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Prat M, Jeanneau M, Rakotoarivony I, Duhayon M, Simonin Y, Savini G, Labbé P, Alout H. Virulence and transmission vary between Usutu virus lineages in Culex pipiens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012295. [PMID: 38935783 PMCID: PMC11236178 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Usutu virus (USUV) is a zoonotic arbovirus infecting mainly wild birds. It is transmitted by ornithophilic mosquitoes, mainly of the genus Culex from birds to birds and to several vertebrate dead-end hosts. Several USUV lineages, differing in their virulence have emerged in the last decades and now co-circulate in Europe, impacting human populations. However, their relative transmission and effects on their mosquito vectors is still not known. We thus compared the vector competence and survival of Culex pipiens mosquitoes experimentally infected with two distinct USUV lineages, EU2 and EU3, that are known to differ in their virulence and replication in vertebrate hosts. Infection rate was variable among blood feeding assays but variations between EU2 and EU3 lineages were consistent suggesting that Culex pipiens was equally susceptible to infection by both lineages. However, EU3 viral load increased with viral titer in the blood meal while EU2 viral load was high at all titers which suggest a greater replication of EU2 than EU3 in mosquito. While their relative transmission efficiencies are similar, at least at low blood meal titer, positive correlation between transmission and blood meal titer was observed for EU3 only. Contrary to published results in vertebrates, EU3 induced a higher mortality to mosquitoes (i.e. virulence) than EU2 whatever the blood meal titer. Therefore, we found evidence of lineage-specific differences in vectorial capacity and virulence to both the vector and vertebrate host which lead to balanced propagation of both viral lineages. These results highlight the need to decipher the interactions between vectors, vertebrate hosts, and the diversity of arbovirus lineages to fully understand transmission dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Prat
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier-CNRS-IRD, Montpellier, France
- UMR ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, INRAE-CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | - Maxime Duhayon
- UMR ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, INRAE-CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | - Yannick Simonin
- Pathogenesis and Control of Chronic Infections, Université de Montpellier-INSERM-EFS, Montpellier, France
| | - Giovanni Savini
- OIE Reference Centre for West Nile Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale "G. Caporale", Teramo, Italy
| | - Pierrick Labbé
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier-CNRS-IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Haoues Alout
- UMR ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, INRAE-CIRAD, Montpellier, France
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2
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Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024; 16:781. [PMID: 38793662 PMCID: PMC11125849 DOI: 10.3390/v16050781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans and equines are two dead-end hosts of the mosquito-borne West Nile virus (WNV) with similar susceptibility and pathogenesis. Since the introduction of WNV vaccines into equine populations of the United States of America (USA) in late 2002, there have been only sporadic cases of WNV infection in equines. These cases are generally attributed to unvaccinated and under-vaccinated equines. In contrast, due to the lack of a human WNV vaccine, WNV cases in humans have remained steadily high. An average of 115 deaths have been reported per year in the USA since the first reported case in 1999. Therefore, the characterization of protective immune responses to WNV and the identification of immune correlates of protection in vaccinated equines will provide new fundamental information about the successful development and evaluation of WNV vaccines in humans. This review discusses the comparative epidemiology, transmission, susceptibility to infection and disease, clinical manifestation and pathogenesis, and immune responses of WNV in humans and equines. Furthermore, prophylactic and therapeutic strategies that are currently available and under development are described. In addition, the successful vaccination of equines against WNV and the potential lessons for human vaccine development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Feng Li
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (A.N.); (L.G.E.); (D.W.)
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3
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Rusenova N, Rusenov A, Chervenkov M, Sirakov I. Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus among Equids in Bulgaria in 2022 and Assessment of Some Risk Factors. Vet Sci 2024; 11:209. [PMID: 38787181 PMCID: PMC11126025 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11050209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 05/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze the seroprevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) among equids in Bulgaria, confirm the results of a competitive ELISA versus the virus neutralization test (VNT) and investigate some predisposing factors for WNV seropositivity. A total of 378 serum samples from 15 provinces in northern and southern Bulgaria were tested. The samples originated from 314 horses and 64 donkeys, 135 males and 243 females, aged from 1 to 30 years. IgG and IgM antibodies against WNV protein E were detected by ELISA. ELISA-positive samples were additionally tested via VNT for WNV and Usutu virus. Thirty-five samples were WNV-positive by ELISA (9.26% [CI = 6.45-12.88]), of which 15 were confirmed by VNT; hence, the seroprevalence was 3.97% (CI = 2.22-6.55). No virus-neutralizing antibodies to Usutu virus were detected among the 35 WNV-ELISA-positive equids in Bulgaria. When compared with VNT, ELISA showed 100.0% sensitivity and 94.5% specificity. A statistical analysis showed that the risk factors associated with WNV seropositivity were the region (p < 0.0001), altitude of the locality (p < 0.0001), type of housing (p < 0.0001) and breed (p = 0.0365). The results of the study demonstrate, albeit indirectly, that WNV circulates among equids in northern and southern Bulgaria, indicating that they could be suitable sentinel animals for predicting human cases and determining the risk in these areas or regions of the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolina Rusenova
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Anton Rusenov
- Department of Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria;
| | - Mihail Chervenkov
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ivo Sirakov
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University-Sofia, 2 Zdrave Str., 1431 Sofia, Bulgaria;
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4
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Cendejas PM, Goodman AG. Vaccination and Control Methods of West Nile Virus Infection in Equids and Humans. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:485. [PMID: 38793736 PMCID: PMC11125624 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12050485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is capable of causing severe neurologic disease in both humans and equines, making it a disease of importance in both human medicine and veterinary medicine. No targeted treatments exist for WNV infection in either humans or equines. Infection is treated symptomatically through management of symptoms like fever and seizures. As treatment for WNV is purely supportive, the response to WNV has focused primarily on methods of disease prevention. To this end, research efforts have yielded several effective vaccines for equine use as well as numerous conventional mosquito control techniques. Even with the implementation of these techniques, disease caused by WNV remains a concern since no human vaccine exists. Due to the lack of a human vaccine, novel preventative strategies are under active research and development. Of these strategies, some of the most conceptually promising are techniques using genetically modified mosquitoes, addressing the disease at the vector level with minimal ecological side effects. Taken together, the use of combined, synergistic methods, such as physical barriers, transgenic mosquitoes, and immunological targets, will be the best way to prevent WNV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parker M. Cendejas
- Doctor of Veterinary Medicine Graduate Program, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Alan G. Goodman
- School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
- Paul G. Allen School of Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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Underwood EC, Vera IM, Allen D, Alvior J, O’Driscoll M, Silbert S, Kim K, Barr KL. Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus in Tampa Bay Florida Patients Admitted to Hospital during 2020-2021 for Respiratory Symptoms. Viruses 2024; 16:719. [PMID: 38793601 PMCID: PMC11125834 DOI: 10.3390/v16050719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an arbovirus spread primarily by Culex mosquitoes, with humans being a dead-end host. WNV was introduced to Florida in 2001, with 467 confirmed cases since. It is estimated that 80 percent of cases are asymptomatic, with mild cases presenting as a non-specific flu-like illness. Currently, detection of WNV in humans occurs primarily in healthcare settings via RT-PCR or CSF IgM when patients present with severe manifestations of disease including fever, meningitis, encephalitis, or acute flaccid paralysis. Given the short window of detectable viremia and requirement for CSF sampling, most WNV infections never receive an official diagnosis. This study utilized enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect WNV IgG antibodies in 250 patient serum and plasma samples collected at Tampa General Hospital during 2020 and 2021. Plaque reduction neutralization tests were used to confirm ELISA results. Out of the 250 patients included in this study, 18.8% of them were IgG positive, consistent with previous WNV exposure. There was no relationship between WNV exposure and age or sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma C. Underwood
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (E.C.U.)
| | - Iset M. Vera
- Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Dylan Allen
- Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Joshua Alvior
- Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | | | | | - Kami Kim
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (E.C.U.)
- Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Tampa General Hospital, Tampa, FL 33606, USA
| | - Kelli L. Barr
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; (E.C.U.)
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6
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Herron ICT, Laws TR, Nelson M. Marmosets as models of infectious diseases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1340017. [PMID: 38465237 PMCID: PMC10921895 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1340017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Animal models of infectious disease often serve a crucial purpose in obtaining licensure of therapeutics and medical countermeasures, particularly in situations where human trials are not feasible, i.e., for those diseases that occur infrequently in the human population. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a Neotropical new-world (platyrrhines) non-human primate, has gained increasing attention as an animal model for a number of diseases given its small size, availability and evolutionary proximity to humans. This review aims to (i) discuss the pros and cons of the common marmoset as an animal model by providing a brief snapshot of how marmosets are currently utilized in biomedical research, (ii) summarize and evaluate relevant aspects of the marmoset immune system to the study of infectious diseases, (iii) provide a historical backdrop, outlining the significance of infectious diseases and the importance of developing reliable animal models to test novel therapeutics, and (iv) provide a summary of infectious diseases for which a marmoset model exists, followed by an in-depth discussion of the marmoset models of two studied bacterial infectious diseases (tularemia and melioidosis) and one viral infectious disease (viral hepatitis C).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C. T. Herron
- CBR Division, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl), Salisbury, United Kingdom
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7
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Henriques P, Rosa A, Caldeira-Araújo H, Soares P, Vigário AM. Flying under the radar - impact and factors influencing asymptomatic DENV infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1284651. [PMID: 38076464 PMCID: PMC10704250 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1284651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical outcome of DENV and other Flaviviruses infections represents a spectrum of severity that ranges from mild manifestations to severe disease, which can ultimately lead to death. Nonetheless, most of these infections result in an asymptomatic outcome that may play an important role in the persistent circulation of these viruses. Also, although little is known about the mechanisms that lead to these asymptomatic infections, they are likely the result of a complex interplay between viral and host factors. Specific characteristics of the infecting viral strain, such as its replicating efficiency, coupled with host factors, like gene expression of key molecules involved in the immune response or in the protection against disease, are among crucial factors to study. This review revisits recent data on factors that may contribute to the asymptomatic outcome of the world's widespread DENV, highlighting the importance of silent infections in the transmission of this pathogen and the immune status of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Henriques
- Projecto Medicina, Faculdade de Ciências da Vida, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Alexandra Rosa
- Projecto Medicina, Faculdade de Ciências da Vida, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Helena Caldeira-Araújo
- Projecto Medicina, Faculdade de Ciências da Vida, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Pedro Soares
- Department of Biology, CBMA (Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology), Braga, Portugal
- Department of Biology, Institute of Science and Innovation for Bio-Sustainability (IB-S), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Ana Margarida Vigário
- Projecto Medicina, Faculdade de Ciências da Vida, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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Pervanidou D, Kefaloudi CN, Vakali A, Tsakalidou O, Karatheodorou M, Tsioka K, Evangelidou M, Mellou K, Pappa S, Stoikou K, Bakaloudi V, Koliopoulos G, Stamoulis K, Patsoula E, Politis C, Hadjichristodoulou C, Papa A. The 2022 West Nile Virus Season in Greece; A Quite Intense Season. Viruses 2023; 15:1481. [PMID: 37515168 PMCID: PMC10383024 DOI: 10.3390/v15071481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Since 2010, the West Nile virus (WNV) has been established in Greece. We describe the epidemiology of diagnosed human WNV infections in Greece with a focus on the 2022 season. During the transmission period, clinicians were sending samples from suspected cases for testing. Active laboratory-based surveillance was performed with immediate notification of diagnosed cases. We collected clinical information and interviewed patients on a timely basis to identify their place of exposure. Besides serological and molecular diagnostic methods, next-generation sequencing was also performed. In 2022, 286 cases of WNV infection were diagnosed, including 278 symptomatic cases and 184 (64%) cases with neuroinvasive disease (WNND); 33 patients died. This was the third most intense season concerning the number of WNND cases, following 2018 and 2010. Most (96%) cases were recorded in two regions, in northern and central Greece. The virus strain was a variant of previous years, clustering into the Central European subclade of WNV lineage 2. The 2022 WNV season was quite intense in Greece. The prompt diagnosis and investigation of cases are considered pivotal for the timely response, while the availability of whole genome sequences enables studies on the molecular epidemiology of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danai Pervanidou
- National Public Health Organization (EODY), 151 23 Athens, Greece
| | | | - Anna Vakali
- National Public Health Organization (EODY), 151 23 Athens, Greece
| | - Ourania Tsakalidou
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Myrsini Karatheodorou
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Katerina Tsioka
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Kassiani Mellou
- National Public Health Organization (EODY), 151 23 Athens, Greece
| | - Styliani Pappa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantina Stoikou
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Bakaloudi
- Molecular Blood Center, AHEPA University General Hospital, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - George Koliopoulos
- Department of Crop Science, School of Plant Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, 118 55 Athens, Greece
| | - Kostas Stamoulis
- Hellenic National Blood Transfusion Center, 136 72 Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Patsoula
- Department of Public Health Policy, School of Public Health, University of West Attica, 115 21 Athens, Greece
| | | | - Christos Hadjichristodoulou
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 412 22 Larisa, Greece
| | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Schwarz ER, Long MT. Comparison of West Nile Virus Disease in Humans and Horses: Exploiting Similarities for Enhancing Syndromic Surveillance. Viruses 2023; 15:1230. [PMID: 37376530 DOI: 10.3390/v15061230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) neuroinvasive disease threatens the health and well-being of horses and humans worldwide. Disease in horses and humans is remarkably similar. The occurrence of WNV disease in these mammalian hosts has geographic overlap with shared macroscale and microscale drivers of risk. Importantly, intrahost virus dynamics, the evolution of the antibody response, and clinicopathology are similar. The goal of this review is to provide a comparison of WNV infection in humans and horses and to identify similarities that can be exploited to enhance surveillance methods for the early detection of WNV neuroinvasive disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika R Schwarz
- Montana Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, MT Department of Livestock, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, & Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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10
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Karim SU, Bai F. Introduction to West Nile Virus. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2585:1-7. [PMID: 36331759 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2760-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family. After WNV gains entry through an infected mosquito bite, it replicates in a variety of human cell types and produces a viremia. Although the majority of infected individuals remain asymptomatic, the manifested symptoms in some people range from a mild fever to severe neurological disorder with high morbidity and mortality. In addition, many who recover from WNV neuroinvasive infection present with long-term deficits, including weakness, fatigue, and cognitive problems. Since entering the USA in 1999, WNV has become the most common mosquito-borne virus in North America. Despite the intensive research over 20 years, there are still no approved vaccines or specific treatments for humans, and it remains an urgent need to understand the pathogenesis of WNV and develop specific therapeutics and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shazeed-Ul Karim
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Center for Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA
| | - Fengwei Bai
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Center for Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA.
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West Nile Virus Occurrence and Ecological Niche Modeling in Wild Bird Species and Mosquito Vectors: An Active Surveillance Program in the Peloponnese Region of Greece. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071328. [PMID: 35889046 PMCID: PMC9320058 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) is maintained in nature in a bird-mosquito cycle and human infections follow a seasonal pattern, favored by climatic conditions. Peloponnese Region, located in Southern Greece, initiated an active WNV surveillance program to protect public health during 2019–2020. The project included monitoring of avian hosts and mosquito vectors, while sampling locations were prioritized after consideration of WNV circulation in birds, mosquitos and humans during previous seasons. Biological materials were collected from 493 wild birds of 25 species and 678 mosquito pools, which were molecularly screened for WNV presence. In this case, 14 environmental variables were associated with WNV detection in wild birds and mosquitos by using two separate MaxEnt models. Viral RNA was not detected in the target species during 2019, although in 2020, it was reported on 46 wild birds of ten species and 22 mosquito pools (Culex pipiens and Aedes albopictus). Altitude and land uses were significant predictors for both models and in fact, suitable conditions for virus occurrence were identified in low altitude zones. Bird- and mosquito-based surveillance systems yielded similar results and allowed for targeted vector control applications in cases of increased virus activity. Human cases were not reported on Peloponnese in 2020.
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12
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West Nile and Usutu Virus Introduction via Migratory Birds: A Retrospective Analysis in Italy. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020416. [PMID: 35216009 PMCID: PMC8880244 DOI: 10.3390/v14020416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The actual contribution of migratory birds in spreading West Nile (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) across Europe and from Africa to old countries is still controversial. In this study, we reported the results of molecular and serological surveys on migrating birds sampled during peaks of spring and autumn migration at 11 Italian sites located along important flyways, from 2012 to 2014. A total of 1335 specimens made of individual or pooled sera, and organs from 275 dead birds were tested for WNV and USUV RNA by real time PCR (RT-PCR). Furthermore, sera were tested by serum neutralization assay for detecting WNV and USUV neutralizing antibodies. Molecular tests detected WNV lineage 2 RNA in a pool made of three Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) sera sampled in autumn, and lineage 1 in kidneys of six trans-Saharan birds sampled in spring. Neutralizing antibodies against WNV and USUV were found in 5.80% (n = 72; 17 bird species) and 0.32% (n = 4; 4 bird species) of the tested sera, respectively. Our results do not exclude the role of migratory birds as potential spreaders of WNV and USUV from Africa and Central Europe to Mediterranean areas and highlight the importance of a more extensive active surveillance of zoonotic viruses.
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First Evidence of West Nile Virus Overwintering in Mosquitoes in Germany. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122463. [PMID: 34960732 PMCID: PMC8703620 DOI: 10.3390/v13122463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquitoes collected from mid-December 2020 to early March 2021 from hibernacula in northeastern Germany, a region of West Nile virus (WNV) activity since 2018, were examined for WNV-RNA. Among the 6101 mosquitoes tested in 722 pools of up to 12 specimens, one pool of 10 Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes collected in early March 2021 in the cellar of a medieval castle in Rosslau, federal state of Saxony-Anhalt, tested positive. Subsequent mosquito DNA analysis produced Culex pipiens biotype pipiens. The pool homogenate remaining after nucleic acid extraction failed to grow the virus on Vero and C6/36 cells. Sequencing of the viral NS2B-NS3 coding region, however, demonstrated high homology with virus strains previously collected in Germany, e.g., from humans, birds, and mosquitoes, which have been designated the East German WNV clade. The finding confirms the expectation that WNV can overwinter in mosquitoes in Germany, facilitating an early start to the natural transmission season in the subsequent year. On the other hand, the calculated low infection prevalence of 0.016–0.20%, depending on whether one or twelve of the mosquitoes in the positive pool was/were infected, indicates a slow epidemic progress and mirrors the still-hypoendemic situation in Germany. In any case, local overwintering of the virus in mosquitoes suggests its long-term persistence and an enduring public health issue.
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Young JJ, Haussig JM, Aberle SW, Pervanidou D, Riccardo F, Sekulić N, Bakonyi T, Gossner CM. Epidemiology of human West Nile virus infections in the European Union and European Union enlargement countries, 2010 to 2018. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 26. [PMID: 33988124 PMCID: PMC8120798 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2021.26.19.2001095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Background West Nile virus (WNV) circulates in an enzootic cycle involving mosquitoes and birds; humans are accidental hosts. Aim We analysed human WNV infections reported between 2010 and 2018 to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control to better understand WNV epidemiology. Methods We describe probable and confirmed autochthonous human cases of WNV infection reported by European Union (EU) and EU enlargement countries. Cases with unknown clinical manifestation or with unknown place of infection at NUTS 3 or GAUL 1 level were excluded from analysis. Results From southern, eastern and western Europe, 3,849 WNV human infections and 379 deaths were reported. Most cases occurred between June and October. Two large outbreaks occurred, in 2010 (n = 391) and in 2018 (n = 1,993). The outbreak in 2018 was larger than in all previous years and the first cases were reported unusually early. The number of newly affected areas (n = 45) was higher in 2018 than in previous years suggesting wider spread of WNV. Conclusion Real-time surveillance of WNV infections is key to ensuring that clinicians and public health authorities receive early warning about the occurrence of cases and potential unusual seasonal patterns. Human cases may appear shortly after first detection of animal cases. Therefore, public health authorities should develop preparedness plans before the occurrence of human or animal WNV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna J Young
- These authors contributed equally to this article and share first authorship.,European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Solna, Sweden
| | - Joana M Haussig
- These authors contributed equally to this article and share first authorship.,European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Solna, Sweden
| | - Stephan W Aberle
- Center for Virology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Nebojša Sekulić
- Institute for Public Health of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro
| | - Tamás Bakonyi
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Solna, Sweden
| | - Céline M Gossner
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Solna, Sweden
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15
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Uelmen JA, Irwin P, Bartlett D, Brown W, Karki S, Ruiz MO, Fraterrigo J, Li B, Smith RL. Effects of Scale on Modeling West Nile Virus Disease Risk. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021; 104:151-165. [PMID: 33146116 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Modeling vector-borne diseases is best conducted when heterogeneity among interacting biotic and abiotic processes is captured. However, the successful integration of these complex processes is difficult, hindered by a lack of understanding of how these relationships influence disease transmission across varying scales. West Nile virus (WNV) is the most important mosquito-borne disease in the United States. Vectored by Culex mosquitoes and maintained in the environment by avian hosts, the virus can spill over into humans and horses, sometimes causing severe neuroinvasive illness. Several modeling studies have evaluated drivers of WNV disease risk, but nearly all have done so at broad scales and have reported mixed results of the effects of common explanatory variables. As a result, fine-scale relationships with common explanatory variables, particularly climatic, socioeconomic, and human demographic, remain uncertain across varying spatial extents. Using an interdisciplinary approach and an ongoing 12-year study of the Chicago region, this study evaluated the factors explaining WNV disease risk at high spatiotemporal resolution, comparing the human WNV model and covariate performance across three increasing spatial extents: ultrafine, local, and county scales. Our results demonstrate that as spatial extent increased, model performance increased. In addition, only six of the 23 assessed covariates were included in best-fit models of at least two scales. These results suggest that the mechanisms driving WNV ecology are scale-dependent and covariate importance increases as extent decreases. These tools may be particularly helpful for public health, mosquito, and disease control personnel in predicting and preventing disease within local and fine-scale jurisdictions, before spillover occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnny A Uelmen
- 1Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | | | - Dan Bartlett
- 2Northwest Mosquito Abatement, Wheeling, Illinois
| | - William Brown
- 1Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Surendra Karki
- 1Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois.,3Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Kirtipur, Nepal
| | - Marilyn O'Hara Ruiz
- 1Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Jennifer Fraterrigo
- 4Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Bo Li
- 5Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois
| | - Rebecca L Smith
- 1Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
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16
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Pervanidou D, Vakali A, Georgakopoulou T, Panagiotopoulos T, Patsoula E, Koliopoulos G, Politis C, Stamoulis K, Gavana E, Pappa S, Mavrouli M, Emmanouil M, Sourvinos G, Mentis A, Tsakris A, Hadjichristodoulou C, Tsiodras S, Papa A. West Nile virus in humans, Greece, 2018: the largest seasonal number of cases, 9 years after its emergence in the country. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 25. [PMID: 32794446 PMCID: PMC7427301 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.32.1900543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Background Human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) infection are recorded since 2010 in Greece, with seasonal outbreaks occurring almost annually. Enhanced surveillance has been implemented since 2010, to promptly characterise cases’ temporal and geographical distribution and inform authorities for implementation of appropriate measures (mosquito control, health education, blood safety). Aim We describe the epidemiology of WNV human infections in Greece focusing on the 2018 season. Methods The National Public Health Organization advised physicians to test all suspect WNV infection cases and refer samples to reference laboratories. Laboratories notified diagnosed cases on a daily basis. Treating physicians, patients, and infected blood donors were interviewed within 48 hours after diagnosis and the probable infection location was identified. Hospitalised cases were followed up until discharge. Results A total of 317 autochthonous WNV infection cases were diagnosed in 2018. Among them, 243 cases had neuroinvasive disease (WNND), representing a 23% increase of WNND cases compared with 2010, the previous most intense season. There were 51 deaths. Cases started occurring from week 22, earlier than usual. Both rural and urban areas were affected, with 86 (26% of the total) municipalities belonging to seven (54% of the total) regions recording cases. Two major epicentres were identified in Attica and Central Macedonia regions. Conclusions The largest number of human cases of WNV infection ever recorded in Greece occurred in 2018, with a wide geographical distribution, suggesting intense virus circulation. Enhanced surveillance is vital for the early detection of human cases and the prompt implementation of response measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danai Pervanidou
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Annita Vakali
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Theano Georgakopoulou
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Takis Panagiotopoulos
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Public Health Policy, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Patsoula
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Public Health Policy, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Constantina Politis
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Elpida Gavana
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Styliani Pappa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria Mavrouli
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Emmanouil
- Diagnostic Services Laboratory, Public Health Laboratories, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - George Sourvinos
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Andreas Mentis
- Diagnostic Services Laboratory, Public Health Laboratories, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Athanassios Tsakris
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Sotirios Tsiodras
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.,Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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17
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Dellicour S, Lequime S, Vrancken B, Gill MS, Bastide P, Gangavarapu K, Matteson NL, Tan Y, du Plessis L, Fisher AA, Nelson MI, Gilbert M, Suchard MA, Andersen KG, Grubaugh ND, Pybus OG, Lemey P. Epidemiological hypothesis testing using a phylogeographic and phylodynamic framework. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5620. [PMID: 33159066 PMCID: PMC7648063 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19122-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Computational analyses of pathogen genomes are increasingly used to unravel the dispersal history and transmission dynamics of epidemics. Here, we show how to go beyond historical reconstructions and use spatially-explicit phylogeographic and phylodynamic approaches to formally test epidemiological hypotheses. We illustrate our approach by focusing on the West Nile virus (WNV) spread in North America that has substantially impacted public, veterinary, and wildlife health. We apply an analytical workflow to a comprehensive WNV genome collection to test the impact of environmental factors on the dispersal of viral lineages and on viral population genetic diversity through time. We find that WNV lineages tend to disperse faster in areas with higher temperatures and we identify temporal variation in temperature as a main predictor of viral genetic diversity through time. By contrasting inference with simulation, we find no evidence for viral lineages to preferentially circulate within the same migratory bird flyway, suggesting a substantial role for non-migratory birds or mosquito dispersal along the longitudinal gradient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Dellicour
- Spatial Epidemiology Lab (SpELL), Université Libre de Bruxelles, CP160/12, 50 Avenue FD Roosevelt, 1050, Bruxelles, Belgium.
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Sebastian Lequime
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bram Vrancken
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mandev S Gill
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Paul Bastide
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Karthik Gangavarapu
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Nathaniel L Matteson
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Yi Tan
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Infectious Diseases Group, J. Craig Venter Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | - Alexander A Fisher
- Department of Biomathematics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Martha I Nelson
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20894, USA
| | - Marius Gilbert
- Spatial Epidemiology Lab (SpELL), Université Libre de Bruxelles, CP160/12, 50 Avenue FD Roosevelt, 1050, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Marc A Suchard
- Department of Biomathematics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kristian G Andersen
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
- Scripps Research Translational Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Nathan D Grubaugh
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | | | - Philippe Lemey
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
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18
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Sanz G, De Jesus Rodriguez E, Vila-Delgado M, Oliver AL. An unusual case of unilateral chorioretinitis and blind spot enlargement associated with asymptomatic West Nile virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep 2020; 18:100723. [PMID: 32373759 PMCID: PMC7195517 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To report a case of unilateral chorioretinitis and acute blind spot enlargement occurring in a patient with asymptomatic West Nile virus (WNV) infection. Observations A 28-year-old Hispanic woman, residing in Puerto Rico, presented with an 18-month history of photopsia and a visual field disturbance of the left eye. She had no history of other neurologic symptoms or viral-like illness concurrent with the onset of her symptoms. Corrected visual acuity was 20/20 on both eyes. The left fundus revealed multifocal chorioretinitis, at different stages of evolution, several creamy orange lesions on the mid-periphery along with multiple small punched out lesions, some of which were following a curvilinear pattern distribution. Visual field testing revealed physiological blind spot enlargement on the left eye. Serum WNV antibody serology revealed negative IgM (<0.90) and positive IgG (1.58, <1.30 reference). The patient was treated with oral prednisone, 60mg for two weeks, followed by a 13-week taper of therapy, which resulted in normalization of the visual field defect. Conclusion and Importance Our case raises the possibility that ophthalmic manifestations may occur in some patients with asymptomatic WNV infection. It also suggests that acute blind spot enlargement may also be part of the myriad of ophthalmic manifestations present in WNV patients. In such instances where acute blind spot enlargement is present, oral prednisone may result in improvement and subsequent normalization of the visual field defect. Besides, our case provides evidence to suggest that primary WNV transmission is possible in Puerto Rico.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Armando L. Oliver
- Corresponding author. UPR Department of Ophthalmology, Po Box 3650689, San Juan, PR, 00936, USA.
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19
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Assaid N, Mousson L, Moutailler S, Arich S, Akarid K, Monier M, Beck C, Lecollinet S, Failloux AB, Sarih M. Evidence of circulation of West Nile virus in Culex pipiens mosquitoes and horses in Morocco. Acta Trop 2020; 205:105414. [PMID: 32088277 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is one of the most widely distributed mosquito-borne viruses in the world. In North Africa, it causes human cases of meningoencephalitis with fatalities in Algeria and in Tunisia, whereas only horses were affected in Morocco. The aims of this study were to detect WNV in mosquitoes and to determine seroprevalence of WNV in Moroccan horses by the detection of IgG antibodies. A total of 1455 mosquitoes belonging to four different species were grouped by collection site, date, and sex with 10 specimens per pool and tested for 38 arboviruses using a high-throughput chip based on the BioMark Dynamic array system. Out of 146 mosquito pools tested, one pool was positive for WNV. This positive pool was confirmed by real time RT-PCR. The serosurvey showed that 33.7% (31/92) of horses were positive for competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) test. The flavivirus-sphere microsphere immnoassay (MIA) test, targeting three flaviviruses (WNV, Usutu virus (USUV) and Tick borne encephalitic virus (TBEV)) showed that 23 sera out of 31 were positive for WNV, two for USUV, two for USUV or WNV, and four for an undetermined flavivirus. Virus neutralization tests with USUV and WNV showed that 28 of 31 sera were positive for WNV and all sera were negative for USUV. This study reports, for the first time, the detection of WNV from Culex pipiens mosquitoes in Morocco and its circulation among horses. This highlights that the detection of arboviruses in mosquitoes could serve as an early warning signal of a viral activity to prevent future outbreaks in animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najlaa Assaid
- Institut Pasteur du Maroc, Service de Parasitologie et des Maladies Vectorielles, Place Louis Pasteur, Casablanca 20360, Morocco; Molecular Genetics and Immunophysiopathology Research Team, Health and Environment Laboratory, Aïn Chock Faculty of Sciences, University of Hassan II Casablanca (UH2C), Casablanca, Morocco.
| | - Laurence Mousson
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Virology, Arboviruses and Insect Vectors, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France.
| | - Sara Moutailler
- UMR BIPAR, Animal Health Laboratory, INRAE, ANSES, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Soukaina Arich
- Institut Pasteur du Maroc, Service de Parasitologie et des Maladies Vectorielles, Place Louis Pasteur, Casablanca 20360, Morocco.
| | - Khadija Akarid
- Molecular Genetics and Immunophysiopathology Research Team, Health and Environment Laboratory, Aïn Chock Faculty of Sciences, University of Hassan II Casablanca (UH2C), Casablanca, Morocco.
| | - Maëlle Monier
- UMR1161 Virologie, INRAE, ANSES, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Cécile Beck
- UMR1161 Virologie, INRAE, ANSES, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Sylvie Lecollinet
- UMR1161 Virologie, INRAE, ANSES, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Anna-Bella Failloux
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Virology, Arboviruses and Insect Vectors, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France.
| | - M'hammed Sarih
- Institut Pasteur du Maroc, Service de Parasitologie et des Maladies Vectorielles, Place Louis Pasteur, Casablanca 20360, Morocco.
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20
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Petruccelli A, Zottola T, Ferrara G, Iovane V, Di Russo C, Pagnini U, Montagnaro S. West Nile Virus and Related Flavivirus in European Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa), Latium Region, Italy: A Retrospective Study. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10030494. [PMID: 32188017 PMCID: PMC7143470 DOI: 10.3390/ani10030494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A retrospective sero-survey for evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in European wild boar (Sus scorfa) was conducted in the Latium region, Italy, on stored serum samples of the period November 2011 to January 2012. METHODS Sera were collected from 168 European wild boars and screened for antibodies to WNV and other Flaviviruses by competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). All sera positive for Flavivirus antibodies by cELISA were further examined by virus neutralization test (VNT). To test the presence of Flavivirus RNA in samples, an RT-PCR was performed using a pan-Flavivirus primers pair. RESULTS Thirteen wild boars (7.73%) were seropositive for Flaviviruses. The hemolysis of serum samples limited the interpretation of the VNT for 7 samples, confirming the presence of specific antibody against WNV in a single European wild boar serum sample. The presence of ELISA positive/VNT negative samples suggests the occurrence of non-neutralizing antibodies against WNV or other antigen-related Flaviviruses. No samples resulted positive for Flavivirus by RT-PCR assay. CONCLUSION Although a moderately high percentage of animals with specific antibody for WNV has been detected in wild boar in other surveillance studies in Europe, this has not been reported previously in Italy. Together, these data indicate that European wild boar are exposed to WNV and/or other related-Flavivirus in central Italy and confirm the usefulness of wild ungulates, as suitable Flavivirus sentinels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Petruccelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, 80137 Naples, Italy; (A.P.); (G.F.); (U.P.)
| | - Tiziana Zottola
- Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Lazio e Toscana Regions, Section of Latina, 04100 Latina, Italy; (T.Z.); (C.D.R.)
| | - Gianmarco Ferrara
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, 80137 Naples, Italy; (A.P.); (G.F.); (U.P.)
| | - Valentina Iovane
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy;
| | - Cristina Di Russo
- Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Lazio e Toscana Regions, Section of Latina, 04100 Latina, Italy; (T.Z.); (C.D.R.)
| | - Ugo Pagnini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, 80137 Naples, Italy; (A.P.); (G.F.); (U.P.)
| | - Serena Montagnaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, 80137 Naples, Italy; (A.P.); (G.F.); (U.P.)
- Correspondence: com; Tel.: +39-081-253-6178
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21
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Flavivirus infection—A review of immunopathogenesis, immunological response, and immunodiagnosis. Virus Res 2019; 274:197770. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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22
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West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7070184. [PMID: 31248051 PMCID: PMC6680635 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7070184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) are neurotropic mosquito-borne flaviviruses that may infect humans. Although WNV is much more widespread and plays a much larger role in human health, the two viruses are characterized by similar envelope antigens, clinical manifestations, and present overlapping in terms of geographic range of transmission, host, and vector species. This review highlights some of the most relevant aspects of WNV and USUV human infections in Europe, and the possible implications of their co-circulation.
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23
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Keyel AC, Elison Timm O, Backenson PB, Prussing C, Quinones S, McDonough KA, Vuille M, Conn JE, Armstrong PM, Andreadis TG, Kramer LD. Seasonal temperatures and hydrological conditions improve the prediction of West Nile virus infection rates in Culex mosquitoes and human case counts in New York and Connecticut. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217854. [PMID: 31158250 PMCID: PMC6546252 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV; Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) is a widely distributed arthropod-borne virus that has negatively affected human health and animal populations. WNV infection rates of mosquitoes and human cases have been shown to be correlated with climate. However, previous studies have been conducted at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, and the scale-dependence of these relationships has been understudied. We tested the hypothesis that climate variables are important to understand these relationships at all spatial scales. We analyzed the influence of climate on WNV infection rate of mosquitoes and number of human cases in New York and Connecticut using Random Forests, a machine learning technique. During model development, 66 climate-related variables based on temperature, precipitation and soil moisture were tested for predictive skill. We also included 20-21 non-climatic variables to account for known environmental effects (e.g., land cover and human population), surveillance related information (e.g., relative mosquito abundance), and to assess the potential explanatory power of other relevant factors (e.g., presence of wastewater treatment plants). Random forest models were used to identify the most important climate variables for explaining spatial-temporal variation in mosquito infection rates (abbreviated as MLE). The results of the cross-validation support our hypothesis that climate variables improve the predictive skill for MLE at county- and trap-scales and for human cases at the county-scale. Of the climate-related variables selected, mean minimum temperature from July-September was selected in all analyses, and soil moisture was selected for the mosquito county-scale analysis. Models demonstrated predictive skill, but still over- and under-estimated WNV MLE and numbers of human cases. Models at fine spatial scales had lower absolute errors but had greater errors relative to the mean infection rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C. Keyel
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States of America
- Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Oliver Elison Timm
- Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - P. Bryon Backenson
- Bureau of Communicable Disease Control, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Catharine Prussing
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Sarah Quinones
- Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Kathleen A. McDonough
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Mathias Vuille
- Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Jan E. Conn
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Philip M. Armstrong
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Theodore G. Andreadis
- Center for Vector Biology & Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Environmental Sciences, The Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Laura D. Kramer
- Division of Infectious Disease, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States of America
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Root JJ, Bosco-Lauth AM. West Nile Virus Associations in Wild Mammals: An Update. Viruses 2019; 11:v11050459. [PMID: 31117189 PMCID: PMC6563505 DOI: 10.3390/v11050459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although West Nile virus (WNV) is generally thought to circulate among mosquitoes and birds, several historic and recent works providing evidence of WNV activity in wild mammals have been published. Indeed, a previous review tabulated evidence of WNV exposure in at least 100 mammalian species. Herein, we provide an update on WNV activity in wild and select other mammals that have been reported since the last major review article on this subject was published in early 2013. Of interest, new species, such as Hoffman’s two-toed sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni), are now included in the growing list of wild mammals that have been naturally exposed to WNV. Furthermore, new instances of WNV viremia as well as severe disease presumably caused by this virus have been reported in wild mammals (e.g., the Virginia opossum [Didelphis virginiana]) from natural and semi-captive (e.g., zoological institution) settings. Regrettably, few recent challenge studies have been conducted on wild mammals, which would provide key information as to their potential role(s) in WNV cycles. Largely based on these recent findings, important future lines of research are recommended to assess which mammalian species are commonly exposed to WNV, which mammal species develop viremias sufficient for infecting mosquitoes, and which mammal species might be negatively affected by WNV infection at the species or population level.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jeffrey Root
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA.
| | - Angela M Bosco-Lauth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Prakoso D, Dark MJ, Barbet AF, Salemi M, Barr KL, Liu JJ, Wenzlow N, Waltzek TB, Long MT. Viral Enrichment Methods Affect the Detection but Not Sequence Variation of West Nile Virus in Equine Brain Tissue. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:318. [PMID: 30619900 PMCID: PMC6305279 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), a small, positive sense, single stranded RNA virus continues to encroach into new locales with emergence of new viral variants. Neurological disease in the equine can be moderate to severe in the face of low to undetectable virus loads. Physical methods of virus enrichment may increase sensitivity of virus detection and enhance analysis of viral diversity, especially for deep sequencing studies. However, the use of these techniques is limited mainly to non-neural tissues. We investigated the hypothesis that elimination of equine brain RNA enhances viral detection without limiting viral variation. Eight different WNV viral RNA enrichment and host RNA separation methods were evaluated to determine if elimination of host RNA enhanced detection of WNV and increase the repertoire of virus variants for sequencing. Archived brain tissue from 21 different horses was inoculated with WNV, homogenized, before enrichment and separation. The protocols utilized combinations of low-speed centrifugation, syringe filtration, and nuclease treatment. Viral and host RNA were analyzed using real-time PCR targeting the WNV Envelope (E) protein and equine G3PDH to determine relative sensitivity for WNV and host depletion, respectively. To determine the effect of these methods on viral variation, deep sequencing of the E protein was performed. Our results demonstrate that additional separation and enrichment methods resulted in loss of virus in the face of host RNA depletion. DNA sequencing showed no significant difference in total sequence variation between the RNA enrichment protocols. For equine brain infected with WNV, direct RNA extraction followed by host RNA depletion was most suitable. This study highlights the importance of evaluating viral enrichment and separation methods according to tissue type before embarking on studies where quantification of virus and viral variants is essential to the outcome of the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhani Prakoso
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Michael J Dark
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Anthony F Barbet
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Marco Salemi
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kelli L Barr
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
| | - Junjie J Liu
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Nanny Wenzlow
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montreal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Thomas B Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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26
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Dong E, Morris K, Sodhi G, Chang D, Czer L, Chung J, Zabner R, Raastad K, Klapper E, Kobashigawa J, Nurok M. Neuroinvasive West Nile Virus Post-Heart Transplantation: A Case Report. Transplant Proc 2018; 50:4057-4061. [PMID: 30577314 DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2018.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
First described in the United States in the late 1990s, West Nile virus (WNV) infection following solid organ transplantation is a rare but life-threatening complication. The many ways in which WNV may be acquired, patient specific risk factors, and variability in clinical severity present challenges to health care providers caring for these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dong
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - K Morris
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - G Sodhi
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - D Chang
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - L Czer
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - J Chung
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - R Zabner
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - K Raastad
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - E Klapper
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - M Nurok
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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27
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Montagnaro S, Piantedosi D, Ciarcia R, Loponte R, Veneziano V, Fusco G, Amoroso MG, Ferrara G, Damiano S, Iovane G, Pagnini U. Serological Evidence of Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses Circulation in Hunting Dogs in Campania Region, Italy. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 19:142-147. [PMID: 30160624 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2018.2337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A Flavivirus survey on 183 hunting dogs was conducted in Campania region, Southern Italy. The seroprevalence value of 40.43% (74/183, 95% confidence intervals [CIs] 33.37-47.49) detected in our study using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent serologic assay (cELISA) proves a considerable level of Flavivirus exposition of these animals. Among the 74 cELISA-positive sera, seroneutralization (SN) test showed that 24 sera resulted positive for Usutu virus with an overall prevalence of 13.11% (24/183) (95% CI 8.27-17.95), but none of cELISA-positive samples resulted positive for West Nile virus. Data analysis showed a significant difference of cELISA seropositivity risk factors in case of presence of farm animals in contact with hunting dogs and for dogs living in a rural environment but not for gender, age, management, hunting season, and hunting abroad. A RT-PCR assay was performed to detect the Flavivirus RNA, but none of the blood samples tested positive. This study documents the first report regarding the circulation of Flavivirus in hunting dog in Southern Italy and suggests the dog as an interesting target to monitor Flavivirus circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Montagnaro
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Diego Piantedosi
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Roberto Ciarcia
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Rosa Loponte
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Veneziano
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanna Fusco
- 2 Unit of Virology, Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Amoroso
- 2 Unit of Virology, Department of Animal Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Portici, Naples, Italy
| | - Gianmarco Ferrara
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Sara Damiano
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Iovane
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
| | - Ugo Pagnini
- 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples "Federico II" , Naples, Italy
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Vogels CB, Göertz GP, Pijlman GP, Koenraadt CJ. Vector competence of European mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Microbes Infect 2017; 6:e96. [PMID: 29116220 PMCID: PMC5717085 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2017.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an arthropod-borne flavivirus of high medical and veterinary importance. The main vectors for WNV are mosquito species of the Culex genus that transmit WNV among birds, and occasionally to humans and horses, which are ‘dead-end’ hosts. Recently, several studies have been published that aimed to identify the mosquito species that serve as vectors for WNV in Europe. These studies provide insight in factors that can influence vector competence of European mosquito species for WNV. Here, we review the current knowledge on vector competence of European mosquitoes for WNV, and the molecular knowledge on physical barriers, anti-viral pathways and microbes that influence vector competence based on studies with other flaviviruses. By comparing the 12 available WNV vector competence studies with European mosquitoes we evaluate the effect of factors such as temperature, mosquito origin and mosquito biotype on vector competence. In addition, we propose a standardised methodology to allow for comparative studies across Europe. Finally, we identify knowledge gaps regarding vector competence that, once addressed, will provide important insights into WNV transmission and ultimately contribute to effective strategies to control WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Bf Vogels
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Giel P Göertz
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gorben P Pijlman
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Constantianus Jm Koenraadt
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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29
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Platt DJ, Miner JJ. Consequences of congenital Zika virus infection. Curr Opin Virol 2017; 27:1-7. [PMID: 29080429 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The 2015 Zika virus (ZIKV) epidemic in the Americas led to the discovery that ZIKV causes congenital abnormalities including microcephaly, intrauterine growth restriction, and eye disease that can result in blindness. Studies in animal models and human organoid cultures, together with human epidemiological studies, have shown that ZIKV crosses the placenta and subsequently replicates within fetal tissues including the developing brain. Preferential infection of neural cell precursors causes damage to the developing fetal brain. However, a majority of congenitally infected humans do not develop microcephaly or other overt congenital abnormalities, so longitudinal epidemiological studies are necessary to more completely define the long-term consequences of in utero ZIKV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek J Platt
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, United States
| | - Jonathan J Miner
- Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, United States; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, United States; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, United States.
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30
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Ciota AT. West Nile virus and its vectors. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2017; 22:28-36. [PMID: 28805636 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV Flaviviridae; Flavivrus) is the most geographically widespread arbovirus in the world and the leading cause of arboviral encephalitis globally. Worldwide, WNV is maintained in an enzootic cycle between primarily Culex spp. mosquitoes and birds, with human infection and disease resulting from enzootic spillover. Dynamic and complex intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute to the temporal and spatial variability in WNV transmission. The most current information on the relative contribution of each of these factors is reviewed and a case to incorporate detailed and localized environmental and genetic data into predictive models is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander T Ciota
- The Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, USA; Department of Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Albany School of Public Health, Albany, NY, USA.
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31
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Modelling West Nile virus transmission risk in Europe: effect of temperature and mosquito biotypes on the basic reproduction number. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5022. [PMID: 28694450 PMCID: PMC5504010 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05185-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus which has caused repeated outbreaks in humans in southern and central Europe, but thus far not in northern Europe. The main mosquito vector for WNV, Culex pipiens, consists of two behaviourally distinct biotypes, pipiens and molestus, which can form hybrids. Differences between biotypes, such as vector competence and host preference, could be important in determining the risk of WNV outbreaks. Risks for WNV establishment can be modelled with basic reproduction number (R0) models. However, existing R0 models have not differentiated between biotypes. The aim of this study was, therefore, to explore the role of temperature-dependent and biotype-specific effects on the risk of WNV establishment in Europe. We developed an R0 model with temperature-dependent and biotype-specific parameters, and calculated R0 values using the next-generation matrix for several scenarios relevant for Europe. In addition, elasticity analysis was done to investigate the contribution of each biotype to R0. Global warming and increased mosquito-to-host ratios can possibly result in more intense WNV circulation in birds and spill-over to humans in northern Europe. Different contributions of the Cx. pipiens biotypes to R0 shows the importance of including biotype-specific parameters in models for reliable WNV risk assessments.
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32
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Bisanzio D, McMillan JR, Barreto JG, Blitvich BJ, Mead DG, O'Connor J, Kitron U. Evidence for West Nile virus spillover into the squirrel population in Atlanta, Georgia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017; 15:303-10. [PMID: 25988439 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2014.1734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the United States, spillover of West Nile virus (WNV) into wild mammal populations has been reported since the introduction of the virus into the New World in 1999. Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) exhibit a high seroprevalence for WNV in urban settings where high virus circulation and human spillover have been reported. In Atlanta, Georgia, human cases of WNV are uncommon despite high infection rates in birds and mosquitoes. In this study, we evaluated WNV exposure of eastern gray squirrels in a WNV hot spot in Atlanta. MATERIALS AND METHODS Gray squirrels were live-trapped in Grant Park, Atlanta, during July-October, 2012, and a census was conducted to estimate squirrel density in the study site. Sera from trapped animals were tested for circulating virus-by-virus isolation in cell culture and for WNV-specific antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and plaque reduction neutralization test. Mosquitoes were collected at the same location and tested for virus isolation. RESULTS Among the 69 collected squirrels, 25 (36.2%) tested positive for WNV antibodies, although none were viremic. Seroprevalence was lower in juveniles (18.8%) than in adults (37.5%), but this difference was not statistically significant. Gender and squirrel density had no effect on seroprevalence. Seasonality of squirrel seroprevalence and of mosquito infection were significantly associated, both peaking in August. No difference in squirrel exposure was detected across the collection sites. CONCLUSIONS We report a high degree of WNV exposure in squirrels in Grant Park that was correlated with seasonality of mosquito infection. The detection of antibodies in juveniles suggests that circulation of WNV in the surveyed population is ongoing. Eastern gray squirrels may be suitable indicators for virus amplification and for risk of human spillover on a local scale in urban settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donal Bisanzio
- 1Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Joseph R McMillan
- 1Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Josafá Gonçalves Barreto
- 2Laboratório de Dermato-Imunologia UEPA/UFPA/Marcello Candia, Marituba, Pará, Brasil.,3Universidade Federal do Pará, Campus Castanhal, Pará, Brasil
| | - Bradley J Blitvich
- 4Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Daniel G Mead
- 5University of Georgia, College of Veterinary Medicine, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Athens, Georgia
| | - Josh O'Connor
- 6Fire Management Division, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Uriel Kitron
- 1Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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Pérez-Ramírez E, Llorente F, del Amo J, Fall G, Sall AA, Lubisi A, Lecollinet S, Vázquez A, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Pathogenicity evaluation of twelve West Nile virus strains belonging to four lineages from five continents in a mouse model: discrimination between three pathogenicity categories. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:662-670. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Pérez-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal-Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Carretera Algete-El casar s/n, 28130 Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Llorente
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal-Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Carretera Algete-El casar s/n, 28130 Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier del Amo
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal-Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Carretera Algete-El casar s/n, 28130 Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gamou Fall
- Unité des Arbovirus et Virus de Fièvres Hémorragiques, Institut Pasteur de Dakar, BP220, Senegal
| | - Amadou Alpha Sall
- Unité des Arbovirus et Virus de Fièvres Hémorragiques, Institut Pasteur de Dakar, BP220, Senegal
| | - Alison Lubisi
- ARC-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort, 0110 Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sylvie Lecollinet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), Animal Health Laboratory, UMR1161 Virology, INRA, ANSES, ENVA, Maisons-Alfort 94706, France
| | - Ana Vázquez
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal-Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA-CISA), Carretera Algete-El casar s/n, 28130 Valdeolmos, Madrid, Spain
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Hofmeister EK, Lund M, Shearn-Bochsler V, Balakrishnan CN. Susceptibility and Antibody Response of the Laboratory Model Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata) to West Nile Virus. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0167876. [PMID: 28045891 PMCID: PMC5207765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the introduction of West Nile virus (WNV) into North America in 1999 a number of passerine bird species have been found to play a role in the amplification of the virus. Arbovirus surveillance, observational studies and experimental studies have implicated passerine birds (songbirds, e.g., crows, American robins, house sparrows, and house finches) as significant reservoirs of WNV in North America, yet we lack a tractable passerine animal model for controlled studies of the virus. The zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) serves as a model system across a diversity of fields, and here we develop the zebra finch a songbird model for WNV. Like many natural hosts of WNV, we found that zebra finches developed sufficient viremia to serve as a competent host, yet in general resisted mortality from infection. In the Australian zebra finch (AZF) T. g. castanotis, we detected WNV in the majority of sampled tissues by 4 days post injection (dpi). However, WNV was not detected in tissues of sacrificed birds at 14 dpi, shortly after the development of detectable anti-WNV antibodies in the majority of birds indicating successful viral clearance. We compared susceptibility between the two zebra finch subspecies AZF and Timor zebra finch (TZF) T. g. guttata. Compared to AZF, WNV RNA was detected in a larger proportion of challenged TZF and molecular detection of virus in the serum of TZF was significantly higher than in AZF. Given the observed moderate host competence and disease susceptibility, we suggest that zebra finches are appropriate as models for the study of WNV and although underutilized in this respect, may be ideal models for the study of the many diseases carried and transmitted by songbirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik K. Hofmeister
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Melissa Lund
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Valerie Shearn-Bochsler
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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Dutra HLC, Caragata EP, Moreira LA. The re-emerging arboviral threat: Hidden enemies: The emergence of obscure arboviral diseases, and the potential use of Wolbachia in their control. Bioessays 2016; 39. [PMID: 28026036 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201600175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Mayaro, Oropouche, and O'Nyong-Nyong share many traits with more prominent arboviruses, like dengue and yellow fever, chikungunya, and Zika. These include severe clinical symptoms, multiple animal hosts, and widespread vector species living in close proximity to human habitats, all of which constitute significant risk factors for more frequent outbreaks in the future, greatly increasing the potential of these hidden enemies to follow Zika and become the next wave of global arboviral threats. Critically, the current dearth of knowledge on these arboviruses might impede the success of future control efforts, including the potential application of Wolbachia pipientis. This bacterium inherently possesses broad anti-pathogen properties and a means of genetic drive that allows it to eliminate or replace target vector populations. We conclude that control of obscure arboviruses with Wolbachia might be possible, but successful implementation will be critically dependent on the ability to transinfect key vector species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heverton Leandro Carneiro Dutra
- Mosquitos Vetores: Endossimbiontes e Interação Patógeno-Vetor, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou - Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Eric Pearce Caragata
- Mosquitos Vetores: Endossimbiontes e Interação Patógeno-Vetor, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou - Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Luciano Andrade Moreira
- Mosquitos Vetores: Endossimbiontes e Interação Patógeno-Vetor, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou - Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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36
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Characterization of non-lethal West Nile Virus (WNV) infection in horses: Subclinical pathology and innate immune response. Microb Pathog 2016; 103:71-79. [PMID: 28012987 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2016.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Most natural West Nile virus (WNV) infections in humans and horses are subclinical or sub-lethal and non-encephalitic. Yet, the main focus of WNV research remains on the pathogenesis of encephalitic disease, mainly conducted in mouse models. We characterized host responses during subclinical WNV infection in horses and compared outcomes with those obtained in a novel rabbit model of subclinical WNV infection (Suen et al. 2015. Pathogens, 4: 529). Experimental infection of 10 horses with the newly emerging WNV-strain, WNVNSW2011, did not result in neurological disease in any animal but transcriptional upregulation of both type I and II interferon (IFN) was seen in peripheral blood leukocytes prior to or at the time of viremia. Likewise, transcript upregulation for IFNs, TNFα, IL1β, CXCL10, TLRs, and MyD88 was detected in lymphoid tissues, while IFNα, CXCL10, TLR3, ISG15 and IRF7 mRNA was upregulated in brains with histopathological evidence of mild encephalitis, but absence of detectable viral RNA or antigen. These responses were reproduced in the New Zealand White rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) experimentally infected with WNVNSW2011, by intradermal footpad inoculation. Kinetics of the anti-WNV antibody response was similar in horses and rabbits, which for both species may be explained by the early IFN and cytokine responses evident in circulating leukocytes and lymphoid organs. Given the similarities to the majority of equine infection outcomes, immunocompetent rabbits appear to represent a valuable small-animal model for investigating aspects of non-lethal WNV infections, notably mechanisms involved in abrogating morbidity.
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4EBP-Dependent Signaling Supports West Nile Virus Growth and Protein Expression. Viruses 2016; 8:v8100287. [PMID: 27763553 PMCID: PMC5086619 DOI: 10.3390/v8100287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a (+) sense, single-stranded RNA virus in the Flavivirus genus. WNV RNA possesses an m7GpppNm 5' cap with 2'-O-methylation that mimics host mRNAs preventing innate immune detection and allowing the virus to translate its RNA genome through the utilization of cap-dependent translation initiation effectors in a wide variety of host species. Our prior work established the requirement of the host mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) for optimal WNV growth and protein expression; yet, the roles of the downstream effectors of mTORC1 in WNV translation are unknown. In this study, we utilize gene deletion mutants in the ribosomal protein kinase called S6 kinase (S6K) and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4EBP) pathways downstream of mTORC1 to define the role of mTOR-dependent translation initiation signals in WNV gene expression and growth. We now show that WNV growth and protein expression are dependent on mTORC1 mediated-regulation of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein/eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4EBP/eIF4E) interaction and eukaryotic initiation factor 4F (eIF4F) complex formation to support viral growth and viral protein expression. We also show that the canonical signals of mTORC1 activation including ribosomal protein s6 (rpS6) and S6K phosphorylation are not required for WNV growth in these same conditions. Our data suggest that the mTORC1/4EBP/eIF4E signaling axis is activated to support the translation of the WNV genome.
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Csank T, Bhide K, Bencúrová E, Dolinská S, Drzewnioková P, Major P, Korytár Ľ, Bocková E, Bhide M, Pistl J. Detection of West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus in birds in Slovakia, using a universal primer set. Arch Virol 2016; 161:1679-83. [PMID: 27001305 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-2828-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne neurotropic pathogen that presents a major public health concern. Information on WNV prevalence and circulation in Slovakia is insufficient. Oral and cloacal swabs and bird brain samples were tested for flavivirus RNA by RT-PCR using newly designed generic primers. The species designation was confirmed by sequencing. WNV was detected in swab and brain samples, whereas one brain sample was positive for tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The WNV sequences clustered with lineages 1 and 2. These results confirm the circulation of WNV in birds in Slovakia and emphasize the risk of infection of humans and horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Csank
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Katarína Bhide
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Elena Bencúrová
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Saskia Dolinská
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Petra Drzewnioková
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Peter Major
- Clinic for Birds and Exotic Animals, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Ľuboš Korytár
- Department of the Environment, Veterinary Legislation and Economy, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Eva Bocková
- Department of Epizootology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Mangesh Bhide
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Juraj Pistl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 041 81, Košice, Slovakia.
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SUSCEPTIBILITY AND ANTIBODY RESPONSE OF VESPER SPARROWS (POOECETES GRAMINEUS) TO WEST NILE VIRUS: A POTENTIAL AMPLIFICATION HOST IN SAGEBRUSH-GRASSLAND HABITAT. J Wildl Dis 2016; 52:345-53. [PMID: 26981692 DOI: 10.7589/2015-06-148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) spread to the US western plains states in 2003, when a significant mortality event attributed to WNV occurred in Greater Sage-grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus ). The role of avian species inhabiting sagebrush in the amplification of WNV in arid and semiarid regions of the North America is unknown. We conducted an experimental WNV challenge study in Vesper Sparrows ( Pooecetes gramineus ), a species common to sagebrush and grassland habitats found throughout much of North America. We found Vesper Sparrows to be moderately susceptible to WNV, developing viremia considered sufficient to transmit WNV to feeding mosquitoes, but the majority of birds were capable of surviving infection and developing a humoral immune response to the WNV nonstructural 1 and envelope proteins. Despite clearance of viremia, after 6 mo, WNV was detected molecularly in three birds and cultured from one bird. Surviving Vesper Sparrows were resistant to reinfection 6 mo after the initial challenge. Vesper sparrows could play a role in the amplification of WNV in sagebrush habitat and other areas of their range, but rapid clearance of WNV may limit their importance as competent amplification hosts of WNV.
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Experimental infection of rock pigeons (Columba livia) with three West Nile virus lineage 1 strains isolated in Italy between 2009 and 2012. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 144:1301-11. [PMID: 26493864 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268815002642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) circulation dynamics in the context of the urban environment is not yet elucidated. In this perspective, three groups of eight rock pigeons (Columbia livia) were inoculated with three WNV lineage 1 strains isolated in Italy between 2009 and 2012. The pigeons did not develop any clinical signs consistent with WNV acute infection. All animals seroconverted and shed virus up to 15 days post-infection by the oral or cloacal routes. In all infected groups viraemia lasted for 4 days post-infection. No WNV-specific gross or histological lesions were found in infected birds compared to control birds and immunohistochemistry remained constantly negative from all tissues. The reservoir competence index was also assessed and it ranged between 0·11 and 0·14. This study demonstrates that pigeons are competent reservoir hosts for Italian WNV lineage 1 circulating strains thus potentially posing a risk to the public health system.
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Hinton MG, Reisen WK, Wheeler SS, Townsend AK. West Nile Virus Activity in a Winter Roost of American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos): Is Bird-To-Bird Transmission Important in Persistence and Amplification? JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2015; 52:683-92. [PMID: 26335475 PMCID: PMC4592346 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjv040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Since its emergence in North America, West Nile virus (WNV) has had a large impact on equines, humans, and wild bird communities, yet gaps remain in our understanding of how the virus persists at temperate latitudes when winter temperatures preclude virus replication and host-seeking activity by mosquito vectors. Bird-to-bird transmission at large communal American Crow roosts could provide one mechanism for WNV persistence. Herein, we describe seasonal patterns of crow and Culex mosquito abundance, WNV infection rates, and the prevalence of WNV-positive fecal samples at a winter crow roost to test the hypothesis that bird-to-bird transmission allows WNV to persist at winter crow roosts. Samples were collected from large winter crow roosts in the Sacramento Valley of California from January 2013 until August 2014, encompassing two overwintering roost periods. West Nile virus RNA was detected in local crow carcasses in both summer [13/18 (72% WNV positive)] and winter [18/44 (41% WNV positive)] 2013-2014. Winter infections were unlikely to have arisen by recent bites from infected mosquitoes because Culex host-seeking activity was very low in winter and all Culex mosquitoes collected during winter months tested negative for WNV. Opportunities existed for fecal-oral transfer at the overwintering roost: most carcasses that tested positive for WNV had detectable viral RNA in both kidney and cloacal swabs, suggesting that infected crows were shedding virus in their feces, and >50% of crows at the roost were stained with feces by mid-winter. Moreover, 2.3% of fecal samples collected in late summer, when mosquitoes were active, tested positive for WNV RNA. Nevertheless, none of the 1,119 feces collected from three roosts over two winters contained detectable WNV RNA. This study provided evidence of WNV infection in overwintering American crows without mosquito vector activity, but did not elucidate a mechanism of WNV transmission during winter.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Hinton
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, & Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, 1088 Academic Surge, Davis, CA 95616.
| | - W K Reisen
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Center for Vectorborne Diseases, Old Davis Road, Davis, CA 95616
| | - S S Wheeler
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Center for Vectorborne Diseases, Old Davis Road, Davis, CA 95616
| | - A K Townsend
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, & Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, 1088 Academic Surge, Davis, CA 95616. Department of Biology, Hamilton College, Clinton, NY 13323
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Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Prow NA, Wang W, Tan CSE, Coyle M, Douma A, Hobson-Peters J, Kidd L, Hall RA, Petrovsky N. Safety and immunogenicity of a delta inulin-adjuvanted inactivated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine in pregnant mares and foals. Vet Res 2014; 45:130. [PMID: 25516480 PMCID: PMC4268807 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-014-0130-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2011, following severe flooding in Eastern Australia, an unprecedented epidemic of equine encephalitis occurred in South-Eastern Australia, caused by Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) and a new variant strain of Kunjin virus, a subtype of West Nile virus (WNVKUN). This prompted us to assess whether a delta inulin-adjuvanted, inactivated cell culture-derived Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) vaccine (JE-ADVAX™) could be used in horses, including pregnant mares and foals, to not only induce immunity to JEV, but also elicit cross-protective antibodies against MVEV and WNVKUN. Foals, 74–152 days old, received two injections of JE-ADVAX™. The vaccine was safe and well-tolerated and induced a strong JEV-neutralizing antibody response in all foals. MVEV and WNVKUN antibody cross-reactivity was seen in 33% and 42% of the immunized foals, respectively. JE-ADVAX™ was also safe and well-tolerated in pregnant mares and induced high JEV-neutralizing titers. The neutralizing activity was passively transferred to their foals via colostrum. Foals that acquired passive immunity to JEV via maternal antibodies then were immunized with JE-ADVAX™ at 36–83 days of age, showed evidence of maternal antibody interference with low peak antibody titers post-immunization when compared to immunized foals of JEV-naïve dams. Nevertheless, when given a single JE-ADVAX™ booster immunization as yearlings, these animals developed a rapid and robust JEV-neutralizing antibody response, indicating that they were successfully primed to JEV when immunized as foals, despite the presence of maternal antibodies. Overall, JE-ADVAX™ appears safe and well-tolerated in pregnant mares and young foals and induces protective levels of JEV neutralizing antibodies with partial cross-neutralization of MVEV and WNVKUN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Bielefeldt-Ohmann
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Gatton 4343, Qld, Australia.
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Huang YJS, Higgs S, Horne KM, Vanlandingham DL. Flavivirus-mosquito interactions. Viruses 2014; 6:4703-30. [PMID: 25421894 PMCID: PMC4246245 DOI: 10.3390/v6114703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Flavivirus genus is in the family Flaviviridae and is comprised of more than 70 viruses. These viruses have a broad geographic range, circulating on every continent except Antarctica. Mosquito-borne flaviviruses, such as yellow fever virus, dengue virus serotypes 1-4, Japanese encephalitis virus, and West Nile virus are responsible for significant human morbidity and mortality in affected regions. This review focuses on what is known about flavivirus-mosquito interactions and presents key data collected from the field and laboratory-based molecular and ultrastructural evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Jang S Huang
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
| | - Kate McElroy Horne
- Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
| | - Dana L Vanlandingham
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.
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44
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Di Sabatino D, Bruno R, Sauro F, Danzetta ML, Cito F, Iannetti S, Narcisi V, De Massis F, Calistri P. Epidemiology of West Nile disease in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin from 2009 to 2013. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:907852. [PMID: 25302311 PMCID: PMC4180897 DOI: 10.1155/2014/907852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) transmission has been confirmed in the last four years in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin. An increasing concern towards West Nile disease (WND) has been observed due to the high number of human and animal cases reported in these areas confirming the importance of this zoonosis. A new epidemiological scenario is currently emerging: although new introductions of the virus from abroad are always possible, confirming the epidemiological role played by migratory birds, the infection endemisation in some European territories today is a reality supported by the constant reoccurrence of the same strains across years in the same geographical areas. Despite the WND reoccurrence in the Old World, the overwintering mechanisms are not well known, and the role of local resident birds or mosquitoes in this context is poorly understood. A recent new epidemiological scenario is the spread of lineage 2 strain across European and Mediterranean countries in regions where lineage 1 strain is still circulating creating favourable conditions for genetic reassortments and emergence of new strains. This paper summarizes the main epidemiological findings on WNV occurrence in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin from 2009 to 2013, considering potential future spread patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Di Sabatino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Rossana Bruno
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Francesca Sauro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Danzetta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Francesca Cito
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Simona Iannetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Valeria Narcisi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Fabrizio De Massis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Paolo Calistri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
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45
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West Nile virus isolated from a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in northwestern Missouri, USA, 2012. J Wildl Dis 2014; 50:976-8. [PMID: 25098303 DOI: 10.7589/2013-11-295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We describe the isolation of West Nile virus (WNV; Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) from blood of a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) collected in northwestern Missouri, USA in August 2012. Sequencing determined that the virus was related to lineage 1a WNV02 strains. We discuss the role of wildlife in WNV disease epidemiology.
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46
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Suen WW, Prow NA, Hall RA, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H. Mechanism of West Nile virus neuroinvasion: a critical appraisal. Viruses 2014; 6:2796-825. [PMID: 25046180 PMCID: PMC4113794 DOI: 10.3390/v6072796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an important emerging neurotropic virus, responsible for increasingly severe encephalitis outbreaks in humans and horses worldwide. However, the mechanism by which the virus gains entry to the brain (neuroinvasion) remains poorly understood. Hypotheses of hematogenous and transneural entry have been proposed for WNV neuroinvasion, which revolve mainly around the concepts of blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and retrograde axonal transport, respectively. However, an over‑representation of in vitro studies without adequate in vivo validation continues to obscure our understanding of the mechanism(s). Furthermore, WNV infection in the current rodent models does not generate a similar viremia and character of CNS infection, as seen in the common target hosts, humans and horses. These differences ultimately question the applicability of rodent models for pathogenesis investigations. Finally, the role of several barriers against CNS insults, such as the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the CSF-brain and the blood-spinal cord barriers, remain largely unexplored, highlighting the infancy of this field. In this review, a systematic and critical appraisal of the current evidence relevant to the possible mechanism(s) of WNV neuroinvasion is conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willy W Suen
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4343, Australia.
| | - Natalie A Prow
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Roy A Hall
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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Hirota J, Shimizu S, Shibahara T. Application of West Nile virus diagnostic techniques. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:793-803. [PMID: 23977935 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2013.814824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an enveloped RNA virus in the family Flaviviridae and belongs to Japanese encephalitis virus serocomplex group. The WNV has a wide geographic distribution that includes Africa, Europe, Asia, America and Australia. Recently, it has re-emerged as an important pathogenic organism, illustrated by the series of WNV outbreaks in North America and in Europe. Several hundred people are sacrificed by WNV infection every year. WNV can infect many mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. A variety of diagnoses for WNV infection have been developed, such as virus isolation, nucleotide amplification, antigen detection and serology. Flaviviruses, including WNV, share common nucleotide sequences and antigenic epitopes. Understanding these properties that can influence cross-reactivity is important for accurate diagnosis, especially because areas with multiple flaviviruses are currently expanding. Herein, the authors outline the different diagnostic methods for detecting WNV infection as well as important considerations in using these methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiro Hirota
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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48
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Chikungunya virus and West Nile virus infections imported into Belgium, 2007–2012. Epidemiol Infect 2014; 143:2227-36. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268814000685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYArboviral infections are emerging among tourists travelling to (sub)tropical regions. This study aims to describe the importation of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and West Nile virus (WNV) into Belgium over a 6-year period from 2007 to 2012. Clinical samples were obtained from travellers presenting at the outpatient clinic of the Institute of Tropical Medicine (ITM), Antwerp, Belgium or submitted to the Central Laboratory for Clinical Biology of the ITM. Testing was performed by serology and/or by real-time reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction. A total of 1288 returning travellers were investigated for CHIKV infection resulting in 34 confirmed and two probable diagnoses (2·80%). Out of 899 patients, four confirmed and one probable imported WNV infections were diagnosed (0·55%). No locally acquired cases have been registered in Belgium until now and the geographical origin of the imported infections reflects the global locations where the viruses are circulating.
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49
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Del Amo J, Llorente F, Figuerola J, Soriguer RC, Moreno AM, Cordioli P, Weissenböck H, Jiménez-Clavero MA. Experimental infection of house sparrows (Passer domesticus) with West Nile virus isolates of Euro-Mediterranean and North American origins. Vet Res 2014; 45:33. [PMID: 24641615 PMCID: PMC3974220 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-45-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic arboviral pathogen transmitted by mosquitoes in a cycle involving wild birds as reservoir hosts. The virus has recently emerged in North America and re-emerged in Europe. North American WNV outbreaks are often accompanied by high mortality in wild birds, a feature that is uncommon in Europe. The reason for this difference is unknown, but the intrinsic virulence of the viruses circulating in each continent and/or the susceptibility to the disease of Palearctic as opposed to Nearctic wild bird species could play a role. To assess this question, experimental inoculations with four lineage 1 WNV strains, three from southern Europe (Italy/2008, Italy/2009 and Spain/2007) and one from North America (NY99) were performed on house sparrows (Passer domesticus), a wild passerine common in both continents. Non-significant differences which ranged from 0% to 25% were observed in mortality for the different WNV strains. Viremias lasted from 1 to 5-6 days post-inoculation (dpi) in all cases; individuals inoculated with NY99 had significantly higher titres than those inoculated with any of the Euro-Mediterranean strains. Remarkably, host competence was found to be higher for NY99 than for the other strains. Consequently, albeit being pathogenic for house sparrows, some Euro-Mediterranean strains had reduced capacity for replication in -and transmission from- this host, as compared to the NY99 strain. If applicable also to other wild bird host species, this relatively reduced transmission capacity of the Euro-Mediterranean strains could explain the lower incidence of this disease in wild birds in the Euro-Mediterranean area.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Miguel Angel Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (CISA-INIA), Ctra Algete-El Casar s/n, Valdeolmos, Spain.
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50
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Experimental infections of wild birds with West Nile virus. Viruses 2014; 6:752-81. [PMID: 24531334 PMCID: PMC3939481 DOI: 10.3390/v6020752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian models of West Nile virus (WNV) disease have become pivotal in the study of infection pathogenesis and transmission, despite the intrinsic constraints that represents this type of experimental research that needs to be conducted in biosecurity level 3 (BSL3) facilities. This review summarizes the main achievements of WNV experimental research carried out in wild birds, highlighting advantages and limitations of this model. Viral and host factors that determine the infection outcome are analyzed in detail, as well as recent discoveries about avian immunity, viral transmission, and persistence achieved through experimental research. Studies of laboratory infections in the natural host will help to understand variations in susceptibility and reservoir competence among bird species, as well as in the epidemiological patterns found in different affected areas.
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