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Kim Y, Leopardi S, Scaravelli D, Zecchin B, Priori P, Festa F, Drzewnioková P, De Benedictis P, Nouvellet P. Transmission dynamics of lyssavirus in Myotis myotis: mechanistic modelling study based on longitudinal seroprevalence data. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230183. [PMID: 37072038 PMCID: PMC10113028 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the transmission dynamics of lyssavirus in Myotis myotis and Myotis blythii, using serological, virological, demographic and ecological data collected between 2015 and 2022 from two maternity colonies in northern Italian churches. Despite no lyssavirus detection in 556 bats sampled over 11 events by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), 36.3% of 837 bats sampled over 27 events showed neutralizing antibodies to European bat lyssavirus 1, with a significant increase in summers. By fitting sets of mechanistic models to seroprevalence data, we investigated factors that influenced lyssavirus transmission within and between years. Five models were selected as a group of final models: in one model, a proportion of exposed bats (median model estimate: 5.8%) became infectious and died while the other exposed bats recovered with immunity without becoming infectious; in the other four models, all exposed bats became infectious and recovered with immunity. The final models supported that the two colonies experienced seasonal outbreaks driven by: (i) immunity loss particularly during hibernation, (ii) density-dependent transmission, and (iii) a high transmission rate after synchronous birthing. These findings highlight the importance of understanding ecological factors, including colony size and synchronous birthing timing, and potential infection heterogeneities to enable more robust assessments of lyssavirus spillover risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younjung Kim
- Department of Evolution, Behaviour, and Environment, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, BN1 9RH Brighton, UK
| | - Stefania Leopardi
- FAO and National Reference Centre for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy
| | - Dino Scaravelli
- S.T.E.R.N.A. and Museo Ornitologico 'F. Foschi', via Pedrali 12, 47121 Forlì, Italy
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, via Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Barbara Zecchin
- FAO and National Reference Centre for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy
| | - Pamela Priori
- S.T.E.R.N.A. and Museo Ornitologico 'F. Foschi', via Pedrali 12, 47121 Forlì, Italy
| | - Francesca Festa
- FAO and National Reference Centre for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy
| | - Petra Drzewnioková
- FAO and National Reference Centre for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy
| | - Paola De Benedictis
- FAO and National Reference Centre for Rabies, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, Legnaro, 35020 Padua, Italy
| | - Pierre Nouvellet
- Department of Evolution, Behaviour, and Environment, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, BN1 9RH Brighton, UK
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ London, UK
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2
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Harazim M, Perrot J, Varet H, Bourhy H, Lannoy J, Pikula J, Seidlová V, Dacheux L, Martínková N. Transcriptomic responses of bat cells to European bat lyssavirus 1 infection under conditions simulating euthermia and hibernation. BMC Immunol 2023; 24:7. [PMID: 37085747 PMCID: PMC10120247 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-023-00542-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coevolution between pathogens and their hosts decreases host morbidity and mortality. Bats host and can tolerate viruses which can be lethal to other vertebrate orders, including humans. Bat adaptations to infection include localized immune response, early pathogen sensing, high interferon expression without pathogen stimulation, and regulated inflammatory response. The immune reaction is costly, and bats suppress high-cost metabolism during torpor. In the temperate zone, bats hibernate in winter, utilizing a specific behavioural adaptation to survive detrimental environmental conditions and lack of energy resources. Hibernation torpor involves major physiological changes that pose an additional challenge to bat-pathogen coexistence. Here, we compared bat cellular reaction to viral challenge under conditions simulating hibernation, evaluating the changes between torpor and euthermia. RESULTS We infected the olfactory nerve-derived cell culture of Myotis myotis with an endemic bat pathogen, European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1). After infection, the bat cells were cultivated at two different temperatures, 37 °C and 5 °C, to examine the cell response during conditions simulating euthermia and torpor, respectively. The mRNA isolated from the cells was sequenced and analysed for differential gene expression attributable to the temperature and/or infection treatment. In conditions simulating euthermia, infected bat cells produce an excess signalling by multitude of pathways involved in apoptosis and immune regulation influencing proliferation of regulatory cell types which can, in synergy with other produced cytokines, contribute to viral tolerance. We found no up- or down-regulated genes expressed in infected cells cultivated at conditions simulating torpor compared to non-infected cells cultivated under the same conditions. When studying the reaction of uninfected cells to the temperature treatment, bat cells show an increased production of heat shock proteins (HSPs) with chaperone activity, improving the bat's ability to repair molecular structures damaged due to the stress related to the temperature change. CONCLUSIONS The lack of bat cell reaction to infection in conditions simulating hibernation may contribute to the virus tolerance or persistence in bats. Together with the cell damage repair mechanisms induced in response to hibernation, the immune regulation may promote bats' ability to act as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses such as lyssaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markéta Harazim
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 60300, Brno, Czechia.
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czechia.
| | - Juliette Perrot
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité Lyssavirus, Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Hugo Varet
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Hub, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Hervé Bourhy
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité Lyssavirus, Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Julien Lannoy
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité Lyssavirus, Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Jiri Pikula
- Department of Ecology and Diseases of Zoo Animals, Game, Fish and Bees, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého třída 1946/1, 61242, Brno, Czechia
| | - Veronika Seidlová
- Department of Ecology and Diseases of Zoo Animals, Game, Fish and Bees, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackého třída 1946/1, 61242, Brno, Czechia
| | - Laurent Dacheux
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité Lyssavirus, Epidemiology and Neuropathology Unit, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Natália Martínková
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 60300, Brno, Czechia
- RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czechia
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3
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Begeman L, Suu-Ire R, Banyard AC, Drosten C, Eggerbauer E, Freuling CM, Gibson L, Goharriz H, Horton DL, Jennings D, Marston DA, Ntiamoa-Baidu Y, Riesle Sbarbaro S, Selden D, Wise EL, Kuiken T, Fooks AR, Müller T, Wood JLN, Cunningham AA. Experimental Lagos bat virus infection in straw-colored fruit bats: A suitable model for bat rabies in a natural reservoir species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008898. [PMID: 33320860 PMCID: PMC7771871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal neurologic disease caused by lyssavirus infection. Bats are important natural reservoir hosts of various lyssaviruses that can be transmitted to people. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of rabies in bats are poorly understood, making it difficult to prevent zoonotic transmission. To further our understanding of lyssavirus pathogenesis in a natural bat host, an experimental model using straw-colored fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) and Lagos bat virus, an endemic lyssavirus in this species, was developed. To determine the lowest viral dose resulting in 100% productive infection, bats in five groups (four bats per group) were inoculated intramuscularly with one of five doses, ranging from 100.1 to 104.1 median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50). More bats died due to the development of rabies after the middle dose (102.1 TCID50, 4/4 bats) than after lower (101.1, 2/4; 101.1, 2/4) or higher (103.1, 2/4; 104.1, 2/4) doses of virus. In the two highest dose groups, 4/8 bats developed rabies. Of those bats that remained healthy 3/4 bats seroconverted, suggesting that high antigen loads can trigger a strong immune response that abrogates a productive infection. In contrast, in the two lowest dose groups, 3/8 bats developed rabies, 1/8 remained healthy and seroconverted and 4/8 bats remained healthy and did not seroconvert, suggesting these doses are too low to reliably induce infection. The main lesion in all clinically affected bats was meningoencephalitis associated with lyssavirus-positive neurons. Lyssavirus antigen was detected in tongue epithelium (5/11 infected bats) rather than in salivary gland epithelium (0/11), suggesting viral excretion via the tongue. Thus, intramuscular inoculation of 102.1 TCID50 of Lagos bat virus into straw-colored fruit bats is a suitable model for lyssavirus associated bat rabies in a natural reservoir host, and can help with the investigation of lyssavirus infection dynamics in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (LB); (AAC)
| | - Richard Suu-Ire
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Drosten
- Institute of Virology, Medical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elisa Eggerbauer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
- Thüringer Landesamt für Verbraucherschutz, Bad Langensalza, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - Louise Gibson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hooman Goharriz
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel L. Horton
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Daisy Jennings
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Denise A. Marston
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu
- Centre for African Wetlands / Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Silke Riesle Sbarbaro
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
- University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David Selden
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Emma L. Wise
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | | | - Andrew A. Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (LB); (AAC)
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Gentles AD, Guth S, Rozins C, Brook CE. A review of mechanistic models of viral dynamics in bat reservoirs for zoonotic disease. Pathog Glob Health 2020; 114:407-425. [PMID: 33185145 PMCID: PMC7759253 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2020.1833161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, a coronavirus with suspected bat origins, highlights a critical need for heightened understanding of the mechanisms by which bats maintain potentially zoonotic viruses at the population level and transmit these pathogens across species. We review mechanistic models, which test hypotheses of the transmission dynamics that underpin viral maintenance in bat systems. A search of the literature identified only twenty-five mechanistic models of bat-virus systems published to date, derived from twenty-three original studies. Most models focused on rabies and related lyssaviruses (eleven), followed by Ebola-like filoviruses (seven), Hendra and Nipah-like henipaviruses (five), and coronaviruses (two). The vast majority of studies has modelled bat virus transmission dynamics at the population level, though a few nested within-host models of viral pathogenesis in population-level frameworks, and one study focused on purely within-host dynamics. Population-level studies described bat virus systems from every continent but Antarctica, though most were concentrated in North America and Africa; indeed, only one simulation model with no associated data was derived from an Asian bat-virus system. In fact, of the twenty-five models identified, only ten population-level models were fitted to data - emphasizing an overall dearth of empirically derived epidemiological inference in bat virus systems. Within the data fitted subset, the vast majority of models were fitted to serological data only, highlighting extensive uncertainty in our understanding of the transmission status of a wild bat. Here, we discuss similarities and differences in the approach and findings of previously published bat virus models and make recommendations for improvement in future work.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Guth
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Carly Rozins
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Cara E. Brook
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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5
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Orłowska A, Smreczak M, Freuling CM, Müller T, Trębas P, Rola J. Serological Survey of Lyssaviruses in Polish Bats in the Frame of Passive Rabies Surveillance Using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Viruses 2020; 12:v12030271. [PMID: 32121200 PMCID: PMC7150987 DOI: 10.3390/v12030271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Bats are known to host a number of nonpathogenic viruses, as well as highly pathogenic viruses causing fatal diseases like rabies. Serological surveys as part of active and passive bat rabies surveillance mainly use seroneutralization assays, demonstrating the presence of lyssavirus-specific antibodies in a variety of European bats, particularly against European bat lyssaviruses type 1 (EBLV-1). Here, we present the first serological survey in European bats of this kind during which European bats from Poland collected in the frame of passive rabies surveillance between 2012 and 2018, as well as Serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) and North American Big Brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) from previous experimental studies, were tested using a commercial ELISA kit for the detection of anti-lyssavirus antibodies. Results: Lyssavirus-specific antibodies were detected in 35 (30.4%) out of 115 Polish bats of both sexes, representing nine out of 13 identified bat species endemic mainly to Central Southern Europe and Western Asia, i.e., Eptesicus serotinus, Nyctalus noctula, Myotis daubentonii, Plecotus auritus, Vespertillo murinus, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pipilstrellus/Pipistrellus pygmaeus, Myotis brandtii, and Barbastella barbastellus. Seroprevalence was highest in bat species of Nyctalus noctula, Eptesicus serotinus, Plecotus auritus, and Myotis daubentonii. More than 60% of the ELISA seropositive bats originated from the voivodeships of Silesia, Lower-Silesian, Warmian-Mazurian, and Mazowian. Rabies-specific antibodies were also found in Eptesicus fuscus bats from North America. Conclusions: The study demonstrates the principal application of the BioPro Rabies ELISA Ab Kit for the detection of anti-lyssavirus specific antibodies in body fluids and serum samples of bats. However, results may only be reliable for North American bats, whereas interpretation of results for European bats per se is difficult because proper validation of the test is hampered by the protected status of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Orłowska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.O.); (M.S.); Tel.: +48-818-893-072 (A.O.); +48818-893-029 (M.S.)
| | - Marcin Smreczak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.O.); (M.S.); Tel.: +48-818-893-072 (A.O.); +48818-893-029 (M.S.)
| | - Conrad Martin Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, FLI, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (C.M.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, FLI, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (C.M.F.); (T.M.)
| | - Paweł Trębas
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland; (P.T.); (J.R.)
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6
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Abstract
Bats are susceptible to rabies. Although bats may appear to be asymptomatic carriers of rabies for a few days, eventually they fall ill to the viral infection and die. Two of at least four bat-specific variants of rabies virus in Canada have killed humans. Rabies is usually transmitted by biting, but bats are small mammals so their bites may go unnoticed. People exposed to rabid animals should receive postexposure prophylaxis (PEP). With 60 known human deaths from 1950 to 2009, rabies is rare in Canada and the United States of America compared with India where it kills over 100 people annually. In Asia and Africa, most human rabies is acquired from dog bites. In Brazil, dog and bat bites together account for >80% of human rabies. In Canada, rabies is a disease primarily confined to wildlife (foxes, racoons, skunks, and bats). The public image of bats is negatively affected by their association with diseases. Too often bats are victimized by allegations of their role in deadly diseases such as rabies, Ebola, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). In general, bats are not dangerous, but humans should seek treatment if they are bitten by one. (Graphical abstract shows a 4-g elegant myotis biting MBF’s finger—photo by Sherri and Brock Fenton.)
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Brock Fenton
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Alan C. Jackson
- Department of Internal Medicine (Neurology), University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3A 1R9, Canada
| | - Paul A. Faure
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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7
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Begeman L, Kooi EA, van Weezep E, van de Bildt MWG, Reusken CBEM, Lina PHC, Koopmans MPG, van den Brand JMA, Kuiken T. Faeces as a novel material to estimate lyssavirus prevalence in bat populations. Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 67:198-202. [PMID: 31814288 PMCID: PMC7027462 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is caused by infection with a lyssavirus. Bat rabies is of concern for both public health and bat conservation. The current method for lyssavirus prevalence studies in bat populations is by oral swabbing, which is invasive for the bats, dangerous for handlers, time-consuming and expensive. In many situations, such sampling is not feasible, and hence, our understanding of epidemiology of bat rabies is limited. Faeces are usually easy to collect from bat colonies without disturbing the bats and thus could be a practical and feasible material for lyssavirus prevalence studies. To further explore this idea, we performed virological analysis on faecal pellets and oral swabs of seven serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) that were positive for European bat 1 lyssavirus in the brain. We also performed immunohistochemical and virological analyses on digestive tract samples of these bats to determine potential sources of lyssavirus in the faeces. We found that lyssavirus detection by RT-qPCR was nearly as sensitive in faecal pellets (6/7 bats positive, 86%) as in oral swabs (7/7 bats positive, 100%). The likely source of lyssavirus in the faeces was virus excreted into the oral cavity from the salivary glands (5/6 bats positive by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR) or tongue (3/4 bats positive by immunohistochemistry) and swallowed with saliva. Virus could not be isolated from any of the seven faecal pellets, suggesting the lyssavirus detected in faeces is not infectious. Lyssavirus detection in the majority of faecal pellets of infected bats shows that this novel material should be further explored for lyssavirus prevalence studies in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Engbert A Kooi
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands.,Health and Youth Care Inspectorate, National Authority for Containment, Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Erik van Weezep
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W G van de Bildt
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chantal B E M Reusken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Infectious Disease Control-RIVM, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marion P G Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Prada D, Boyd V, Baker M, Jackson B, O'Dea M. Insights into Australian Bat Lyssavirus in Insectivorous Bats of Western Australia. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4010046. [PMID: 30862028 PMCID: PMC6473685 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a known causative agent of neurological disease in bats, humans and horses. It has been isolated from four species of pteropid bats and a single microbat species (Saccolaimus flaviventris). To date, ABLV surveillance has primarily been passive, with active surveillance concentrating on eastern and northern Australian bat populations. As a result, there is scant regional ABLV information for large areas of the country. To better inform the local public health risks associated with human-bat interactions, this study describes the lyssavirus prevalence in microbat communities in the South West Botanical Province of Western Australia. We used targeted real-time PCR assays to detect viral RNA shedding in 839 oral swabs representing 12 species of microbats, which were sampled over two consecutive summers spanning 2016–2018. Additionally, we tested 649 serum samples via Luminex® assay for reactivity to lyssavirus antigens. Active lyssavirus infection was not detected in any of the samples. Lyssavirus antibodies were detected in 19 individuals across six species, with a crude prevalence of 2.9% (95% CI: 1.8–4.5%) over the two years. In addition, we present the first records of lyssavirus exposure in two Nyctophilus species, and Falsistrellusmackenziei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
| | - Victoria Boyd
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia.
| | - Michelle Baker
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia.
| | - Bethany Jackson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
| | - Mark O'Dea
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
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9
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Šimić I, Lojkić I, Krešić N, Cliquet F, Picard-Meyer E, Wasniewski M, Ćukušić A, Zrnčić V, Bedeković T. Molecular and serological survey of lyssaviruses in Croatian bat populations. BMC Vet Res 2018; 14:274. [PMID: 30189884 PMCID: PMC6127996 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1592-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies is the only known zoonotic disease of bat origin in Europe. The disease is caused by species belonging to the genus Lyssavirus. Five Lyssavirus species, i.e., European bat lyssavirus (EBLV)-1, EBLV-2, Bokeloh bat lyssavirus, Lleida bat lyssavirus, and West Caucasian bat virus, have been identified in European bats. More recently, a proposed sixth species, Kotalahti bat lyssavirus, was detected. Thus, in this study, active surveillance was initiated in order to obtain insights into the prevalence of lyssaviruses in Croatian bat populations and to improve our understanding of the public health threat of infected bats. RESULTS In total, 455 bats were caught throughout Continental and Mediterranean Croatia. Antibodies were found in 20 of 350 bats (5.71%, 95% confidence interval 3.73-8.66). The majority of seropositive bats were found in Trbušnjak cave (Continental Croatia, Eastern part), and most seropositive bats belonged to Myotis myotis (13/20). All oropharyngeal swabs were negative for the presence of Lyssavirus. CONCLUSIONS The presence of lyssaviruses in bat populations was confirmed for the first time in Croatia and Southeastern Europe. The results of this study suggest the need for further comprehensive analyses of lyssaviruses in bats in this part of Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Šimić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivana Lojkić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nina Krešić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Florence Cliquet
- ANSES - Nancy Laboratory for rabies and wildlife, Batiment H CS 40009, 54220 Malzeville, France
| | - Evelyne Picard-Meyer
- ANSES - Nancy Laboratory for rabies and wildlife, Batiment H CS 40009, 54220 Malzeville, France
| | - Marine Wasniewski
- ANSES - Nancy Laboratory for rabies and wildlife, Batiment H CS 40009, 54220 Malzeville, France
| | - Anđela Ćukušić
- Croatian Biospeleological Society, Demetrova 1, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vida Zrnčić
- Croatian Biospeleological Society, Demetrova 1, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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Fisher CR, Streicker DG, Schnell MJ. The spread and evolution of rabies virus: conquering new frontiers. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018; 16:241-255. [PMID: 29479072 PMCID: PMC6899062 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2018.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is a lethal zoonotic disease that is caused by lyssaviruses, most often rabies virus. Despite control efforts, sporadic outbreaks in wildlife populations are largely unpredictable, underscoring our incomplete knowledge of what governs viral transmission and spread in reservoir hosts. Furthermore, the evolutionary history of rabies virus and related lyssaviruses remains largely unclear. Robust surveillance efforts combined with diagnostics and disease modelling are now providing insights into the epidemiology and evolution of rabies virus. The immune status of the host, the nature of exposure and strain differences all clearly influence infection and transmission dynamics. In this Review, we focus on rabies virus infections in the wildlife and synthesize current knowledge in the rapidly advancing fields of rabies virus epidemiology and evolution, and advocate for multidisciplinary approaches to advance our understanding of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine R. Fisher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel G. Streicker
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Matthias J. Schnell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Vaccine Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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11
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Utilisation of Chimeric Lyssaviruses to Assess Vaccine Protection against Highly Divergent Lyssaviruses. Viruses 2018; 10:v10030130. [PMID: 29543715 PMCID: PMC5869523 DOI: 10.3390/v10030130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lyssaviruses constitute a diverse range of viruses with the ability to cause fatal encephalitis known as rabies. Existing human rabies vaccines and post exposure prophylaxes (PEP) are based on inactivated preparations of, and neutralising antibody preparations directed against, classical rabies viruses, respectively. Whilst these prophylaxes are highly efficient at neutralising and preventing a productive infection with rabies virus, their ability to neutralise other lyssaviruses is thought to be limited. The remaining 15 virus species within the lyssavirus genus have been divided into at least three phylogroups that generally predict vaccine protection. Existing rabies vaccines afford protection against phylogroup I viruses but offer little to no protection against phylogroup II and III viruses. As such, work involving sharps with phylogroup II and III must be considered of high risk as no PEP is thought to have any effect on the prevention of a productive infection with these lyssaviruses. Whilst rabies virus itself has been characterised in a number of different animal models, data on the remaining lyssaviruses are scarce. As the lyssavirus glycoprotein is considered to be the sole target of neutralising antibodies we generated a vaccine strain of rabies using reverse genetics expressing highly divergent glycoproteins of West Caucasian Bat lyssavirus and Ikoma lyssavirus. Using these recombinants, we propose that recombinant vaccine strain derived lyssaviruses containing heterologous glycoproteins may be a suitable surrogate for wildtype viruses when assessing vaccine protection for the lyssaviruses.
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12
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Suu-Ire R, Begeman L, Banyard AC, Breed AC, Drosten C, Eggerbauer E, Freuling CM, Gibson L, Goharriz H, Horton DL, Jennings D, Kuzmin IV, Marston D, Ntiamoa-Baidu Y, Riesle Sbarbaro S, Selden D, Wise EL, Kuiken T, Fooks AR, Müller T, Wood JLN, Cunningham AA. Pathogenesis of bat rabies in a natural reservoir: Comparative susceptibility of the straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) to three strains of Lagos bat virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006311. [PMID: 29505617 PMCID: PMC5854431 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal neurologic disease caused by lyssavirus infection. People are infected through contact with infected animals. The relative increase of human rabies acquired from bats calls for a better understanding of lyssavirus infections in their natural hosts. So far, there is no experimental model that mimics natural lyssavirus infection in the reservoir bat species. Lagos bat virus is a lyssavirus that is endemic in straw-colored fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) in Africa. Here we compared the susceptibility of these bats to three strains of Lagos bat virus (from Senegal, Nigeria, and Ghana) by intracranial inoculation. To allow comparison between strains, we ensured the same titer of virus was inoculated in the same location of the brain of each bat. All bats (n = 3 per strain) were infected, and developed neurological signs, and fatal meningoencephalitis with lyssavirus antigen expression in neurons. There were three main differences among the groups. First, time to death was substantially shorter in the Senegal and Ghana groups (4 to 6 days) than in the Nigeria group (8 days). Second, each virus strain produced a distinct clinical syndrome. Third, the spread of virus to peripheral tissues, tested by hemi-nested reverse transcriptase PCR, was frequent (3 of 3 bats) and widespread (8 to 10 tissues positive of 11 tissues examined) in the Ghana group, was frequent and less widespread in the Senegal group (3/3 bats, 3 to 6 tissues positive), and was rare and restricted in the Nigeria group (1/3 bats, 2 tissues positive). Centrifugal spread of virus from brain to tissue of excretion in the oral cavity is required to enable lyssavirus transmission. Therefore, the Senegal and Ghana strains seem most suitable for further pathogenesis, and for transmission, studies in the straw-colored fruit bat. Rabies is a neurologic disease that causes severe suffering and is almost always fatal. The disease is caused by infection with a virus of the genus Lyssavirus, of which 16 species are known. These viruses replicate in neurons, are excreted in the mouth, and are transmitted by bites. Dogs are the most important source of rabies for humans, but recently there is a relative increase in people contracting the disease from bats. To better understand the development of human rabies caused by these bat-acquired viruses, we need to study this disease in its bat host under controlled circumstances. To do so, we chose a naturally occurring lyssavirus–host combination: Lagos bat virus in straw-colored fruit bats. We compared three available strains of Lagos bat virus (all isolated from brains of this bat species) for their ability to mimic a natural infection. We used intracranial inoculation to ensure infection of the brain. All three strains infected brain neurons, resulting in fatal neurologic disease, however only two of the strains showed the ability to reach the site of excretion—the mouth—and were considered a suitable virus to use for further studies of this disease in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Suu-Ire
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Veterinary Services Department, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Accra, Ghana
- Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission, Accra, Ghana
| | - Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew C. Breed
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Drosten
- Institute of Virology, Medical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elisa Eggerbauer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - Louise Gibson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hooman Goharriz
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel L. Horton
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Daisy Jennings
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan V. Kuzmin
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Denise Marston
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu
- Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Silke Riesle Sbarbaro
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David Selden
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Emma L. Wise
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - James L. N. Wood
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew A. Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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13
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Peel AJ, Baker KS, Hayman DTS, Broder CC, Cunningham AA, Fooks AR, Garnier R, Wood JLN, Restif O. Support for viral persistence in bats from age-specific serology and models of maternal immunity. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3859. [PMID: 29497106 PMCID: PMC5832774 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22236-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatiotemporally-localised prediction of virus emergence from wildlife requires focused studies on the ecology and immunology of reservoir hosts in their native habitat. Reliable predictions from mathematical models remain difficult in most systems due to a dearth of appropriate empirical data. Our goal was to study the circulation and immune dynamics of zoonotic viruses in bat populations and investigate the effects of maternally-derived and acquired immunity on viral persistence. Using rare age-specific serological data from wild-caught Eidolon helvum fruit bats as a case study, we estimated viral transmission parameters for a stochastic infection model. We estimated mean durations of around 6 months for maternally-derived immunity to Lagos bat virus and African henipavirus, whereas acquired immunity was long-lasting (Lagos bat virus: mean 12 years, henipavirus: mean 4 years). In the presence of a seasonal birth pulse, the effect of maternally-derived immunity on virus persistence within modelled bat populations was highly dependent on transmission characteristics. To explain previous reports of viral persistence within small natural and captive E. helvum populations, we hypothesise that some bats must experience prolonged infectious periods or within-host latency. By further elucidating plausible mechanisms of virus persistence in bat populations, we contribute to guidance of future field studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison J Peel
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK.
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK.
- Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, 4111, Australia.
| | - Kate S Baker
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
- Institute for Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK
| | - David T S Hayman
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
- Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - Christopher C Broder
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD, 20814-4799, USA
| | - Andrew A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Romain Garnier
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
| | - James L N Wood
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Olivier Restif
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
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14
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Begeman L, GeurtsvanKessel C, Finke S, Freuling CM, Koopmans M, Müller T, Ruigrok TJH, Kuiken T. Comparative pathogenesis of rabies in bats and carnivores, and implications for spillover to humans. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2017; 18:e147-e159. [PMID: 29100899 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30574-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bat-acquired rabies is becoming increasingly common, and its diagnosis could be missed partly because its clinical presentation differs from that of dog-acquired rabies. We reviewed the scientific literature to compare the pathogenesis of rabies in bats and carnivores-including dogs-and related this pathogenesis to differences in the clinical presentation of bat-acquired and dog-acquired rabies in human beings. For bat-acquired rabies, we found that the histological site of exposure is usually limited to the skin, the anatomical site of exposure is more commonly the face, and the virus might be more adapted for entry via the skin than for dog-acquired rabies. These factors could help to explain several differences in clinical presentation between individuals with bat-acquired and those with dog-acquired rabies. A better understanding of these differences should improve the recording of a patient's history, enable drawing up of a more sophisticated list of clinical characteristics, and therefore obtain an earlier diagnosis of rabies after contact with a bat or carnivore that has rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Corine GeurtsvanKessel
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Stefan Finke
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Marion Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
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15
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Obregón-Morales C, Aguilar-Setién Á, Perea Martínez L, Galvez-Romero G, Martínez-Martínez FO, Aréchiga-Ceballos N. Experimental infection of Artibeus intermedius with a vampire bat rabies virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2017; 52:43-47. [PMID: 28673461 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Experimental infection of Artibeus intermedius, the great fruit-eating bat, was performed with vampire bat rabies isolates. Bats (n=35) were captured in the wild and quarantined prior to experimental infection. No rabies antibodies were detected by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) prior to infection. Three doses of rabies virus (RV) and three different routes of infection were used. One out of 35 bats died without showing any clinical signs at day 14 and was positive for rabies. None of the 34 other bats showed clinical signs for rabies, but high antibody titers were detected post-inoculation, suggesting either innate immune response to the vampire bat rabies virus or possible pre-exposure to RV and inoculation leading to a booster effect. Rabies virus was detected by hemi-nested RT-PCR (hnRT-PCR) in the brain (n=3), stomach (n=1) of bats that were negative by immunofluorescence and that survived rabies infection. The bat that died on day 14 was positive by hnRT-PCR on the brain, heart and liver. These results suggest that either previous non-lethal exposure to RV or natural low susceptibility to vampire bat viruses somehow protected Artibeus intermedius from clinical rabies infection leading to a marginal lethality effect on this bats species population in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cirani Obregón-Morales
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Álvaro Aguilar-Setién
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Leonardo Perea Martínez
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Guillermo Galvez-Romero
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Flor Olivia Martínez-Martínez
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Nidia Aréchiga-Ceballos
- Laboratorio de Rabia, Instituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia Epidemiológicos, Mexico City, Mexico.
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16
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Hammarin AL, Berndtsson LT, Falk K, Nedinge M, Olsson G, Lundkvist Å. Lyssavirus-reactive antibodies in Swedish bats. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2016; 6:31262. [PMID: 27974131 PMCID: PMC5156864 DOI: 10.3402/iee.v6.31262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION To study the presence of European bat lyssavirus (EBLV) infections in bat reservoirs in Sweden, active surveillance was performed during the summers from 2008 to 2013. MATERIAL AND METHODS Bat specimens were collected at >20 bat colonies in the central, southeastern, and southern parts of Sweden. In total, blood and saliva of 452 bats were examined by a virus neutralization test and by reverse transcription polymerase chain reactions (RT-PCRs). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION EBLV neutralizing antibodies were detected in 14 Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii), all trapped in Skåne or Småland (south and southeast of Sweden). The result was not unexpected since EBLV has been shown to be present in many neighboring countries, for example, Denmark, Finland, Germany, and Norway. However, Sweden has been regarded free of rabies in terrestrial mammals since 1896. Although very rare, spillover of EBLV into other animals and humans have occurred, and the risk of EBLV infection to other species including humans should not be ignored. This is the first report of lyssavirus infection in Swedish bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Lena Hammarin
- Department of Microbiology, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Kerstin Falk
- Department of Microbiology, Public Health Agency of Sweden, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marie Nedinge
- Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gert Olsson
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center and Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, and Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden;
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17
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Freuling CM, Binger T, Beer M, Adu-Sarkodie Y, Schatz J, Fischer M, Hanke D, Hoffmann B, Höper D, Mettenleiter TC, Oppong SK, Drosten C, Müller T. Lagos bat virus transmission in an Eidolon helvum bat colony, Ghana. Virus Res 2015; 210:42-5. [PMID: 26191622 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A brain sample of a straw-coloured fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) from Ghana without evident signs of disease tested positive by generic Lyssavirus RT-PCR and direct antigen staining. Sequence analysis confirmed the presence of a Lagos bat virus belonging to phylogenetic lineage A. Virus neutralization tests using the isolate with sera from the same group of bats yielded neutralizing antibodies in 74% of 567 animals. No cross-neutralization was observed against a different Lagos bat virus (lineage B).
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrad M Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Tabea Binger
- Institute of Virology, University of Bonn and German Centre for Infection Research, Bonn, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Germany
| | - Yaw Adu-Sarkodie
- Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Juliane Schatz
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Melina Fischer
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Germany
| | - Dennis Hanke
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Germany
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Germany
| | - Dirk Höper
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Germany
| | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Samual K Oppong
- Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Christian Drosten
- Institute of Virology, University of Bonn and German Centre for Infection Research, Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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18
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Picard-Meyer E, Robardet E, Arthur L, Larcher G, Harbusch C, Servat A, Cliquet F. Bat rabies in France: a 24-year retrospective epidemiological study. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98622. [PMID: 24892287 PMCID: PMC4044004 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Since bat rabies surveillance was first implemented in France in 1989, 48 autochthonous rabies cases without human contamination have been reported using routine diagnosis methods. In this retrospective study, data on bats submitted for rabies testing were analysed in order to better understand the epidemiology of EBLV-1 in bats in France and to investigate some epidemiological trends. Of the 3176 bats submitted for rabies diagnosis from 1989 to 2013, 1.96% (48/2447 analysed) were diagnosed positive. Among the twelve recognised virus species within the Lyssavirus genus, two species were isolated in France. 47 positive bats were morphologically identified as Eptesicus serotinus and were shown to be infected by both the EBLV-1a and the EBLV-1b lineages. Isolation of BBLV in Myotis nattereri was reported once in the north-east of France in 2012. The phylogenetic characterisation of all 47 French EBLV-1 isolates sampled between 1989 and 2013 and the French BBLV sample against 21 referenced partial nucleoprotein sequences confirmed the low genetic diversity of EBLV-1 despite its extensive geographical range. Statistical analysis performed on the serotine bat data collected from 1989 to 2013 showed seasonal variation of rabies occurrence with a significantly higher proportion of positive samples detected during the autumn compared to the spring and the summer period (34% of positive bats detected in autumn, 15% in summer, 13% in spring and 12% in winter). In this study, we have provided the details of the geographical distribution of EBLV-1a in the south-west of France and the north-south division of EBLV-1b with its subdivisions into three phylogenetic groups: group B1 in the north-west, group B2 in the centre and group B3 in the north-east of France.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyne Picard-Meyer
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzeville, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Emmanuelle Robardet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzeville, France
| | | | - Gérald Larcher
- SFEPM Chiroptera Group, Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Bourges, Bourges, France
| | | | - Alexandre Servat
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzeville, France
| | - Florence Cliquet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, Malzeville, France
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Nokireki T, Huovilainen A, Lilley T, Kyheröinen EM, Ek-Kommonen C, Sihvonen L, Jakava-Viljanen M. Bat rabies surveillance in Finland. BMC Vet Res 2013; 9:174. [PMID: 24011337 PMCID: PMC3846527 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In 1985, a bat researcher in Finland died of rabies encephalitis caused by European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2), but an epidemiological study in 1986 did not reveal EBLV-infected bats. In 2009, an EBLV-2-positive Daubenton’s bat was detected. The EBLV-2 isolate from the human case in 1985 and the isolate from the bat in 2009 were genetically closely related. In order to assess the prevalence of EBLVs in Finnish bat populations and to gain a better understanding of the public health risk that EBLV-infected bats pose, a targeted active surveillance project was initiated. Results Altogether, 1156 bats of seven species were examined for lyssaviruses in Finland during a 28–year period (1985–2012), 898 in active surveillance and 258 in passive surveillance, with only one positive finding of EBLV-2 in a Daubenton’s bat in 2009. In 2010–2011, saliva samples from 774 bats of seven species were analyzed for EBLV viral RNA, and sera from 423 bats were analyzed for the presence of bat lyssavirus antibodies. Antibodies were detected in Daubenton’s bats in samples collected from two locations in 2010 and from one location in 2011. All seropositive locations are in close proximity to the place where the EBLV-2 positive Daubenton’s bat was found in 2009. In active surveillance, no EBLV viral RNA was detected. Conclusions These data suggest that EBLV-2 may circulate in Finland, even though the seroprevalence is low. Our results indicate that passive surveillance of dead or sick bats is a relevant means examine the occurrence of lyssavirus infection, but the number of bats submitted for laboratory analysis should be higher in order to obtain reliable information on the lyssavirus situation in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiina Nokireki
- Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, Mustialankatu 3, Helsinki FI-00790, Finland.
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20
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Twenty years of active bat rabies surveillance in Germany: a detailed analysis and future perspectives. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 142:1155-66. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268813002185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYIn Germany, active bat rabies surveillance was conducted between 1993 and 2012. A total of 4546 oropharyngeal swab samples from 18 bat species were screened for the presence of EBLV-1- , EBLV-2- and BBLV-specific RNA. Overall, 0·15% of oropharyngeal swab samples tested EBLV-1 positive, with the majority originating from Eptesicus serotinus. Interestingly, out of seven RT–PCR-positive oropharyngeal swabs subjected to virus isolation, viable virus was isolated from a single serotine bat (E. serotinus). Additionally, about 1226 blood samples were tested serologically, and varying virus neutralizing antibody titres were found in at least eight different bat species. The detection of viral RNA and seroconversion in repeatedly sampled serotine bats indicates long-term circulation of the virus in a particular bat colony. The limitations of random-based active bat rabies surveillance over passive bat rabies surveillance and its possible application of targeted approaches for future research activities on bat lyssavirus dynamics and maintenance are discussed.
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21
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Susceptibility and pathogenesis of little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) to heterologous and homologous rabies viruses. J Virol 2013; 87:9008-15. [PMID: 23741002 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03554-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) maintenance in bats is not well understood. Big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus), little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), and Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) are the most common bats species in the United States. These colonial bat species also have the most frequent contact with humans and domestic animals. However, the silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) RABV is associated with the majority of human rabies virus infections in the United States and Canada. This is of interest because silver-haired bats are more solitary bats with infrequent human interaction. Our goal was to determine the likelihood of a colonial bat species becoming infected with and transmitting a heterologous RABV. To ascertain the potential of heterologous RABV infection in colonial bat species, little brown bats were inoculated with a homologous RABV or one of two heterologous RABVs. Additionally, to determine if the route of exposure influenced the disease process, bats were inoculated either intramuscularly (i.m.) or subcutaneously (s.c.) with a homologous or heterologous RABV. Our results demonstrate that intramuscular inoculation results in a more rapid progression of disease onset, whereas the incubation time in bats inoculated s.c. is significantly longer. Additionally, cross protection was not consistently achieved in bats previously inoculated with a heterologous RABV following a challenge with a homologous RABV 6 months later. Finally, bats that developed rabies following s.c. inoculation were significantly more likely to shed virus in their saliva and demonstrated increased viral dissemination. In summary, bats inoculated via the s.c. route are more likely to shed virus, thus increasing the likelihood of transmission.
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22
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Responses of mice to inoculation with low doses of a bat rabies virus variant. Arch Virol 2013; 158:1355-9. [PMID: 23381393 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-013-1605-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is generally considered a fatal disease, yet neutralizing antibodies to rabies virus (RV) have frequently been found in sera from healthy, insectivorous bats, and mark-recapture studies have demonstrated bats that are still alive years after the first detection of anti-RV antibodies. To explore this phenomenon, we exposed mice to a big brown bat variant of RV, using three routes of inoculation, two doses of virus and two frequencies of exposure. We found the highest rate of seroconversion without mortality in mice that received repeated intramuscular inoculation of the higher dose of virus, and mice inoculated intranasally experienced the highest mortality.
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23
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Hayman DTS, Bowen RA, Cryan PM, McCracken GF, O'Shea TJ, Peel AJ, Gilbert A, Webb CT, Wood JLN. Ecology of zoonotic infectious diseases in bats: current knowledge and future directions. Zoonoses Public Health 2013; 60:2-21. [PMID: 22958281 PMCID: PMC3600532 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Bats are hosts to a range of zoonotic and potentially zoonotic pathogens. Human activities that increase exposure to bats will likely increase the opportunity for infections to spill over in the future. Ecological drivers of pathogen spillover and emergence in novel hosts, including humans, involve a complex mixture of processes, and understanding these complexities may aid in predicting spillover. In particular, only once the pathogen and host ecologies are known can the impacts of anthropogenic changes be fully appreciated. Cross-disciplinary approaches are required to understand how host and pathogen ecology interact. Bats differ from other sylvatic disease reservoirs because of their unique and diverse lifestyles, including their ability to fly, often highly gregarious social structures, long lifespans and low fecundity rates. We highlight how these traits may affect infection dynamics and how both host and pathogen traits may interact to affect infection dynamics. We identify key questions relating to the ecology of infectious diseases in bats and propose that a combination of field and laboratory studies are needed to create data-driven mechanistic models to elucidate those aspects of bat ecology that are most critical to the dynamics of emerging bat viruses. If commonalities can be found, then predicting the dynamics of newly emerging diseases may be possible. This modelling approach will be particularly important in scenarios when population surveillance data are unavailable and when it is unclear which aspects of host ecology are driving infection dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- D T S Hayman
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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24
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Abstract
The lyssaviruses are a diverse group of viruses capable of causing rabies, which is an invariably fatal encephalitic disease in both humans and animals. Currently, the lyssavirus genus consists of 12 species with 11 of these distinct species having been isolated from bats. The basis for the apparent geographical segregation of bat lyssavirus infection between the Old and New World is poorly understood. In the New World species of insectivorous, frugivorous, and hematophagous bats, all represent important reservoirs of rabies virus. In contrast, rabies virus has never been detected in Old World bat populations, despite being endemic in terrestrial mammals. Instead, both insectivorous and frugivorous bat species across the Old World appear to act as reservoirs for the non-rabies lyssaviruses. In this chapter, we describe the association of the different lyssaviruses with different bat species across the world, classifying bat species by their feeding behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C. Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Department of Virology, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - David T.S. Hayman
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Department of Virology, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK,Cambridge Infectious Diseases Consortium, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK,Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, D-17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, D-17493 Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Department of Virology, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK,National Consortium for Zoonosis Research, University of Liverpool, Leahurst, Chester High Road, Neston, Wirral, CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Department of Virology, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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25
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Davis AD, Gordy PA, Bowen RA. Unique characteristics of bat rabies viruses in big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Arch Virol 2012. [PMID: 23208279 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-012-1551-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Rabies virus infection has been documented in several North American bat species, including Eptesicus fuscus. The virus-host relationship between bats and rabies virus (RV) is not well understood. The incidence of non-lethal RV exposure, based on the presence of viral neutralizing antibodies, demonstrates that exposure to RV does not always lead to clinical infection in bats. It is unknown how the route of exposure, rabies virus variant, or health of the bat affects the outcome following exposure. This paper describes the pathogenesis of two big brown bat RV variants in homologous host species. Our study demonstrates that RV variants obtained from the same species of bat from similar geographical areas may result in a diverse clinical progression of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- April D Davis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80524, USA.
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26
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Schatz J, Fooks AR, McElhinney L, Horton D, Echevarria J, Vázquez-Moron S, Kooi EA, Rasmussen TB, Müller T, Freuling CM. Bat rabies surveillance in Europe. Zoonoses Public Health 2012; 60:22-34. [PMID: 22963584 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is the oldest known zoonotic disease and was also the first recognized bat associated infection in humans. To date, four different lyssavirus species are the causative agents of rabies in European bats: the European Bat Lyssaviruses type 1 and 2 (EBLV-1, EBLV-2), the recently discovered putative new lyssavirus species Bokeloh Bat Lyssavirus (BBLV) and the West Caucasian Bat Virus (WCBV). Unlike in the new world, bat rabies cases in Europe are comparatively less frequent, possibly as a result of varying intensity of surveillance. Thus, the objective was to provide an assessment of the bat rabies surveillance data in Europe, taking both reported data to the WHO Rabies Bulletin Europe and published results into account. In Europe, 959 bat rabies cases were reported to the RBE in the time period 1977-2010 with the vast majority characterized as EBLV-1, frequently isolated in the Netherlands, North Germany, Denmark, Poland and also in parts of France and Spain. Most EBLV-2 isolates originated from the United Kingdom (UK) and the Netherlands, and EBLV-2 was also detected in Germany, Finland and Switzerland. Thus far, only one isolate of BBLV was found in Germany. Published passive bat rabies surveillance comprised testing of 28 of the 52 different European bat species for rabies. EBLV-1 was isolated exclusively from Serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus and Eptesicus isabellinus), while EBLV-2 was detected in 14 Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii) and 5 Pond bats (Myotis dasycneme). A virus from a single Natterer's bat (Myotis nattereri) was characterized as BBLV. During active surveillance, only oral swabs from 2 Daubenton's bats (EBLV-2) and from several Eptesicus bats (EBLV-1) yielded virus positive RNA. Virus neutralizing antibodies against lyssaviruses were detected in various European bat species from different countries, and its value and implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Schatz
- Institute of Molecular Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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27
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Gilbert AT, Petersen BW, Recuenco S, Niezgoda M, Gómez J, Laguna-Torres VA, Rupprecht C. Evidence of rabies virus exposure among humans in the Peruvian Amazon. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 87:206-215. [PMID: 22855749 PMCID: PMC3414554 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2011] [Accepted: 04/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In May of 2010, two communities (Truenococha and Santa Marta) reported to be at risk of vampire bat depredation were surveyed in the Province Datem del Marañón in the Loreto Department of Perú. Risk factors for bat exposure included age less than or equal to 25 years and owning animals that had been bitten by bats. Rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (rVNAs) were detected in 11% (7 of 63) of human sera tested. Rabies virus ribonucleoprotein (RNP) immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies were detected in the sera of three individuals, two of whom were also seropositive for rVNA. Rabies virus RNP IgM antibodies were detected in one respondent with no evidence of rVNA or RNP IgG antibodies. Because one respondent with positive rVNA results reported prior vaccination and 86% (six of seven) of rVNA-positive respondents reported being bitten by bats, these data suggest nonfatal exposure of persons to rabies virus, which is likely associated with vampire bat depredation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy T. Gilbert
- *Address correspondence to Amy Gilbert, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, NE, Mailstop G33, Atlanta, GA 30333. E-mail:
| | - Brett W. Petersen
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Dirección General de Epidemiología, Ministerio de Salud, Lima, Perú; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Virology Department, US Naval Medical Research Unit 6, Lima, Perú
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28
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Abstract
Phylogenetic analyses suggest lyssaviruses, including Rabies virus, originated from bats. However, the role of bats in the maintenance, transmission and evolution of lyssaviruses is poorly understood. A number of genetically diverse lyssaviruses are present in Africa, including Lagos bat virus (LBV). A high seroprevalence of antibodies against LBV was detected in Eidolon helvum bats. Longitudinal seroprevalence and age-specific seroprevalence data were analysed and capture-mark-recapture (CMR) analysis used to follow 98 bats over 18 months. These data demonstrate endemic infection, with evidence of horizontal transmission, and force of infection was estimated for differing age categories. The CMR analysis found survival probabilities of seronegative and seropositive bats were not significantly different. The lack of increased mortality in seropositive animals suggests infection is not causing disease after extended incubation. These key findings point towards acute transmission of bat lyssaviruses in adapted bat hosts that occurs at a far higher rate than the occurrence of disease.
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29
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Allendorf SD, Cortez A, Heinemann MB, Harary CMA, Antunes JMAP, Peres MG, Vicente AF, Sodré MM, da Rosa AR, Megid J. Rabies virus distribution in tissues and molecular characterization of strains from naturally infected non-hematophagous bats. Virus Res 2012; 165:119-25. [PMID: 22349147 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bats are main reservoirs for Lyssavirus worldwide, which is an important public health issue because it constitutes one of the big challenges in rabies control. Yet, little is known about how the virus is maintained among bats, and the epidemiological relationships remain poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate the distribution of the rabies virus (RABV) in bat tissues and organs and to genetically characterize virus isolates from naturally infected non-hematophagous bats. The heminested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (hnRT-PCR) and sequencing using primers to the nucleoprotein coding gene were performed. The results showed a dissemination of the RABV in different tissues and organs, particularly in the salivary glands, tongue, lungs, kidneys, bladder, intestine and feces, suggesting other possible forms of RABV elimination and the possibility of transmission among these animals. The phylogenetic analysis confirmed that different variants of RABV are maintained by non-hematophagous bats in nature and have similar tissue distribution irrespective of bat species and phylogenetic characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Dora Allendorf
- UNESP, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Higiene Veterinária e Saúde Pública, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
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30
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Abstract
Numerous bat species have been identified as important reservoirs of zoonotic viral pathogens. Rabies and rabies-related viruses constitute one of the most important viral zoonoses and pose a significant threat to public health across the globe. Whereas rabies virus (RABV) appears to be restricted to bats of the New World, related lyssavirus species have not been detected in the Americas and have only been detected in bat populations across Africa, Eurasia, and Australia. Currently, 11 distinct species of lyssavirus have been identified, 10 of which have been isolated from bat species and all of which appear to be able to cause encephalitis consistent with that seen with RABV infection of humans. In contrast, whereas lyssaviruses are apparently able to cause clinical disease in bats, it appears that these lyssaviruses may also be able to circulate within bat populations in the absence of clinical disease. This feature of these highly encephalitic viruses, alongside many other aspects of lyssavirus infection in bats, is poorly understood. Here, we review what is known of the complex relationship between bats and lyssaviruses, detailing both natural and experimental infections of these viruses in both chiropteran and nonchiropteran models. We also discuss potential mechanisms of virus excretion, transmission both to conspecifics and spill-over of virus into nonvolant species, and mechanisms of maintenance within bat populations. Importantly, we review the significance of neutralizing antibodies reported within bat populations and discuss the potential mechanisms by which highly neurovirulent viruses such as the lyssaviruses are able to infect bat species in the absence of clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley C Banyard
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Department of Virology, Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
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31
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Active surveillance of bat rabies in France: a 5-year study (2004-2009). Vet Microbiol 2011; 151:390-5. [PMID: 21570221 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Active surveillance of bats in France started in 2004 with an analysis of 18 of the 45 bat species reported in Europe. Rabies antibodies were detected in six indigenous species, mainly in Eptesicus serotinus and Myotis myotis, suggesting previous contact with the EBLV-1 rabies virus. Nineteen of the 177 tested bats were shown serologically positive in seven sites, particularly in central and south-western France. Neither infectious viral particles nor viral genomes were detected in 173 and 308 tested oral swabs, respectively. The presence of neutralising antibodies in female bats (18.6%) was significantly higher than in males (5.6%).
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32
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Johnson N, Vos A, Freuling C, Tordo N, Fooks AR, Müller T. Human rabies due to lyssavirus infection of bat origin. Vet Microbiol 2010; 142:151-9. [PMID: 20188498 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2008] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal viral encephalitis and results from infection with viruses belonging to the genus Lyssavirus. Infection usually results from a bite from a dog infected with classical rabies virus. However, a small number of cases result from contact with bats. It is within bats that most lyssavirus variants, referred to as genotypes, are found. The lyssaviruses found in bats have a distinct geographical distribution and are often restricted to specific bat species. Most have been associated with rabies in humans and in some cases spill-over to domestic animals. Many diagnostic techniques are unable to differentiate rabies virus from other genotypes so it is possible that some human and animal cases go unreported. Furthermore, current vaccines have limited efficacy against some genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Johnson
- Veterinary Laboratories Agency-Weybridge, Surrey, United Kingdom.
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33
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Repeated detection of European bat lyssavirus type 2 in dead bats found at a single roost site in the UK. Arch Virol 2009; 154:1847-50. [PMID: 19841859 PMCID: PMC7086654 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-009-0504-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2009] [Accepted: 09/07/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In August 2007, European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) was isolated from a Daubenton’s bat found at Stokesay Castle. In September 2008, another bat from the same vicinity of Stokesay Castle also tested positive for EBLV-2. This is the first occurrence of repeated detection of EBLV-2 from a single site. Here, we report the detection of low levels of viral RNA in various bat organs by qRT-PCR and detection of viral antigen by immunohistochemistry. We also report sequence data from both cases and compare data with those derived from other EBLV-2 isolations in the UK.
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34
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Fooks AR, Johnson N, Freuling CM, Wakeley PR, Banyard AC, McElhinney LM, Marston DA, Dastjerdi A, Wright E, Weiss RA, Müller T. Emerging technologies for the detection of rabies virus: challenges and hopes in the 21st century. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009; 3:e530. [PMID: 19787037 PMCID: PMC2745658 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The diagnosis of rabies is routinely based on clinical and epidemiological information, especially when exposures are reported in rabies-endemic countries. Diagnostic tests using conventional assays that appear to be negative, even when undertaken late in the disease and despite the clinical diagnosis, have a tendency, at times, to be unreliable. These tests are rarely optimal and entirely dependent on the nature and quality of the sample supplied. In the course of the past three decades, the application of molecular biology has aided in the development of tests that result in a more rapid detection of rabies virus. These tests enable viral strain identification from clinical specimens. Currently, there are a number of molecular tests that can be used to complement conventional tests in rabies diagnosis. Indeed the challenges in the 21st century for the development of rabies diagnostics are not of a technical nature; these tests are available now. The challenges in the 21st century for diagnostic test developers are two-fold: firstly, to achieve internationally accepted validation of a test that will then lead to its acceptance by organisations globally. Secondly, the areas of the world where such tests are needed are mainly in developing regions where financial and logistical barriers prevent their implementation. Although developing countries with a poor healthcare infrastructure recognise that molecular-based diagnostic assays will be unaffordable for routine use, the cost/benefit ratio should still be measured. Adoption of rapid and affordable rabies diagnostic tests for use in developing countries highlights the importance of sharing and transferring technology through laboratory twinning between the developed and the developing countries. Importantly for developing countries, the benefit of molecular methods as tools is the capability for a differential diagnosis of human diseases that present with similar clinical symptoms. Antemortem testing for human rabies is now possible using molecular techniques. These barriers are not insurmountable and it is our expectation that if such tests are accepted and implemented where they are most needed, they will provide substantial improvements for rabies diagnosis and surveillance. The advent of molecular biology and new technological initiatives that combine advances in biology with other disciplines will support the development of techniques capable of high throughput testing with a low turnaround time for rabies diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R. Fooks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - Philip R. Wakeley
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Lorraine M. McElhinney
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Denise A. Marston
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Akbar Dastjerdi
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA, Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Edward Wright
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robin A. Weiss
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Wusterhausen, Germany
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35
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Freuling C, Vos A, Johnson N, Kaipf I, Denzinger A, Neubert L, Mansfield K, Hicks D, Nuñez A, Tordo N, Rupprecht CE, Fooks AR, Müller T. Experimental infection of serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) with European bat lyssavirus type 1a. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2493-2502. [PMID: 19515825 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.011510-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus) accounts for the vast majority of bat rabies cases in Europe and is considered the main reservoir for European bat lyssavirus type 1 (EBLV-1, genotype 5). However, so far the disease has not been investigated in its native host under experimental conditions. To assess viral virulence, dissemination and probable means of transmission, captive bats were infected experimentally with an EBLV-1a virus isolated from a naturally infected conspecific from Germany. Twenty-nine wild caught bats were divided into five groups and inoculated by intracranial (i.c.), intramuscular (i.m.) or subcutaneous (s.c.) injection or by intranasal (i.n.) inoculation to mimic the various potential routes of infection. One group of bats was maintained as uninfected controls. Mortality was highest in the i.c.-infected animals, followed by the s.c. and i.m. groups. Incubation periods varied from 7 to 26 days depending on the route of infection. Rabies did not develop in the i.n. group or in the negative-control group. None of the infected bats seroconverted. Viral antigen was detected in more than 50% of the taste buds of an i.c.-infected animal. Shedding of viable virus was measured by virus isolation in cell culture for one bat from the s.c. group at 13 and 14 days post-inoculation, i.e. 7 days before death. In conclusion, it is postulated that s.c. inoculation, in nature caused by bites, may be an efficient way of transmitting EBLV-1 among free-living serotine bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Freuling
- Institute for Epidemiology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Seestrasse 55, 16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - A Vos
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06861 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | - N Johnson
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - I Kaipf
- Animal Physiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Eberhard-Karls-University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - A Denzinger
- Animal Physiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Eberhard-Karls-University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - L Neubert
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06861 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | - K Mansfield
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - D Hicks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - A Nuñez
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - N Tordo
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Virology, Antiviral Strategy Unit, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris, France
| | - C E Rupprecht
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - A R Fooks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - T Müller
- Institute for Epidemiology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute of Animal Health, Seestrasse 55, 16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
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Fooks AR, Johnson N, Müller T, Vos A, Mansfield K, Hicks D, Nunez A, Freuling C, Neubert L, Kaipf I, Denzinger A, Franka R, Rupprecht CE. Detection of high levels of European bat lyssavirus type-1 viral RNA in the thyroid gland of experimentally-infected Eptesicus fuscus bats. Zoonoses Public Health 2009; 56:270-7. [PMID: 19497087 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Two common bat lyssavirus species have been identified in many European countries: European bat lyssavirus type-1 and -2 (EBLV-1 and EBLV-2). Only limited knowledge on the susceptibility of the natural EBLV-hosts, insectivorous bats, to lyssavirus infection is available. Our study was undertaken to evaluate the susceptibility and pathology associated with an EBLV-1 infection in Eptesicus fuscus following different routes of virus inoculation including intracranial (n = 6), intramuscular (n = 14), oral (n = 7) and intranasal (n = 7). Blood and saliva samples were collected from all bats on a monthly basis. Four bats inoculated intracranially developed rabies with a mean of 11 days to death, whilst seven bats inoculated intramuscularly developed rabies, with an extended incubation period prior to death. We did not observe any mortality in the oral (p.o.) or intranasal (i.n.) groups and both groups had detectable levels of virus neutralizing antibodies (data not shown). Virus shedding was demonstrated in the saliva by virus isolation and the detection of viral RNA in ill bats, particularly immediately prior to the development of disease. In addition, the presence of virus and viral RNA was detected in the thyroid gland in bats challenged experimentally with EBLV-1, which exceeded that detected in all other extra-neural tissue. The significance of detecting EBLV-1 in the thyroid gland of rabid bats is not well understood. We speculate that the infection of the thyroid gland may cause subacute thyroiditis, a transient form of thyroiditis causing hyperthyroidism, resulting in changes in adrenocortical activity that could lead to hormonal dysfunction, thereby distinguishing the clinical presentation of rabies in the rabid host.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Fooks
- Rabies & Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Surrey, UK.
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Cliquet F, Picard-Meyer E, Barrat J, Brookes SM, Healy DM, Wasniewski M, Litaize E, Biarnais M, Johnson L, Fooks AR. Experimental infection of foxes with European Bat Lyssaviruses type-1 and 2. BMC Vet Res 2009; 5:19. [PMID: 19454020 PMCID: PMC2694770 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-5-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2008] [Accepted: 05/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Since 1954, there have been in excess of 800 cases of rabies as a result of European Bat Lyssaviruses types 1 and 2 (EBLV-1, EBLV-2) infection, mainly in Serotine and Myotis bats respectively. These viruses have rarely been reported to infect humans and terrestrial mammals, as the only exceptions are sheep in Denmark, a stone marten in Germany and a cat in France. The purpose of this study was to investigate the susceptibility of foxes to EBLVs using silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) as a model. Results Our experimental studies have shown that the susceptibility of foxes to EBLVs is low by the intramuscular (IM) route, however, animals were sensitive to intracranial (IC) inoculation. Mortality was 100% for both EBLV-1 (~4.5 logs) and EBLV-2 (~3.0 logs) delivered by the IC route. Virus dissemination and inflammatory infiltrate in the brain were demonstrated but virus specific neutralising antibody (VNA) was limited (log(ED50) = 0.24–2.23 and 0.95–2.39 respectively for specific EBLV-1 and EBLV-2). Foxes were also susceptible, at a low level, to peripheral (IM) infection (~3.0 logs) with EBLV-1 but not EBLV-2. Three out of 21 (14.3%) foxes developed clinical signs between 14 and 24 days post-EBLV-1 infection. None of the animals given EBLV-2 developed clinical disease. Conclusion These data suggest that the chance of a EBLV spill-over from bat to fox is low, but with a greater probability for EBLV-1 than for EBLV-2 and that foxes seem to be able to clear the virus before it reaches the brain and cause a lethal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Cliquet
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Community Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Community Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, AFSSA Malzeville, France.
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Johnson N, Vos A, Neubert L, Freuling C, Mansfield KL, Kaipf I, Denzinger A, Hicks D, Núñez A, Franka R, Rupprecht CE, Müller T, Fooks AR. Experimental study of European bat lyssavirus type-2 infection in Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii). J Gen Virol 2009; 89:2662-2672. [PMID: 18931061 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.2008/003889-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) can be transmitted from Daubenton's bats to humans and cause rabies. EBLV-2 has been repeatedly isolated from Daubenton's bats in the UK but appears to be present at a low level within the native bat population. This has prompted us to investigate the disease in its natural host under experimental conditions, to assess its virulence, dissemination and likely means of transmission between insectivorous bats. With the exception of direct intracranial inoculation, only one of seven Daubenton's bats inoculated by subdermal inoculation became infected with EBLV-2. Both intramuscular and intranasal inoculation failed to infect the bats. No animal inoculated with EBLV-2 seroconverted during the study period. During infection, virus excretion in saliva (both viral RNA and live virus) was confirmed up to 3 days before the development of rabies. Disease was manifested as a gradual loss of weight prior to the development of paralysis and then death. The highest levels of virus were measured in the brain, with much lower levels of viral genomic RNA detected in the tongue, salivary glands, kidney, lung and heart. These observations are similar to those made in naturally infected Daubenton's bats and this is the first documented report of isolation of EBLV-2 in bat saliva. We conclude that EBLV-2 is most likely transmitted in saliva by a shallow bite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Johnson
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ad Vos
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, D-06861 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Larissa Neubert
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, D-06861 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Conrad Freuling
- Institute for Epidemiology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Seestrasse 55, D-16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - Karen L Mansfield
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ingrid Kaipf
- Zoologisches Institut, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Annette Denzinger
- Zoologisches Institut, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Dan Hicks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Alex Núñez
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Richard Franka
- Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta GA30333, USA
| | - Charles E Rupprecht
- Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta GA30333, USA
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute for Epidemiology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Seestrasse 55, D-16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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