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Martínez-Gómez J, Park S, Hartogs SR, Soza VL, Park SJ, Di Stilio VS. Flower morphology as a predictor of pollination mode in a biotic to abiotic pollination continuum. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2023; 132:61-76. [PMID: 37235981 PMCID: PMC10550269 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcad069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Wind pollination has evolved repeatedly in flowering plants, yet the identification of a wind pollination syndrome as a set of integrated floral traits can be elusive. Thalictrum (Ranunculaceae) comprises temperate perennial herbs that have transitioned repeatedly from insect to wind pollination while also exhibiting mixed pollination, providing an ideal system to test for evolutionary correlation between floral morphology and pollination mode in a biotic to abiotic continuum. Moreover, the lack of floral organ fusion across this genus allows testing for specialization to pollination vectors in the absence of this feature. METHODS We expanded phylogenetic sampling in the genus from a previous study using six chloroplast loci, which allowed us to test whether species cluster into distinct pollination syndromes based on floral morphology. We then used multivariate analyses on floral traits followed by ancestral state reconstruction of the emerging flower morphotypes and determined whether these traits are evolutionarily correlated under a Bayesian framework with Brownian motion. KEY RESULTS Floral traits fell into five distinct clusters, which were reduced to three after considering phylogenetic relatedness and were largely consistent with flower morphotypes and associated pollination vectors. Multivariate evolutionary analyses found a positive correlation between the lengths of floral reproductive structures (styles, stigmas, filaments and anthers). Shorter reproductive structures tracked insect-pollinated species and clades in the phylogeny, whereas longer structures tracked wind-pollinated ones, consistent with selective pressures exerted by biotic vs. abiotic pollination vectors, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Although detectable suites of integrated floral traits across Thalictrum were correlated with wind or insect pollination at the extremes of the morphospace distribution, a presumed intermediate, mixed pollination mode morphospace was also detected. Thus, our data broadly support the existence of detectable flower morphotypes from convergent evolution underlying the evolution of pollination mode in Thalictrum, presumably via different paths from an ancestral mixed pollination state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Martínez-Gómez
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, PO Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences and L.H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Seongjun Park
- Institute of Natural Science, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, 38541, South Korea
| | - Samantha R Hartogs
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, PO Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Valerie L Soza
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, PO Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Seon Joo Park
- Department of Life Sciences, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, 38541, South Korea
| | - Verónica S Di Stilio
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, PO Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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2
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Kobayashi S. Evolution of a non-flying mammal-dependent pollination system in Asian Mucuna (Fabaceae). PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2023; 25:833-841. [PMID: 37408380 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Pollinator shifts are often related to speciation in angiosperms, and the relationship between them has been discussed in several plant taxa. Although limited information on plants pollinated by non-flying mammals in Central and South America and Africa is available, related research has not been conducted in Asia. Herein, I summarize the available knowledge of pollination in Asian Mucuna (Fabaceae), a genus mainly distributed in the tropics, and discuss the evolution of plants pollinated by non-flying mammals in Asia. Nineteen pollinator species have been recorded and pollination systems have been categorized into four types. An examination of the relationship between Mucuna species and their pollinators from the lineage perspective revealed that all species in Mucuna, subgenus Macrocarpa, which are distributed in Asia, are pollinated exclusively by non-flying mammals. Additionally, plants pollinated by non-flying mammals were found to have diverged from bat-pollinated and non-flying mammal-pollinated plants, while plants pollinated by non-flying mammals have evolved multiple times. This is a unique example of evolutionary transition. I hypothesize that the diversification of squirrel species in tropical Asia may have led to the speciation and diversification of Mucuna in Asia. Furthermore, the behavioural and ecological characteristics of bats and birds in Asia differ from the characteristics of those in other regions, implying that Asian Mucuna species do not rely on bat or bird pollinators. The adaptation of floral characteristics to pollinators is not well understood in Asia. Mammal-pollinated plants in Asia may have evolved differently from those in other regions and have unique pollination systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kobayashi
- Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
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3
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Xiang GJ, Lázaro A, Dai XK, Xia J, Yang CF. Pollinator Proboscis Length Plays a Key Role in Floral Integration of Honeysuckle Flowers ( Lonicera spp.). PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1629. [PMID: 37111853 PMCID: PMC10144162 DOI: 10.3390/plants12081629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Pollinator-mediated selection is supposed to influence floral integration. However, the potential pathway through which pollinators drive floral integration needs further investigations. We propose that pollinator proboscis length may play a key role in the evolution of floral integration. We first assessed the divergence of floral traits in 11 Lonicera species. Further, we detected the influence of pollinator proboscis length and eight floral traits on floral integration. We then used phylogenetic structural equation models (PSEMs) to illustrate the pathway through which pollinators drive the divergence of floral integration. Results of PCA indicated that species significantly differed in floral traits. Floral integration increased along with corolla tube length, stigma height, lip length, and the main pollinators' proboscis length. PSEMs revealed a potential pathway by which pollinator proboscis length directly selected on corolla tube length and stigma height, while lip length co-varied with stigma height. Compared to species with short corolla tubes, long-tube flowers may experience more intense pollinator-mediated selection due to more specialized pollination systems and thus reduce variation in the floral traits. Along elongation of corolla tube and stigma height, the covariation of other relevant traits might help to maintain pollination success. The direct and indirect pollinator-mediation selection collectively enhances floral integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gan-Ju Xiang
- College of Life Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, China
| | - Amparo Lázaro
- Global Change Research Group, Mediterranean Institute of Advanced Studies (IMEDEA; UIB-CSIC), 07190 Esporles, Balearic Islands, Spain
- Department of Biology, Ecology Area, University of the Balearic Islands, 07190 Palma, Balearic Islands, Spain
| | - Xiao-Kang Dai
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jing Xia
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory for Protection and Application of Special Plant Germplasm in Wuling Area of China, College of Life Sciences, South-Central Minzu University, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Chun-Feng Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Aquatic Botany and Watershed Ecology, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China
- Center of Conservation Biology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China
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Martín-Hernanz S, Albaladejo RG, Lavergne S, Rubio E, Marín-Rodulfo M, Arroyo J, Aparicio A. Strong conservatism of floral morphology during the rapid diversification of the genus Helianthemum. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2023; 110:e16155. [PMID: 36912727 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.16155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Divergence of floral morphology and breeding systems are often expected to be linked to angiosperm diversification and environmental niche divergence. However, available evidence for such relationships is not generalizable due to different taxonomic, geographical and time scales. The Palearctic genus Helianthemum shows the highest diversity of the family Cistaceae in terms of breeding systems, floral traits, and environmental conditions as a result of three recent evolutionary radiations since the Late Miocene. Here, we investigated the tempo and mode of evolution of floral morphology in the genus and its link with species diversification and environmental niche divergence. METHODS We quantified 18 floral traits from 83 taxa and applied phylogenetic comparative methods using a robust phylogenetic framework based on genotyping-by-sequencing data. RESULTS We found three different floral morphologies, putatively related to three different breeding systems: type I, characterized by small flowers without herkogamy and low pollen to ovule ratio; type II, represented by large flowers with approach herkogamy and intermediate pollen to ovule ratio; and type III, featured by small flowers with reverse herkogamy and the highest pollen to ovule ratio. Each morphology has been highly conserved across each radiation and has evolved independently of species diversification and ecological niche divergence. CONCLUSIONS The combined results of trait, niche, and species diversification ultimately recovered a pattern of potentially non-adaptive radiations in Helianthemum and highlight the idea that evolutionary radiations can be decoupled from floral morphology evolution even in lineages that diversified in heterogeneous environments as the Mediterranean Basin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Martín-Hernanz
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3DS, UK
| | - Rafael G Albaladejo
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Sébastien Lavergne
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine (LECA), FR-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Encarnación Rubio
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Macarena Marín-Rodulfo
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
- Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Juan Arroyo
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Abelardo Aparicio
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
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Osuna-Mascaró C, Rubio de Casas R, Gómez JM, Loureiro J, Castro S, Landis JB, Hopkins R, Perfectti F. Hybridization and introgression are prevalent in Southern European Erysimum (Brassicaceae) species. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2023; 131:171-184. [PMID: 35390125 PMCID: PMC9904350 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcac048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Hybridization is a common and important force in plant evolution. One of its outcomes is introgression - the transfer of small genomic regions from one taxon to another by hybridization and repeated backcrossing. This process is believed to be common in glacial refugia, where range expansions and contractions can lead to cycles of sympatry and isolation, creating conditions for extensive hybridization and introgression. Polyploidization is another genome-wide process with a major influence on plant evolution. Both hybridization and polyploidization can have complex effects on plant evolution. However, these effects are often difficult to understand in recently evolved species complexes. METHODS We combined flow cytometry, analyses of transcriptomic sequences and pollen tube growth assays to investigate the consequences of polyploidization, hybridization and introgression on the recent evolution of several Erysimum (Brassicaceae) species from the South of the Iberian Peninsula, a well-known glacial refugium. This species complex differentiated in the last 2 million years, and its evolution has been hypothesized to be determined mainly by polyploidization, interspecific hybridization and introgression. KEY RESULTS Our results support a scenario of widespread hybridization involving both extant and 'ghost' taxa. Several taxa studied here, most notably those with purple corollas, are polyploids, probably of allopolyploid origin. Moreover, hybridization in this group might be an ongoing phenomenon, as pre-zygotic barriers appeared weak in many cases. CONCLUSIONS The evolution of Erysimum spp. has been determined by hybridization to a large extent. Species with purple (polyploids) and yellow flowers (mostly diploid) exhibit a strong signature of introgression in their genomes, indicating that hybridization occurred regardless of colour and across ploidy levels. Although the adaptive value of such genomic exchanges remains unclear, our results demonstrate the significance of hybridization for plant diversification, which should be taken into account when studying plant evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael Rubio de Casas
- Research Unit Modeling Nature, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- Departamento de Ecología, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José M Gómez
- Research Unit Modeling Nature, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- Departamento de Ecología Funcional y Evolutiva, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (EEZA‐CSIC), Almería, Spain
| | - João Loureiro
- Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Silvia Castro
- Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jacob B Landis
- BTI Computational Biology Center, Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Section of Plant Biology and the L.H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Robin Hopkins
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- The Arnold Arboretum, 1300 Centre Street, Boston, MA, USA
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Camacho LA, de Andreazzi CS, Medeiros LP, Birskis‐Barros I, Emer C, Reigada C, Guimarães PR. Cheating interactions favor modularity in mutualistic networks. OIKOS 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.09176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas A. Camacho
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia, Depto de Ecologia – Inst. de Biociências, USP São Paulo SP Brasil
| | - Cecilia Siliansky de Andreazzi
- Laboratório de Biologia e Parasitologia de Mamíferos Silvestres Reservatórios, Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Manguinhos Rio de Janeiro RJ Brasil
| | | | | | - Carine Emer
- Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. Rua Pacheco Leão, 915. Jardim Botânico Rio de Janeiro CEP 22460‐000 RJ Brasil
| | - Carolina Reigada
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Depto de Ecologia e Biologia Evolutiva, Univ. Federal de São Carlos, UFSCAR São Carlos SP Brasil
| | - Paulo R. Guimarães
- Depto de Ecologia – Inst. de Biociências, USP, Rua do Matão São Paulo SP Brasil
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7
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Benítez HA, Püschel TA, Suazo MJ. Drosophila Wing Integration and Modularity: A Multi-Level Approach to Understand the History of Morphological Structures. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11040567. [PMID: 35453766 PMCID: PMC9025964 DOI: 10.3390/biology11040567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary The diverse components of any morphological structure are integrated with respect to each other since they have developed, functioned, and evolved together, a phenomenon known as integration. However, this integration is not absolute but organized in units (i.e., modules) that are relatively independent while participating to generate a structure that acts as a functional whole. Even though most of the studies on modularity and integration have focused on variation among individuals within populations, there are more levels of variation that exhibit modularity and integration, deriving from distinct sources such as genetic variation, phenotypic plasticity, fluctuating asymmetry, evolutionary change, among others. Consequently, the present study focused on analysing the integration and modularity of the wing shape of some of the best-known model organisms, i.e., the genus Drosophila, at the static, developmental, and evolutionary levels to acquire a better insight about how modularity and integration act at different analytical levels. The strong integration and overall similarities observed in the variation pattern at multiple levels suggest a shared mechanism underlying the observed variation in Drosophila’s wing shape and added a new piece of evidence of stasis in the evolutionary history of Drosophila wing. Abstract Static, developmental, and evolutionary variation are different sources of morphological variation which can be quantified using morphometrics tools. In the present study we have carried out a comparative multiple level study of integration (i.e., static, developmental, and evolutionary) to acquire insight about the relationships that exist between different integration levels, as well as to better understand their involvement in the evolutionary processes related to the diversification of Drosophila’s wing shape. This approach was applied to analyse wing evolution in 59 species across the whole genus in a large dataset (~10,000 wings were studied). Static integration was analysed using principal component analysis, thus providing an integration measurement for overall wing shape. Developmental integration was studied between wing parts by using a partial least squares method between the anterior and posterior compartments of the wing. Evolutionary integration was analysed using independent contrasts. The present results show that all Drosophila species exhibit strong morphological integration at different levels. The strong integration and overall similarities observed at multiple integration levels suggest a shared mechanism underlying this variation, which could result as consequence of genetic drift acting on the wing shape of Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo A. Benítez
- Laboratorio de Ecología y Morfometría Evolutiva, Centro de Investigación de Estudios Avanzados del Maule, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca 3466706, Chile
- Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales y Sustentabilidad (CIRENYS), Universidad Bernardo O’Higgins, Avenida Viel 1497, Santiago 8370993, Chile
- Correspondence:
| | - Thomas A. Püschel
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Division, School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AH, UK;
- Institute of Human Sciences, School of Anthropology and Museum Ethnography, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Manuel J. Suazo
- Instituto de Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Casilla 7D, Arica 1000000, Chile;
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8
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Structure and roles in pollination networks between phyllostomid bats and flowers: a systematic review for the Americas. Mamm Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-021-00202-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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9
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OUP accepted manuscript. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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10
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Zeng G, Liu B, Ferguson DK, Yang Y. Dancing on the platform: Lability of floral organs of Beilschmiedia appendiculata (Lauraceae). Ecol Evol 2021; 11:17615-17624. [PMID: 35003628 PMCID: PMC8717328 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Floral characters are important for the systematics of the Lauraceae. However, structure and development of the flowers remain poorly known in the family. In this study, we observed the variation and early development of flowers of Beilschmiedia appendiculata, which belongs to the Cryptocarya clade of the family. The results indicate that the shoot apical meristems (SAMs) of the floral buds are enlarged and become a platform for the programmed initiation of the floral organs; floral organs develop basically in an acropetal pattern; phyllotaxis is whorled, initiation of floral primordia within a whorl is asynchronous; floral merosity is extremely variable, for example, dimerous, trimerous, tetramerous, dimerous plus trimerous, and trimerous plus tetramerous. In addition, this species has lost the innermost staminal whorl and glands are not closely associated with stamens of the third staminal whorl, which is unusual in the family Lauraceae. Our new observations broaden our knowledge of the variation of floral structure in Beilschmiedia and pose a fundamental question regarding the ecology underlying the lability of floral organs in B. appendiculata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Zeng
- College of Biology and EnvironmentNanjing Forestry University159 Longpan RoadNanjingChina
- Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical GardenInstitute of BotanyChinese Academy of SciencesMenglaChina
| | - Bing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary BotanyInstitute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | | | - Yong Yang
- College of Biology and EnvironmentNanjing Forestry University159 Longpan RoadNanjingChina
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Artuso S, Gamisch A, Staedler YM, Schönenberger J, Comes HP. Evidence for selectively constrained 3D flower shape evolution in a Late Miocene clade of Malagasy Bulbophyllum orchids. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 232:853-867. [PMID: 34309843 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Questions concerning the evolution of complex biological structures are central to the field of evolutionary biology. Yet, still little information is known about the modes and temporal dynamics of three-dimensional (3D) flower shape evolution across the history of clades. Here, we combined high-resolution X-ray computed tomography with 3D geometric morphometrics and phylogenetic comparative methods to test models of whole-flower shape evolution in the orchid family, using an early Late Miocene clade (c. 50 spp.) of Malagasy Bulbophyllum as model system. Based on landmark data of 38 species, our high-dimensional model fitting decisively rejects a purely neutral mode of evolution, suggesting instead that flower shapes evolved towards a primary adaptive optimum. Only a small number of recently evolved species/lineages attained alternative shape optima, resulting in an increased rate of phenotypic evolution. Our findings provide evidence of constrained 3D flower shape evolution in a small-sized clade of tropical orchids, resulting in low rates of phenotypic evolution and uncoupled trait-diversification rates. We hypothesise that this deep imprint of evolutionary constraint on highly complex floral structures might reflect long-term (directional and/or stabilizing) selection exerted by the group's main pollinators (flies).
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Artuso
- Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, A-5020, Austria
| | - Alexander Gamisch
- Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, A-5020, Austria
| | - Yannick M Staedler
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, A-1030, Austria
| | - Jürg Schönenberger
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, A-1030, Austria
| | - Hans Peter Comes
- Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, A-5020, Austria
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12
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Rose JP, Sytsma KJ. Complex interactions underlie the correlated evolution of floral traits and their association with pollinators in a clade with diverse pollination systems. Evolution 2021; 75:1431-1449. [PMID: 33818785 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Natural selection by pollinators is an important factor in the morphological diversity and adaptive radiation of flowering plants. Selection by similar pollinators in unrelated plants leads to convergence in floral morphology, or "floral syndromes." Previous investigations into floral syndromes have mostly studied relatively small and/or simple systems, emphasizing vertebrate pollination. Despite the importance of multiple floral traits in plant-pollinator interactions, these studies have examined few quantitative traits, so their co-variation and phenotypic integration have been underexplored. To gain better insights into pollinator-trait dynamics, we investigate the model system of the phlox family (Polemoniaceae), a clade of ∼400 species pollinated by a diversity of vectors. Using a comprehensive phylogeny and large dataset of traits and observations of pollinators, we reconstruct ancestral pollination system, accounting for the temporal history of pollinators. We conduct phylogenetically controlled analyses of trait co-variation and association with pollinators, integrating many analyses over phylogenetic uncertainty. Pollinator shifts are more heterogeneous than previously hypothesized. The evolution of floral traits is partially constrained by phylogenetic history and trait co-variation, but traits are convergent and differences are associated with different pollinators. Trait shifts are usually gradual, rather than rapid, suggesting complex genetic and ecological interactions of flowers at macroevolutionary scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Rose
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706.,Current Address: Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Kearney, Kearney, Nebraska, 68849
| | - Kenneth J Sytsma
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706
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13
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Rohner PT, Macagno ALM, Moczek AP. Evolution and plasticity of morph-specific integration in the bull-headed dung beetle Onthophagus taurus. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:10558-10570. [PMID: 33072280 PMCID: PMC7548182 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental and evolutionary processes underlying phenotypic variation frequently target several traits simultaneously, thereby causing covariation, or integration, among phenotypes. While phenotypic integration can be neutral, correlational selection can drive adaptive covariation. Especially, the evolution and development of exaggerated secondary sexual traits may require the adjustment of other traits that support, compensate for, or otherwise function in a concerted manner. Although phenotypic integration is ubiquitous, the interplay between genetic, developmental, and ecological conditions in shaping integration and its evolution remains poorly understood. Here, we study the evolution and plasticity of trait integration in the bull-headed dung beetle Onthophagus taurus which is characterized by the polyphenic expression of horned ('major') and hornless ('minor') male morphs. By comparing populations subject to divergent intensities of mate competition, we tested whether mating system shifts affect integration of traits predicted to function in a morph-specific manner. We focussed on fore and hind tibia morphology as these appendages are used to stabilize major males during fights, and on wings, as they are thought to contribute to morph-based differences in dispersal behavior. We found phenotypic integration between fore and hind tibia length and horn length that was stronger in major males, suggesting phenotypic plasticity in integration and potentially secondary sexual trait compensation. Similarly, we observed that fore tibia shape was also integrated with relative horn length. However, although we found population differentiation in wing and tibia shape and allometry, populations did not differ in integration. Lastly, we detected little evidence for morph differences in integration in either tibia or wing shape, although wing allometries differed between morphs. This contrasts with previous studies documenting intraspecific differentiation in morphology, behavior, and allometry as a response to varying levels of mate competition across O. taurus populations. We discuss how sexual selection may shape morph-specific integration, compensation, and allometry across populations.
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van de Kerke SJ, van Engelenhoven T, van Es AL, Schat L, van Son LM, Vink S, Hemerik L, van Velzen R, Schranz ME, Bakker FT. Capturing variation in floral shape: a virtual3D based morphospace for Pelargonium. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8823. [PMID: 32274266 PMCID: PMC7130111 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Variation in floral shapes has long fascinated biologists and its modelling enables testing of evolutionary hypotheses. Recent comparative studies that explore floral shape have largely ignored 3D floral shape. We propose quantifying floral shape by using geometric morphometrics on a virtual3D model reconstructed from 2D photographical data and demonstrate its performance in capturing shape variation. Methods This approach offers unique benefits to complement established imaging techniques (i) by enabling adequate coverage of the potential morphospace of large and diverse flowering-plant clades; (ii) by circumventing asynchronicity in anthesis of different floral parts; and (iii) by incorporating variation in copy number of floral organs within structures. We demonstrate our approach by analysing 90 florally-diverse species of the Southern African genus Pelargonium (Geraniaceae). We quantify Pelargonium floral shapes using 117 landmarks and show similarities in reconstructed morphospaces for nectar tube, corolla (2D datasets), and a combined virtual3D dataset. Results Our results indicate that Pelargonium species differ in floral shape, which can also vary extensively within a species. PCA results of the reconstructed virtual3D floral models are highly congruent with the separate 2D morphospaces, indicating it is an accurate, virtual, representation of floral shape. Through our approach, we find that adding the third dimension to the data is crucial to accurately interpret the manner of, as well as levels of, shape variation in flowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J van de Kerke
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands.,Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Anne L van Es
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Laura Schat
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands.,Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lisa M van Son
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Sverre Vink
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Lia Hemerik
- Biometris, Department of Mathematical and Statistical Methods, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Robin van Velzen
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - M Eric Schranz
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Freek T Bakker
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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15
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Züst T, Strickler SR, Powell AF, Mabry ME, An H, Mirzaei M, York T, Holland CK, Kumar P, Erb M, Petschenka G, Gómez JM, Perfectti F, Müller C, Pires JC, Mueller LA, Jander G. Independent evolution of ancestral and novel defenses in a genus of toxic plants ( Erysimum, Brassicaceae). eLife 2020; 9:51712. [PMID: 32252891 PMCID: PMC7180059 DOI: 10.7554/elife.51712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytochemical diversity is thought to result from coevolutionary cycles as specialization in herbivores imposes diversifying selection on plant chemical defenses. Plants in the speciose genus Erysimum (Brassicaceae) produce both ancestral glucosinolates and evolutionarily novel cardenolides as defenses. Here we test macroevolutionary hypotheses on co-expression, co-regulation, and diversification of these potentially redundant defenses across this genus. We sequenced and assembled the genome of E. cheiranthoides and foliar transcriptomes of 47 additional Erysimum species to construct a phylogeny from 9868 orthologous genes, revealing several geographic clades but also high levels of gene discordance. Concentrations, inducibility, and diversity of the two defenses varied independently among species, with no evidence for trade-offs. Closely related, geographically co-occurring species shared similar cardenolide traits, but not glucosinolate traits, likely as a result of specific selective pressures acting on each defense. Ancestral and novel chemical defenses in Erysimum thus appear to provide complementary rather than redundant functions. Plants are often attacked by insects and other herbivores. As a result, they have evolved to defend themselves by producing many different chemicals that are toxic to these pests. As producing each chemical costs energy, individual plants often only produce one type of chemical that is targeted towards their main herbivore. Related species of plants often use the same type of chemical defense so, if a particular herbivore gains the ability to cope with this chemical, it may rapidly become an important pest for the whole plant family. To escape this threat, some plants have gained the ability to produce more than one type of chemical defense. Wallflowers, for example, are a group of plants in the mustard family that produce two types of toxic chemicals: mustard oils, which are common in most plants in this family; and cardenolides, which are an innovation of the wallflowers, and which are otherwise found only in distantly related plants such as foxglove and milkweed. The combination of these two chemical defenses within the same plant may have allowed the wallflowers to escape attacks from their main herbivores and may explain why the number of wallflower species rapidly increased within the last two million years. Züst et al. have now studied the diversity of mustard oils and cardenolides present in many different species of wallflower. This analysis revealed that almost all of the tested wallflower species produced high amounts of both chemical defenses, while only one species lacked the ability to produce cardenolides. The levels of mustard oils had no relation to the levels of cardenolides in the tested species, which suggests that the regulation of these two defenses is not linked. Furthermore, Züst et al. found that closely related wallflower species produced more similar cardenolides, but less similar mustard oils, to each other. This suggests that mustard oils and cardenolides have evolved independently in wallflowers and have distinct roles in the defense against different herbivores. The evolution of insect resistance to pesticides and other toxins is an important concern for agriculture. Applying multiple toxins to crops at the same time is an important strategy to slow the evolution of resistance in the pests. The findings of Züst et al. describe a system in which plants have naturally evolved an equivalent strategy to escape their main herbivores. Understanding how plants produce multiple chemical defenses, and the costs involved, may help efforts to breed crop species that are more resistant to herbivores and require fewer applications of pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Züst
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Makenzie E Mabry
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States
| | - Hong An
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States
| | | | - Thomas York
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, United States
| | | | - Pavan Kumar
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Ithaca, United States
| | - Matthias Erb
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Georg Petschenka
- Institut für Insektenbiotechnologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - José-María Gómez
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (EEZA-CSIC), Almería, Spain
| | - Francisco Perfectti
- Research Unit Modeling Nature, Department of Genetics, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Caroline Müller
- Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - J Chris Pires
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States
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16
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Reich D, Berger A, von Balthazar M, Chartier M, Sherafati M, Schönenberger J, Manafzadeh S, Staedler YM. Modularity and evolution of flower shape: the role of function, development, and spandrels in Erica. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 226:267-280. [PMID: 31765023 PMCID: PMC7065081 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Flowers have been hypothesized to contain either modules of attraction and reproduction, functional modules (pollination-effecting parts) or developmental modules (organ-specific). Do pollination specialization and syndromes influence floral modularity? In order to test these hypotheses and answer this question, we focused on the genus Erica: we gathered 3D data from flowers of 19 species with diverse syndromes via computed tomography, and for the first time tested the above-mentioned hypotheses via 3D geometric morphometrics. To provide an evolutionary framework for our results, we tested the evolutionary mode of floral shape, size and integration under the syndromes regime, and - for the first time - reconstructed the high-dimensional floral shape of their most recent common ancestor. We demonstrate that the modularity of the 3D shape of generalist flowers depends on development and that of specialists is linked to function: modules of pollen deposition and receipt in bird syndrome, and access-restriction to the floral reward in long-proboscid fly syndrome. Only size and shape principal component 1 showed multiple-optima selection, suggesting that they were co-opted during evolution to adapt flowers to novel pollinators. Whole floral shape followed an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (selection-driven) evolutionary model, and differentiated relatively late. Flower shape modularity thus crucially depends on pollinator specialization and syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Reich
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity ResearchDivision of Evolutionary and Systematic BotanyUniversity of ViennaRennweg 14Vienna1030Austria
| | - Andreas Berger
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity ResearchDivision of Evolutionary and Systematic BotanyUniversity of ViennaRennweg 14Vienna1030Austria
| | - Maria von Balthazar
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity ResearchDivision of Structural and Functional BotanyUniversity of ViennaRennweg 14Vienna1030Austria
| | - Marion Chartier
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity ResearchDivision of Structural and Functional BotanyUniversity of ViennaRennweg 14Vienna1030Austria
| | - Mahboubeh Sherafati
- Department of Plant BiologyFaculty of Biological SciencesTarbiat Modares UniversityTehran14115‐154Iran
| | - Jürg Schönenberger
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity ResearchDivision of Structural and Functional BotanyUniversity of ViennaRennweg 14Vienna1030Austria
| | - Sara Manafzadeh
- Department of Environmental Systems ScienceETH ZurichUniversitätstrasse 16Zürich8092Switzerland
| | - Yannick M. Staedler
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity ResearchDivision of Structural and Functional BotanyUniversity of ViennaRennweg 14Vienna1030Austria
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Rocha L, Ribeiro PL, Endress PK, Rapini A. A brainstorm on the systematics of Turnera (Turneraceae, Malpighiales) caused by insights from molecular phylogenetics and morphological evolution. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2019; 137:44-63. [PMID: 30999036 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2019.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
With 145 species, Turnera is the largest genus of Turneraceae (Malpighiales). Despite several morphotaxonomic and cytogenetic studies, our knowledge about the phylogenetic relationships in Turnera remains mainly based on morphological data. Here, we reconstruct the most comprehensive phylogeny of Turnera with molecular data to understand the morphological evolution within this group and to assess its circumscription and infrageneric classification. We analyzed two nuclear and six plastid markers and 112 taxa, including species and infraspecific taxa, 97 from Turnera, covering the 11 series of the genus. Bayesian inference, maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses show that Turnera, as traditionally circumscribed, is not monophyletic. The genus is divided into two well-supported independent clades; one of them is sister to the genus Piriqueta and is here segregated as the new genus Oxossia. According to our reconstructions, Turnera probably evolved from an ancestor without extrafloral nectaries and with solitary, homostylous flowers with yellow petals. The emergences of extrafloral nectaries and distyly, both common in extant taxa, played an important role in the diversification of the genus. An updated infrageneric classification reflecting the relationships within Turnera is now possible based on morphological synapomorphies and is here designed for further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lamarck Rocha
- Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Botânica, Av. Transnordestina s.n., Feira de Santana, 44036-900 Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Patrícia Luz Ribeiro
- Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Botânica, Av. Transnordestina s.n., Feira de Santana, 44036-900 Bahia, Brazil; Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Ambientais e Biológicas, Cruz das Almas, 44380-000 Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Peter K Endress
- University of Zurich, Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Alessandro Rapini
- Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Botânica, Av. Transnordestina s.n., Feira de Santana, 44036-900 Bahia, Brazil.
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18
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Coswosk JA, Ferreira RA, Soares EDG, Faria LRR. Responses of Euglossine Bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Euglossina) to an Edge-Forest Gradient in a Large Tabuleiro Forest Remnant in Eastern Brazil. NEOTROPICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 47:447-456. [PMID: 28540533 DOI: 10.1007/s13744-017-0533-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Euglossine fauna of a large remnant of Brazilian Atlantic forest in eastern Brazil (Reserva Natural Vale) was assessed along an edge-forest gradient towards the interior of the fragment. To test the hypotheses that the structure of assemblages of orchid bees varies along this gradient, the following predictions were evaluated: (i) species richness is positively related to distance from the forest edge, (ii) species diversity is positively related to distance from the edge, (iii) the relative abundance of species associated with forest edge and/or open areas is inversely related to the distance from edge, and (iv) relative abundance of forest-related species is positively related to distance from the edge. A total of 2264 bees of 25 species was assessed at five distances from the edge: 0 m (the edge itself), 100 m, 500 m, 1000 m and 1500 m. Data suggested the existence of an edge-interior gradient for euglossine bees regarding species diversity and composition (considering the relative abundance of edge and forest-related species as a proxy for species composition) but not species richness.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Coswosk
- Depto de Ciências Agrárias e Biológicas, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Univ Federal do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, ES, Brasil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biodiversidade Tropical (PPGBN/CEUNES/UFES), São Mateus, ES, Brasil
| | - R A Ferreira
- Depto de Ciências Agrárias e Biológicas, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Univ Federal do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, ES, Brasil
| | - E D G Soares
- Depto de Ciências Agrárias e Biológicas, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Univ Federal do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, ES, Brasil
- Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza, Univ Federal da Integracão Latino-Americana (UNILA), Av. Tarquínio Joslin dos Santos, 1000, Jardim Universitário, Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná, 85870-901, Brasil
| | - L R R Faria
- Depto de Ciências Agrárias e Biológicas, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Univ Federal do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, ES, Brasil.
- Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza, Univ Federal da Integracão Latino-Americana (UNILA), Av. Tarquínio Joslin dos Santos, 1000, Jardim Universitário, Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná, 85870-901, Brasil.
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19
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Fishbein M, Livshultz T, Straub SCK, Simões AO, Boutte J, McDonnell A, Foote A. Evolution on the backbone: Apocynaceae phylogenomics and new perspectives on growth forms, flowers, and fruits. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2018; 105:495-513. [PMID: 29733432 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY We provide the largest phylogenetic analyses to date of Apocynaceae in terms of taxa and molecular data as a framework for analyzing the evolution of vegetative and reproductive traits. METHODS We produced maximum-likelihood phylogenies of Apocynaceae using 21 plastid loci sampled from 1045 species (nearly 25% of the family) and complete plastomes from 73 species. We reconstructed ancestral states and used model comparisons in a likelihood framework to analyze character evolution across Apocynaceae. KEY RESULTS We obtained a well-supported phylogeny of Apocynaceae, resolving poorly understood tribal and subtribal relationships (e.g., among Amsonieae and Hunterieae, within Asclepiadeae), rejecting monophyly of Melodineae and Odontadenieae, and placing previously unsampled and enigmatic taxa (e.g., Pycnobotrya). We provide new insights into the evolution of Apocynaceae, including frequent shifts between herbaceousness and woodiness, reversibility of twining, integrated evolution of the corolla and gynostegium, and ancestral baccate fruits. CONCLUSIONS Increased sampling and selection of best-fitting models of evolution provide more resolved and robust estimates of phylogeny and character evolution than obtained in previous studies. Evolutionary inferences are sensitive to choice of phylogenetic frameworks and models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Fishbein
- Department of Plant Biology, Ecology& Evolution, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Tatyana Livshultz
- Department of Biodiversity, Earth & Environmental Sciences & Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 19103, USA
| | - Shannon C K Straub
- Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY, 14456, USA
| | - André O Simões
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas - UNICAMP, CP. 6109, 13083-970, Campinas São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julien Boutte
- Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY, 14456, USA
| | - Angela McDonnell
- Department of Plant Biology, Ecology& Evolution, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
- Department of Biology, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, 17837, USA
| | - Abbey Foote
- Department of Biology, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, NY, 14456, USA
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20
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Smith SD, Kriebel R. Convergent evolution of floral shape tied to pollinator shifts in Iochrominae (Solanaceae)*. Evolution 2018; 72:688-697. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stacey D. Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Colorado Boulder Colorado 80305
| | - Ricardo Kriebel
- Department of Botany University of Wisconsin – Madison Madison Wisconsin 53706
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21
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Pellegrino G, Bellusci F, Palermo AM. Functional differentiation in pollination processes among floral traits in Serapias species (Orchidaceae). Ecol Evol 2017; 7:7171-7177. [PMID: 28944008 PMCID: PMC5606857 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Floral displays, influencing attractiveness to insects, increase the number of pollinator visits and the efficiency of each visit in terms of pollen exchange and thus affect the plant reproductive success. Here, we conducted an in situ manipulation experiment to investigate whether the floral modifications affect reproductive success in natural orchid populations of Serapias lingua and Serapias vomeracea. We estimated male and female reproductive success of three treatment groups, disassembly of floral tube, cutting of lip, and painting of the callus surface, in terms of pollinaria removed/deposited and fruit production. Results revealed that phenotypic modification had opposite effects on reproductive success of two examine species. Indeed, reproductive success was significantly increased by the detached of the petals and sepals, and decreased, due to callus painting and lip removal, in S. lingua. On the contrary, unmanipulated plants of S. vomeracea showed significantly higher value of pollinaria removed and deposited and fruit set than manipulated ones. The differences between S. lingua and S. vomeracea agree to the different pollination strategy of examined species. S. vomeracea shows shelter imitation strategy, and thus, the disassembly of tunnel-like corolla does not allow the insects to use the flower as a refuge, while S. lingua is a sexually deceptive orchid and therefore the opening of the flower made more visible callus (visible at a greater distance) increasing the pollinators attraction. This study provides evidence that pollinators were largely sensitive to the experimental modification of the flower phenotype, which is consistent with the presence of significant selection on individual floral characters. Our experimental investigations of the effects of variation in display on pollinator visitation provide insights into the evolution of floral morphology in orchid with shelter imitation strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Pellegrino
- Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Calabria Rende CS Italy
| | - Francesca Bellusci
- Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Calabria Rende CS Italy
| | - Anna Maria Palermo
- Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Calabria Rende CS Italy
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22
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Heywood JS, Michalski JS, McCann BK, Russo AD, Andres KJ, Hall AR, Middleton TC. Genetic and environmental integration of the hawkmoth pollination syndrome in Ruellia humilis (Acanthaceae). ANNALS OF BOTANY 2017; 119:1143-1155. [PMID: 28334177 PMCID: PMC5604580 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcx003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The serial homology of floral structures has made it difficult to assess the relative contributions of selection and constraint to floral integration. The interpretation of floral integration may also be clouded by the tacit, but largely untested, assumption that genetic and environmental perturbations affect trait correlations in similar ways. In this study, estimates of both the genetic and environmental correlations between components of the hawkmoth pollination syndrome are presented for chasmogamous flowers of Ruellia humilis , including two levels of control for serial homology. METHODS A greenhouse population for quantitative genetic analysis was generated by a partial diallel cross between field-collected plants. An average of 634 chasmogamous flowers were measured for each of eight floral traits that contribute to the hawkmoth syndrome. Genetic correlations (across parents) and environmental correlations (across replicate flowers) were estimated by restricted maximum likelihood. KEY RESULTS Stigma height, anther height and floral tube length were very tightly integrated in their responses to both genetic and environmental perturbations. The inclusion of floral disc width as a control for serial homology suggests this integration is an adaptive response to correlational selection imposed by pollinators. In contrast, integration of non-homologous traits was low. Furthermore, when comparisons between the dimensions of serially homologous structures were excluded, the genetic and environmental correlation matrices showed little congruence. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that hawkmoths have imposed strong correlational selection on floral traits involved in the deposition and removal of pollen, and that this is a consequence of stabilizing selection on the relative positions of stigmas and anthers in the face of substantial flower size variation. Low integration of other floral traits, and conflicting patterns of genetic and environmental correlations among these traits, suggest weak or no correlational selection within the range of variability expressed within a population.
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23
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Pollinator type and secondarily climate are related to nectar sugar composition across the angiosperms. Evol Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-017-9887-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Kuppler J, Höfers MK, Wiesmann L, Junker RR. Time-invariant differences between plant individuals in interactions with arthropods correlate with intraspecific variation in plant phenology, morphology and floral scent. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:1357-68. [PMID: 26840542 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The basic units of ecological and evolutionary processes are individuals. Network studies aiming to infer mechanisms from complex systems, however, usually focus on interactions between species, not individuals. Accordingly, the structure and underlying mechanisms of individual-based interaction networks remain largely unknown. In a common garden, we recorded all interactions on flowers and leaves of 97 Sinapis arvensis individuals from seedling stage to fruit set and related interindividual differences in interactions to the plant individuals' phenotypes. The plant individuals significantly differed in their quantitative and qualitative interactions with arthropods on flowers and leaves. These differences remained stable over the entire season and thus were time-invariant. Variation in interacting arthropod communities could be explained by a pronounced intraspecific variability in flowering phenology, morphology and flower scent, and translated into variation in reproductive success. Interestingly, plant individuals with a similar composition of flower visitors were also visited by a similar assemblage of interaction partners at leaves. Our results show that the nonuniformity of plant species has pronounced effects in community ecology, potentially with implications for the persistence of communities and populations, and their ability to withstand environmental fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Kuppler
- Department Biology, Institute of Sensory Ecology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätstrasse 1, Düsseldorf, 40225, Germany
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
| | - Maren K Höfers
- Department Biology, Institute of Sensory Ecology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Universitätstrasse 1, Düsseldorf, 40225, Germany
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
| | - Lisa Wiesmann
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
| | - Robert R Junker
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg, 5020, Austria
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Strelin MM, Benitez-Vieyra S, Fornoni J, Klingenberg CP, Cocucci AA. Exploring the ontogenetic scaling hypothesis during the diversification of pollination syndromes in Caiophora (Loasaceae, subfam. Loasoideae). ANNALS OF BOTANY 2016; 117:937-47. [PMID: 27056974 PMCID: PMC4845809 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcw035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Phenotypic diversification of flowers is frequently attributed to selection by different functional groups of pollinators. During optimization of floral phenotype, developmental robustness to genetic and non-genetic perturbations is expected to limit the phenotypic space available for future evolutionary changes. Although adaptive divergence can occur without altering the basic developmental programme of the flower (ontogenetic scaling hypothesis), the rarity of reversion to ancestral states following adaptive radiations of pollination syndromes suggests that changes in the ancestral developmental programme of the flower are common during such evolutionary transitions. Evidence suggests that flower diversification into different pollination syndromes in the Loasoideae genus Caiophora took place during a recent adaptive radiation in the central Andes. This involved transitions from bee to hummingbird and small rodent pollination. The aim of this work was to examine if the adaptive radiation of pollination syndromes in Caiophora occurred through ontogenetic scaling or involved a departure from the ontogenetic pattern basal to this genus. METHODS We used geometric morphometric variables to describe the shape and size of floral structures taking part in the pollination mechanism of Loasoideae. This approach was used to characterize the developmental trajectories of three species basal to the genus Caiophora through shape-size relationships (ontogenetic allometry). We then tested if the shape-size combinations of these structures in mature flowers of derived Caiophora species fall within the phenotypic space predicted by the development of basal species. KEY RESULTS Variation in the size and shape of Caiophora flowers does not overlap with the pattern of ontogenetic allometry of basal species. Derived bee-, hummingbird- and rodent-pollinated species had divergent ontogenetic patterns of floral development from that observed for basal bee-pollinated species. CONCLUSIONS The adaptive radiation of Caiophora involved significant changes in the developmental pattern of the flowers, rejecting the ontogenetic scaling hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina M Strelin
- Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva y Biología Floral, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Casilla de Correo 495, X5000ZAA, Córdoba, Argentina,
| | - Santiago Benitez-Vieyra
- Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva y Biología Floral, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Casilla de Correo 495, X5000ZAA, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Juan Fornoni
- Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva y Biología Floral, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Casilla de Correo 495, X5000ZAA, Córdoba, Argentina, Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, A.P. 70-275, Distrito Federal 04510, México and
| | - Christian Peter Klingenberg
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Andrea A Cocucci
- Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva y Biología Floral, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Casilla de Correo 495, X5000ZAA, Córdoba, Argentina
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Gómez JM, Torices R, Lorite J, Klingenberg CP, Perfectti F. The role of pollinators in the evolution of corolla shape variation, disparity and integration in a highly diversified plant family with a conserved floral bauplan. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2016; 117:889-904. [PMID: 26884512 PMCID: PMC4845802 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcv194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Brassicaceae is one of the most diversified families in the angiosperms. However, most species from this family exhibit a very similar floral bauplan. In this study, we explore the Brassicaceae floral morphospace, examining how corolla shape variation (an estimation of developmental robustness), integration and disparity vary among phylogenetically related species. Our aim is to check whether these floral attributes have evolved in this family despite its apparent morphological conservation, and to test the role of pollinators in driving this evolution. METHODS Using geometric morphometric tools, we calculated the phenotypic variation, disparity and integration of the corolla shape of 111 Brassicaceae taxa. We subsequently inferred the phylogenetic relationships of these taxa and explored the evolutionary lability of corolla shape. Finally, we sampled the pollinator assemblages of every taxon included in this study, and determined their pollination niches using a modularity algorithm. We explore the relationship between pollination niche and the attributes of corolla shape. KEY RESULTS Phylogenetic signal was weak for all corolla shape attributes. All taxa had generalized pollination systems. Nevertheless, they belong to different pollination niches. There were significant differences in corolla shape among pollination niches even after controlling for the phylogenetic relationship of the plant taxa. Corolla shape variation and disparity was significantly higher in those taxa visited mostly by nocturnal moths, indicating that this pollination niche is associated with a lack of developmental robustness. Corolla integration was higher in those taxa visited mostly by hovering long-tongued flies and long-tongued large bees. CONCLUSIONS Corolla variation, integration and disparity were evolutionarily labile and evolved very recently in the evolutionary history of the Brassicaceae. These floral attributes were strongly related to the pollination niche. Even in a plant clade having a very generalized pollination system and exhibiting a conserved floral bauplan, pollinators can drive the evolution of important developmental attributes of corolla shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Gómez
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (EEZA-CSIC), Almería, Spain, Department of Ecology,
| | - Ruben Torices
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (EEZA-CSIC), Almería, Spain, Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Science, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal and
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Fornoni J, Ordano M, Pérez-Ishiwara R, Boege K, Domínguez CA. A comparison of floral integration between selfing and outcrossing species: a meta-analysis. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2016; 117:299-306. [PMID: 26578721 PMCID: PMC4724042 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcv166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Floral integration is thought to be an adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, and it is often assumed that it increases morphological matching between flowers and pollinators, increasing the efficiency of pollen transfer. However, the evidence for this role of floral integration is limited, and recent studies have suggested a possible positive association between floral integration and selfing. Although a number of explanations exist to account for this inconsistency, to date there has been no attempt to examine the existence of an association between floral integration and mating system. This study hypothesized that if pollinator-mediated pollen movement among plants (outcrossing) is the main factor promoting floral integration, species with a predominantly outcrossing mating system should present higher levels of floral integration than those with a predominantly selfing mating system. METHODS A phylogenetically informed meta-analysis of published data was performed in order to evaluate whether mating system (outcrossing vs. selfing) accounts for the variation in floral integration among 64 species of flowering plants. Morphometric floral information was used to compare intra-floral integration among traits describing sexual organs (androecium and gynoecium) and those corresponding to the perianth (calix and corolla). KEY RESULTS The analysis showed that outcrossing species have lower floral integration than selfing species. This pattern was caused by significantly higher integration of sexual traits than perianth traits, as integration of the latter group remained unchanged across mating categories. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the evolution of selfing is associated with concomitant changes in intra-floral integration. Thus, floral integration of sexual traits should be considered as a critical component of the selfing syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Fornoni
- Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-275, Ciudad Universitaria 04510, México Distrito Federal, México and
| | - Mariano Ordano
- Fundación Miguel Lillo, Miguel Lillo 251, San Miguel de Tucumán T4000JFE, Tucumán, Argentina, and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Rubén Pérez-Ishiwara
- Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-275, Ciudad Universitaria 04510, México Distrito Federal, México and
| | - Karina Boege
- Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-275, Ciudad Universitaria 04510, México Distrito Federal, México and
| | - César A Domínguez
- Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-275, Ciudad Universitaria 04510, México Distrito Federal, México and
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Functional modularity in a forcible flower mechanism: relationships among morphology, biomechanical features and fitness. Evol Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-015-9783-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Gómez JM, Perfectti F, Lorite J. The role of pollinators in floral diversification in a clade of generalist flowers. Evolution 2015; 69:863-78. [PMID: 25757195 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pollinator-mediated evolutionary divergence has seldom been explored in generalist clades because it is assumed that pollinators in those clades exert weak and conflicting selection. We investigate whether pollinators shape floral diversification in a pollination generalist plant genus, Erysimum. Species from this genus have flowers that appeal to broad assemblages of pollinators. Nevertheless, we recently reported that it is possible to sort plant species into pollination niches varying in the quantitative composition of pollinators. We test here whether floral characters of Erysimum have evolved as a consequence of shifts among pollination niches. For this, we quantified the evolutionary lability of the floral traits and their phylogenetic association with pollination niches. As with pollination niches, Erysimum floral traits show weak phylogenetic signal. Moreover, floral shape and color are phylogenetically associated with pollination niche. In particular, plants belonging to a pollination niche dominated by long-tongued large bees have lilac corollas with parallel petals. Further analyses suggest, however, that changes in color preceded changes in pollination niche. Pollinators seem to have driven the evolution of corolla shape, whereas the association between pollination niche and corolla color has probably arisen by lilac-flowered Erysimum moving toward certain pollination niches for other adaptive reasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Gómez
- Dpto de Ecología Funcional y Evolutiva, Estación Experimental de Zonas Aridas (EEZA-CSIC), E-04120, Almería, Spain; Dpto de Ecología, Universidad de Granada, E-18071, Granada, Spain.
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Klingenberg CP. Studying morphological integration and modularity at multiple levels: concepts and analysis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 369:20130249. [PMID: 25002695 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although most studies on integration and modularity have focused on variation among individuals within populations or species, this is not the only level of variation for which integration and modularity exist. Multiple levels of biological variation originate from distinct sources: genetic variation, phenotypic plasticity resulting from environmental heterogeneity, fluctuating asymmetry from random developmental variation and, at the interpopulation or interspecific levels, evolutionary change. The processes that produce variation at all these levels can impart integration or modularity on the covariance structure among morphological traits. In turn, studies of the patterns of integration and modularity can inform about the underlying processes. In particular, the methods of geometric morphometrics offer many advantages for such studies because they can characterize the patterns of morphological variation in great detail and maintain the anatomical context of the structures under study. This paper reviews biological concepts and analytical methods for characterizing patterns of variation and for comparing across levels. Because research comparing patterns across level has only just begun, there are relatively few results, generalizations are difficult and many biological and statistical questions remain unanswered. Nevertheless, it is clear that research using this approach can take advantage of an abundance of new possibilities that are so far largely unexplored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Peter Klingenberg
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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Gómez JM, Perfectti F, Abdelaziz M, Lorite J, Muñoz-Pajares AJ, Valverde J. Evolution of pollination niches in a generalist plant clade. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 205:440-53. [PMID: 25252267 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
It is widely assumed that floral diversification occurs by adaptive shifts between pollination niches. In contrast to specialized flowers, identifying pollination niches of generalist flowers is a challenge. Consequently, how generalist pollination niches evolve is largely unknown. We apply tools from network theory and comparative methods to investigate the evolution of pollination niches among generalist species belonging to the genus Erysimum. These species have similar flowers. We found that the studied species may be grouped in several multidimensional niches separated not by a shift of pollinators, but instead by quantitative variation in the relative abundance of pollinator functional groups. These pollination niches did not vary in generalization degree; we did not find any evolutionary trend toward specialization within the studied clade. Furthermore, the evolution of pollination niche fitted to a Brownian motion model without phylogenetic signal, and was characterized by frequent events of niche convergences and divergences. We presume that the evolution of Erysimum pollination niches has occurred mostly by recurrent shifts between slightly different generalized pollinator assemblages varying spatially as a mosaic and without any change in specialization degree. Most changes in pollination niches do not prompt floral divergence, a reason why adaptation to pollinators is uncommon in generalist plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Gómez
- Dpto de Ecología Funcional y Evolutiva, Estación Experimental de Zonas Aridas (EEZA-CSIC), E-04120, Almería, Spain; Dpto de Ecología, Universidad de Granada, E-18071, Granada, Spain
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32
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González AV, Murúa MM, Pérez F. Floral integration and pollinator diversity in the generalized plant-pollinator system of Alstroemeria ligtu (Alstroemeriaceae). Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9746-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Armbruster WS, Pélabon C, Bolstad GH, Hansen TF. Integrated phenotypes: understanding trait covariation in plants and animals. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2014; 369:20130245. [PMID: 25002693 PMCID: PMC4084533 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Integration and modularity refer to the patterns and processes of trait interaction and independence. Both terms have complex histories with respect to both conceptualization and quantification, resulting in a plethora of integration indices in use. We review briefly the divergent definitions, uses and measures of integration and modularity and make conceptual links to allometry. We also discuss how integration and modularity might evolve. Although integration is generally thought to be generated and maintained by correlational selection, theoretical considerations suggest the relationship is not straightforward. We caution here against uncontrolled comparisons of indices across studies. In the absence of controls for trait number, dimensionality, homology, development and function, it is difficult, or even impossible, to compare integration indices across organisms or traits. We suggest that care be invested in relating measurement to underlying theory or hypotheses, and that summative, theory-free descriptors of integration generally be avoided. The papers that follow in this Theme Issue illustrate the diversity of approaches to studying integration and modularity, highlighting strengths and pitfalls that await researchers investigating integration in plants and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Scott Armbruster
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO12DY, UK Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Christophe Pélabon
- Center for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Geir H Bolstad
- Center for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas F Hansen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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Lane N, Martin WF, Raven JA, Allen JF. Energy, genes and evolution: introduction to an evolutionary synthesis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20120253. [PMID: 23754807 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Life is the harnessing of chemical energy in such a way that the energy-harnessing device makes a copy of itself. No energy, no evolution. The 'modern synthesis' of the past century explained evolution in terms of genes, but this is only part of the story. While the mechanisms of natural selection are correct, and increasingly well understood, they do little to explain the actual trajectories taken by life on Earth. From a cosmic perspective-what is the probability of life elsewhere in the Universe, and what are its probable traits?-a gene-based view of evolution says almost nothing. Irresistible geological and environmental changes affected eukaryotes and prokaryotes in very different ways, ones that do not relate to specific genes or niches. Questions such as the early emergence of life, the morphological and genomic constraints on prokaryotes, the singular origin of eukaryotes, and the unique and perplexing traits shared by all eukaryotes but not found in any prokaryote, are instead illuminated by bioenergetics. If nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution, nothing in evolution makes sense except in the light of energetics. This Special Issue of Philosophical Transactions examines the interplay between energy transduction and genome function in the major transitions of evolution, with implications ranging from planetary habitability to human health. We hope that these papers will contribute to a new evolutionary synthesis of energetics and genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Lane
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK.
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