg²⁰²⁰) provide up-to-date guidance regarding the management of mood disorders that is informed by evidence and clinical experience. The guideline is intended for clinical use by psychiatrists, psychologists, primary care physicians and others with an interest in mental health care.

CONCLUSION

The MDcpg²⁰²⁰ builds on the previous 2015 guidelines and maintains its joint focus on both depressive and bipolar disorders. It provides up-to-date recommendations and guidance within an evidence-based framework, supplemented by expert clinical consensus.

MOOD DISORDERS COMMITTEE

Gin S Malhi (Chair), Erica Bell, Darryl Bassett, Philip Boyce, Richard Bryant, Philip Hazell, Malcolm Hopwood, Bill Lyndon, Roger Mulder, Richard Porter, Ajeet B Singh and Greg Murray.

Symptoms assessed in studies on perimenopausal depression: A narrative review

The menopausal transition constitutes a phase of major biopsychosocial changes associated with an elevated risk for the development of depression. Perimenopausal depression is highly prevalent and usually characterized by core symptoms of a major depressive disorder combined with menopausal complaints such as vasomotor symptoms or other physical complaints. However, a distinct definition of the condition is lacking. The aim of this review is to portray the symptoms assessed in studies on perimenopausal depression in order to provide relevant information on the current understanding of this condition. A literature search was conducted using the databases PubMed, Cochrane Library, and PsycINFO. A total of 37 studies were included. Various assessment tools have been used to measure symptoms related to perimenopausal depression. Fifteen symptoms were identified. Depressed mood was assessed across all studies. Low energy or sleep disturbances, as acknowledged symptoms of a major depressive disorder, were surveyed in most studies. However, the assessment of menopausal complaints was rather heterogeneous. While vasomotor symptoms were often measured, other menopausal symptoms such as mood swings or pain were investigated less frequently. Sexual problems were only rarely assessed. Studies on perimenopausal depression regularly include the assessment of core symptoms of a major depressive disorder, but the assessment of menopausal complaints is inconsistent. While certain symptoms are commonly measured, others are not assessed. Such inconsistencies underline an ambiguous understanding of perimenopausal depression, which in turn affects the evaluation and treatment of the condition. Thus, the use of the existing guidelines on perimenopausal depression is recommended.

Depressive symptoms and associated factors among Iranian women at midlife: a community-based, cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

Little is known of depressive symptoms in Iranian women at midlife. This population-based study was undertaken to document the prevalence of, and factors associated with, depressive symptoms using validated questionnaires.

METHODS

A total of 1,520 community-dwelling women, aged 40 to 64 years, residing in Sari, Northern Iran, were recruited, using multistage cluster sampling, to this cross-sectional study, between October 2016 and April 2017. Participants completed the Menopause Quality of Life Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory-II, and the World Health Organization Well-being Index.

RESULTS

Participants' mean age was 49.1 (7.0) years and 88.7% were married. Overall, 167 (11%) women had moderate-severe depressive symptoms, 837 (55.1%) had low psychological well-being, and 172 (11.3%) reported taking psychotropic medication in the prior month. Factors independently associated with moderate-severe depressive symptoms included moderate-severe vasomotor symptoms (VMS) (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 2.6, 95% CI, 1.5-4.6; P = 0.001), age 60 years or older (AOR = 1.9, 95% CI, 1.1-3.5; P = 0.03), body mass index 30 to 39 kg/m (AOR = 1.8, 95% CI, 1.0-3.1; P = 0.04), and housing insecurity (AOR = 5.6, 95% CI, 3.7-8.3; P < 0.001). Education beyond high school was associated with a lower risk (AOR = 0.5, 95% CI, 0.3-0.9; P = 0.04). Women reporting low marital satisfaction (19.2% of married women) were more likely than women who were very satisfied to have moderate-severe depressive symptoms (AOR = 27.9, 95% CI, 10.5-74.2; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Marital relationship dissatisfaction, reported by one in five women, was strongly associated with moderate-severe depressive symptoms in women at midlife in Iran, in addition to moderate-severe VMS, housing insecurity, obesity, and older age.

Progesterone, reproduction, and psychiatric illness

Mood and anxiety disorders are vastly overrepresented in women, and one important contributor to these differences is the fluctuation in sex steroids in women during the reproductive years. Considerable evidence supports a role for abnormal sensitivity to these hormonal fluctuations for some women, who develop mood symptoms associated with reproductive transitions. This chapter presents evidence of the role of endogenous progesterone and its metabolites in such mood symptoms, and then goes on to cover the evidence concerning exogenous progesterone's effects on mood. Overall, the literature does not support an association between exogenous progesterone and negative mood in the general population, but does indicate that subset of women may be vulnerable to such effects. Research is lacking on women with psychiatric illness.

The Effect of Perimenopausal Transdermal Estradiol and Micronized Progesterone on Markers of Risk for Arterial Disease

BACKGROUND

The arterial effects of hormone therapy remain controversial. This study tested the effects of transdermal estradiol plus intermittent micronized progesterone (TE + IMP) in healthy perimenopausal and early postmenopausal women on several mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of arterial disease.

METHODS

Healthy perimenopausal and early postmenopausal women, ages 45 to 60 years, were enrolled in this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Women were randomized to receive TE (0.1 mg/day) + IMP (200 mg/day for 12 days) or identical placebo patches and pills for 12 months. Outcomes included: change in stress reactivity composite z-score (combining inflammatory, cortisol, and hemodynamic responses to a standardized psychological laboratory stressor); flow-mediated dilation (FMD) of the brachial artery (an index of vascular endothelial function); baroreflex sensitivity; and metabolic risk (presence of the metabolic syndrome or insulin resistance), all assessed at baseline and at months 6 and 12.

RESULTS

Of 172 women enrolled, those assigned to TE + IMP tended to have higher resting baroreflex sensitivity than those assigned to placebo across the 6- and 12-month visits. Although treatment groups did not differ in terms of the other prespecified outcomes, a significant treatment-by-age interaction was found for FMD and stress reactivity such that an age-related decrease in FMD and increase in stress reactivity were seen among women assigned to placebo but not those assigned to TE + IMP. Women on TE + IMP also had lower resting diastolic blood pressure, lower levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and higher baroreflex sensitivity during stress testing.

CONCLUSIONS

TE + IMP tended to improve cardiac autonomic control and prevented age-related changes in stress reactivity and endothelial function among healthy perimenopausal and early postmenopausal women.

Association between depressed mood and sexual function among mid-aged Paraguayan women

BACKGROUND

Depressive symptoms may affect female mid-life sexuality, whereas sexual problems tend to aggravate depression. Despite this, data assessing this association drawn from mid-aged Paraguayan women are scarce.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the association between depressed mood and the risk of sexual dysfunction during female mid-life.

METHODS

Sexually active urban-living women from Asunción, Paraguay (n = 193, aged 40-60 years) were surveyed with the 6-item Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI-6), the 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD-10), and a general questionnaire containing personal and partner information. Depressed mood was defined as a total CESD-10 score of 10 or more, and an increased risk for sexual dysfunction as an FSFI-6 total score of 19 or less. The association of depressed mood and an increased risk of sexual dysfunction was evaluated with multivariable Poisson regression.

RESULTS

The mean age (±standard deviation) of surveyed woman was 48.3 ± 6.0 years and 61.1% (n = 118) were perimenopausal and postmenopausal. A total of 21.8% (n = 42) had depressed mood and 28.5% (n = 55) had an increased risk of sexual dysfunction. The final adjusted regression model determined that women with depressed mood were twice as likely to have an increased risk of sexual dysfunction, compared to women with normal mood (adjusted prevalence ratio = 2.14, 95% confidence interval 1.26-3.60). On the other hand, depressed mood was associated with a mean total FSFI-6 score that was 20% lower than that observed among women with normal mood (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.80, 95% confidence interval 0.68-0.93).

CONCLUSION

In this mid-aged Paraguayan female sample there was a significant association between depressed mood and an increased risk of sexual dysfunction.

Impact of Estradiol Variability and Progesterone on Mood in Perimenopausal Women With Depressive Symptoms

CONTEXT

Women are at increased risk for depressive symptoms during the menopause transition. Changes in estradiol secretion and presence of vasomotor symptoms (VMS) contribute to perimenopausal depressive symptoms, but links with progesterone have not been investigated.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether estradiol variability, ovulatory levels of progesterone, and VMS burden are independently associated with perimenopausal depressive symptomatology.

DESIGN AND INTERVENTION

Depressive symptoms, serum levels of estradiol and progesterone, and VMS frequency were assessed weekly in an 8-week observational study. Association of mood with estradiol variability, ovulatory levels of progesterone, and VMS frequency were estimated using generalized estimating equation models.

SETTING

Academic medical center.

PATIENTS

Fifty unmedicated perimenopausal women with mild-to-moderate depressive symptoms (mean Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale [MADRS] score 15.5 ± 5.3).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Depressive symptoms (MADRS score).

RESULTS

During the study, 90.0% of participants had varying estradiol levels, 51.1% had ovulatory progesterone levels, and 90% had VMS. Greater estradiol variability and absence of progesterone levels consistent with ovulation, but not VMS frequency, are associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms (β = 0.11 [95% confidence interval (95% CI), 0.04 to 0.18; P = 0.001]; β = -2.62 [95% CI, -4.52 to -0.71; P = 0.007], respectively), after accounting for higher body mass index, lifetime history of depression, and stressful life events.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing dysregulation of ovarian hormones, but not VMS, associates with more depressive symptom burden during perimenopause. These results suggest that perimenopausal mood instability is driven by the underlying hormonal dysregulation of the menopause transition involving changes in both estradiol and progesterone.

Vitamin D and Depression in Women: A Mini-review

Affective-related disorders, including depression, are constantly rising, complicating people's personal lifestyle increasing disqualification and hospital care. Because of the high intensity of urbanization, our lifestyle and food have altered dramatically in the last twenty years. These food modifications have been associated with scores of depression and other affective-related disorders in urbanized countries with high economic levels. Nutrients imbalance is considered as one of the critical causes enabling the pathophysiological mechanisms for the development of psychiatric disorders. The application of additional nutritional interventions for treatment of mood deteriorations can be beneficial for both the prophylaxis and therapy of affective-related disorders. This paper will review recent research on the relation of Vitamin D levels and the epidemiology of depression in women. In this paper, we will provide an overview of the results of a variety of different studies taking into account research which both suggests and refutes an association. Based on these findings we will propose important directions for future research in relation to this topic.

Manualized cognitive behavioral group therapy to treat vasomotor symptoms for women diagnosed with mood disorders

OBJECTIVE

This 6-week, prospective, single-arm study examined the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of cognitive behavioral group therapy in peri- and postmenopausal women with mood disorders (major depression or bipolar) and problematic vasomotor menopausal symptoms.

METHODS

59 participants from an outpatient clinic with mood disorders and problematic vasomotor symptoms were enrolled. The primary outcomes were change from baseline to 6 weeks in Hot Flush Night Sweat Problem Rating, Hot Flash Related Daily Interference, and Quality of Life. Secondary outcomes were change in Hot Flush Frequency, depression, anxiety, perceived stress, anhedonia, beliefs and cognitive appraisals of menopause. ClinicalTrials.gov [identifier: NCT02860910].

RESULTS

On the Hot Flush Night Sweat Problem Rating, 39.3% improved 2 or more points, which was clinically relevant. Changes in Quality of Life (p = .001) and the Hot Flash Related Daily Interference Scale were also significant (p < .001). Significant results were found on most secondary outcomes (hot flush frequency on the Hot Flush Daily Diary, depression, anxiety, perceived stress (p < .001) and anhedonia (p = .001). One of six subscales (control subscale) on the cognitive appraisal of menopause significantly improved (p < .001). Three subscales on the beliefs measure did not change significantly (p = .05, p = .91, and p = .14). Six-week study retention was robust (N = 55, 93%) and 94.2% of individuals reported that cognitive behavioral group therapy sessions were useful.

CONCLUSION

This exploratory study suggests that CBGT is acceptable, feasible, and efficacious in women with mood disorders and problematic menopause vasomotor symptoms. Further studies are needed using more rigorous and controlled methods.

Effects of perimenopausal transdermal estradiol on self-reported sleep, independent of its effect on vasomotor symptom bother and depressive symptoms

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of transdermal estradiol (E2) plus intermittent progesterone (EPT) for improving self-reported sleep in perimenopausal women, after controlling for vasomotor symptoms (VMS) bother and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Using a double-blind, placebo-controlled design, 172 healthy women meeting STRAW+10 criteria for being in the menopausal transition or early postmenopause were randomized to 12 months of transdermal E2 (0.1 mg/d) + 200 mg progesterone (12 d every 3 mo) or placebo. Using standard questionnaires, self-reported sleep, depression, and VMS bother were obtained at baseline and bimonthly postrandomization.

RESULTS

Controlling for baseline levels, EPT (vs placebo) led to reductions in minutes to fall asleep (estimate = -0.12, P = 0.002) and number of awakenings (estimate = -0.24, P = 0.04) over the 12 months. Controlling for changes in VMS bother and depressive symptoms, EPT still predicted reductions in minutes to fall asleep (estimate = -0.28, P = 0.02) and number of awakenings (estimate = -0.11, P = 0.02) over the 12 months.

CONCLUSIONS

We extend existing research by demonstrating that hormone therapy (HT) in subjective sleep cannot be fully explained by improvements in VMS bother or depressive symptoms. Research to examine the mechanism (s) underlying HT's effects on sleep would have public health significance for perimenopausal women and also advance our general understanding of the pathophysiology of impaired sleep.

Guidelines for the evaluation and treatment of perimenopausal depression: summary and recommendations

There is a new appreciation of the perimenopause - defined as the early and late menopause transition stages as well as the early postmenopause - as a window of vulnerability for the development of both depressive symptoms and major depressive episodes. However, clinical recommendations on how to identify, characterize and treat clinical depression are lacking. To address this gap, an expert panel was convened to systematically review the published literature and develop guidelines on the evaluation and management of perimenopausal depression. The areas addressed included: 1) epidemiology; 2) clinical presentation; 3) therapeutic effects of antidepressants; 4) effects of hormone therapy; and 5) efficacy of other therapies (eg, psychotherapy, exercise, and natural health products). Overall, evidence generally suggests that most midlife women who experience a major depressive episode during the perimenopause have experienced a prior episode of depression. Midlife depression presents with classic depressive symptoms commonly in combination with menopause symptoms (ie, vasomotor symptoms, sleep disturbance), and psychosocial challenges. Menopause symptoms complicate, co-occur, and overlap with the presentation of depression. Diagnosis involves identification of menopausal stage, assessment of co-occurring psychiatric and menopause symptoms, appreciation of the psychosocial factors common in midlife, differential diagnoses, and the use of validated screening instruments. Proven therapeutic options for depression (ie, antidepressants, psychotherapy) are the front-line treatments for perimenopausal depression. Although estrogen therapy is not approved to treat perimenopausal depression, there is evidence that it has antidepressant effects in perimenopausal women, particularly those with concomitant vasomotor symptoms. Data on estrogen plus progestin are sparse and inconclusive.

Cognition, Mood and Sleep in Menopausal Transition: The Role of Menopause Hormone Therapy

During the menopausal transition, which begins four to six years before cessation of menses, middle-aged women experience a progressive change in ovarian activity and a physiologic deterioration of hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis function associated with fluctuating hormone levels. During this transition, women can suffer symptoms related to menopause (such as hot flushes, sleep disturbance, mood changes, memory complaints and vaginal dryness). Neurological symptoms such as sleep disturbance, "brain fog" and mood changes are a major complaint of women transitioning menopause, with a significant impact on their quality of life, productivity and physical health. In this paper, we consider the associations between menopausal stage and/or hormone levels and sleep problems, mood and reduced cognitive performance. The role of estrogen and menopause hormone therapy (MHT) in cognitive function, sleep and mood are also discussed.