Autophagy-deficient mice develop multiple liver tumors

NRF-mediated autophagy and UPR: Exploring new avenues to overcome cancer chemo-resistance

The development of chemo-resistance remains a significant hurdle in effective cancer therapy. NRF1 and NRF2, key regulators of redox homeostasis, play crucial roles in the cellular response to oxidative stress, with implications for both tumor growth and resistance to chemotherapy. This study delves into the dualistic role of NRF2, exploring its protective functions in normal cells and its paradoxical support of tumor survival and drug resistance in cancerous cells. We investigate the interplay between the PERK/NRF signaling pathway, ER stress, autophagy, and the unfolded protein response, offering a mechanistic perspective on how these processes contribute to chemoresistance. Our findings suggest that targeting NRF signaling pathways may offer new avenues for overcoming resistance to chemotherapeutic agents, highlighting the importance of a nuanced approach to redox regulation in cancer treatment. This research provides a molecular basis for the development of NRF-targeted therapies, potentially enhancing the efficacy of existing cancer treatments and offering hope for more effective management of resistant tumors.

FOXO4 suppresses cisplatin resistance of triple-negative breast cancer by inhibiting autophagy

BACKGROUND

Resistance to chemotherapy containing cisplatin (DDP) is a main challenge in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Forkhead box O4 (FOXO4) is frequently downregulated in DDP-resistant cells. However, it is unclear whether FOXO4 down-regulation is related to DDP resistance. Here, we investigated the relationship between FOXO4 and DDP resistance in TNBC.

METHODS

We established the DDP-resistant cell lines MDA-MB-231/DDP and BT-549/DDP through in vitro selection. CCK-8 and colony formation assays analyzed cell growth. The resistance index was calculated. Cell autophagy was evaluated. Western blotting and qRT-PCR measured protein and gene expression. The binding between FOXO4 and TGF-β1 was determined by the dual-luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

FOXO4 expression was significantly lower in MDA-MB-231/DDP and BT-549/DDP cells. FOXO4 overexpression increased the sensitivity of TNBC cells to DDP. The PI3K class Ⅲ and Beclin-1 levels and LC3-II/LC3-I ratio elevated significantly in DDP-resistant cells. Moreover, the autophagic flux was enhanced in DDP-resistant cells. 3-MA enhanced the sensitivity of TNBC cells to DDP by inhibiting autophagy. Overexpression of FOXO4, treatment with 3-MA, and their combination significantly reduced the drug resistance index. FOXO4 directly targeted TGF-β1. Additionally, TGF-β1 knockdown inhibited autophagy and restored the sensitivity of DDP-resistant cells to DDP. Mechanistically, FOXO4 affected TNBC resistance to DDP by regulating autophagy and TGF-β1.

CONCLUSION

FOXO4 overexpression, in combination with autophagy inhibitors, can significantly improve the sensitivity of TNBC-resistant cells to DDP. These findings reveal the role and mechanism of FOXO4 in DDP sensitivity and may provide evidence for the development of TNBC therapies.

The interplay between probiotics and host autophagy: mechanisms of action and emerging insights

Autophagy, a lysosome-dependent protein degradation mechanism, is a highly conserved catabolic process seen in all eukaryotes. This cell protection system, which is present in all tissues and functions at a basic level, can be up- or downregulated in response to various stresses. A disruption in the natural route of the autophagy process is frequently followed by an interruption in the inherent operation of the body's cells and organs. Probiotics are live bacteria that protect the host through various mechanisms. One of the processes through which probiotics exert their beneficial effects on various cells and tissues is autophagy. Autophagy can assist in maintaining host homeostasis by stimulating the immune system and affecting numerous physiological and pathological responses. In this review, we particularly focus on autophagy impairments occurring in several human illnesses and investigate how probiotics affect the autophagy process under various circumstances.Abbreviation: AD: Alzheimer disease; AKT: AKT serine/threonine kinase; AMPK: 5'AMP-activated protein kinase; ATG: autophagy related; CCl4: carbon tetrachloride; CFS: cell-free supernatant; CMA: chaperone-mediated autophagy; CRC: colorectal cancer; EPS: L. plantarum H31 exopolysaccharide; HD: Huntington disease; HFD: high-fat diet; HPV: human papillomavirus; IFNG/IFN-γ: interferon gamma; IL6: interleukin 6; LGG: L. rhamnosus GG; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; MTORC1: MTOR complex 1; NAFLD: non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; NASH: non-alcoholic steatohepatitis; PD: Parkinson disease; Pg3G: pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PolyQ: polyglutamine; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SCFAs: short-chain fatty acids; SLAB51: a novel formulation of lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria; Slp: surface layer protein (of acidophilus NCFM); SNCA: synuclein alpha; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy-activating kinase 1; YB: B. longum subsp. infantis YB0411; YFP: yeast fermentate prebiotic.

Oxidative stress of mitophagy in neurodegenerative diseases: Mechanism and potential therapeutic targets

Neurodegenerative diseases are now significant chronic progressive neurological conditions that affect individuals' physical health. Oxidative stress is crucial in the development of these diseases. Among the various neurodegenerative diseases, mitochondrial damage has become a major factor in oxidative stress and disease advancement. During this process, oxidative stress and mitophagy plays an important role. In this paper, we introduced the role of mitophagy and oxidative stress in detail, and expounded the relationship between them. In addition, we summarized the pathogenesis of some neurodegenerative diseases and the mechanism of three antioxidants. The former includes AD, PD, HD and ALS, while the latter includes carnosine, adiponectin and resveratrol. Provide goals and directions for further research and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the impact of oxidative stress on neurodegenerative diseases by regulating mitophagy, provides a deeper understanding of their pathological mechanisms, and suggests potential new therapeutic targets.

Ferroptosis and pyroptosis are connected through autophagy: a new perspective of overcoming drug resistance

Drug resistance is a common challenge in clinical tumor treatment. A reduction in drug sensitivity of tumor cells is often accompanied by an increase in autophagy levels, leading to autophagy-related resistance. The effectiveness of combining chemotherapy drugs with autophagy inducers/inhibitors has been widely confirmed, but the mechanisms are still unclear. Ferroptosis and pyroptosis can be affected by various types of autophagy. Therefore, ferroptosis and pyroptosis have crosstalk via autophagy, potentially leading to a switch in cell death types under certain conditions. As two forms of inflammatory programmed cell death, ferroptosis and pyroptosis have different effects on inflammation, and the cGAS-STING signaling pathway is also involved. Therefore, it also plays an important role in the progression of some chronic inflammatory diseases. This review discusses the relationship between autophagy, ferroptosis and pyroptosis, and attempts to uncover the reasons behind the evasion of tumor cell death and the nature of drug resistance.

THSWD upregulates the LTF/AMPK/mTOR/Becn1 axis and promotes lysosomal autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by regulating gut flora and metabolic reprogramming

THSWD has the effect of reducing inflammation, improving microcirculation, and regulating immune status in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Regardless of its clear therapeutic effect, the underlying mechanism of action against hepatocellular carcinoma is not clear. To identify critical gut microbiota and its associated metabolites related to THSWD inhibition against hepatocellular carcinoma progression, we assessed the microbe-dependent anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effects of THSWD through 16 s rRNA gene sequencing, fecal microbial transplantation and antibiotic treatment. Metabolic analyses, transcriptomic analyses, and molecular experiments were performed to explore how THSWD modulates the gut microbiota against hepatocellular carcinoma progression. As confirmed by in vivo and in vitro assays, THSWD reduced tumour growth rate and promoted apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells in hepatocellular carcinoma model mice, and liver and kidney indexes were detected and confirmed the safety of THSWD. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the targets of THSWD were significantly enriched in multiple lysosomal autophagy signalling pathways, suggesting that lysosomal autophagy is probably associated with THSWD's therapeutic effect. Based on the integrated data analysis, THSWD delays hepatocellular carcinoma progression by increasing the intestinal microbiota Duncaniella and augmenting the metabolite glabrol, and the joint analysis of metabolic and genomic data suggests that this metabolite is associated with lysosomal autophagy, and cellular experiments confirmed that the The differential metabolite glabrol induces apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by triggering the lysosomal autophagy-mediated apoptosis signalling pathway. Supplementation with glabrol metabolites up regulates the LTF/AMPK/mTOR/Beclin1 axis and promotes hepatocellular carcinoma cells with lysosomal autophagy and induced apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

POU4F1 enhances lung cancer gemcitabine resistance by regulating METTL3-dependent TWF1 mRNA N6 adenosine methylation

This study aimed to investigate the role of POU Class 4 Homeobox 1 (POU4F1) in regulating gemcitabine (GEM) resistance in lung cancer cells. The mRNA and protein expressions were assessed using RT-qPCR, western blot, immunofluorescence, and immunohistochemistry. Cell viability and proliferation were assessed by CCK-8 assay and EdU assay. TUNEL staining and flow cytometry were employed to detect cell apoptosis. The m6A modification of TWF1 was detected using MeRIP assay. The interactions between molecules were validated using dual luciferase reporter gene, ChIP, and RIP assays. POU4F1 knockdown inhibited GEM resistance and autophagy in lung cancer cells. Mechanistically, POU4F1 transcriptionally activated methyltransferase-like protein 3 (METTL3) in GEM-resistant cells by binding to the METTL3 promoter. METTL3 promoted the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification and expression level of twinfilin-1 (TWF1). Overexpression of METTL3 and TWF1 weakened the effects of POU4F1 knockdown on GEM resistance and autophagy. Moreover, knockdown POU4F1 also enhanced GEM anti-tumor sensitivity in vivo. In conclusion, POU4F1 upregulation promoted GEM resistance in lung cancer cells by promoting autophagy through increasing METTL3-mediated TWF1 m6A modification.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-024-04161-w.

Autophagy in cancer development, immune evasion, and drug resistance

Macroautophagy/autophagy is a highly conserved evolutionary mechanism involving lysosomes for the degradation of cytoplasmic components including organelles. The constitutive, basal level of autophagy is fundamental for preserving cellular homeostasis; however, alterations in autophagy can cause disease pathogenesis, including cancer. The role of autophagy in cancer is particularly complicated, since this process acts both as a tumor suppressor in precancerous stages but facilitates tumor progression during carcinogenesis and later stages of cancer progression. This shift between anti-tumor and pro-tumor roles may be influenced by genetic and environmental factors modulating key pathways such as those involving autophagy-related proteins, the PI3K-AKT-MTOR axis, and AMPK, which often show dysregulation in tumors. Autophagy regulates various cellular functions, including metabolism of glucose, glutamine, and lipids, cell proliferation, metastasis, and several types of cell death (apoptosis, ferroptosis, necroptosis and immunogenic cell death). These multifaceted roles demonstrate the potential of autophagy to affect DNA damage repair, cell death pathways, proliferation and survival, which are critical in determining cancer cells' response to chemotherapy. Therefore, targeting autophagy pathways presents a promising strategy to combat chemoresistance, as one of the major reasons for the failure in cancer patient treatment. Furthermore, autophagy modulates immune evasion and the function of immune cells such as T cells and dendritic cells, influencing the tumor microenvironment and cancer's biological behavior. However, the therapeutic targeting of autophagy is complex due to its dual role in promoting survival and inducing cell death in cancer cells, highlighting the need for strategies that consider both the beneficial and detrimental effects of autophagy modulation in cancer therapy. Hence, both inducers and inhibitors of autophagy have been introduced for the treatment of cancer. This review emphasizes the intricate interplay between autophagy, tumor biology, and immune responses, offering insights into potential therapeutic approaches that deploy autophagy in the cancer suppression.

ISO-upregulated BECN1 specifically promotes LC3B-dependent autophagy and anticancer activity in invasive bladder cancer

Isorhapontigenin (ISO), an active compound isolated from the Chinese herb Gnetum Cleistostachyum, exhibited strong preventive and therapeutic effects on bladder cancer (BC) both in vitro and in vivo. Our previous studies revealed that ISO-induced autophagy is crucial for its anti-cancer activity. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we showed that BECN1, an important autophagic protein, was induced by ISO treatment and played crucial roles in ISO-induced late phase of LC3B-dependent, and LC3A-independent autophagy, as well as anti-cancer activity. Downregulation of BECN1 was observed in human BCs and BBN-induced mouse invasive BC tissues, whereas co-treatment with ISO completely reversed BECN1 downregulation in BBN-induced mouse invasive BCs. Consistently, ISO treatment significantly increased BECN1 expression in vitro in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Depletion of BECN1 significantly impaired LC3B-dependent autophagy following ISO treatment, as well as abolished the inhibitory effect of ISO on anchorage-independent growth of human BC cells. Mechanistic studies revealed that BECN1 induction was mediated by ISO downregulation of c-Myc, which resulted in miR-613 reduction, in turn leading to increased NCL translation and further promoting NCL binding to BECN1 mRNA, subsequently stabilizing BECN1 mRNA. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that by activating c-Myc/miR-613/NCL axis, ISO treatment results in BECN1 posttranscriptional upregulation, which specifically initiates LC3B-dependent autophagy and anti-cancer activity. Our findings further strengths our application of ISO for therapy of high-grade invasive BC (HGIBC) patients.

Autophagy as a Therapeutic Target in Breast Tumors: The Cancer stem cell perspective

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease, with a subpopulation of tumor cells known as breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) with self-renewal and differentiation abilities that play a critical role in tumor initiation, progression, and therapy resistance. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex area where diverse cancer cells reside creating a highly interactive environment with secreted factors, and the extracellular matrix. Autophagy, a cellular self-digestion process, influences dynamic cellular processes in the tumor TME integrating diverse signals that regulate tumor development and heterogeneity. Autophagy acts as a double-edged sword in the breast TME, with both tumor-promoting and tumor-suppressing roles. Autophagy promotes breast tumorigenesis by regulating tumor cell survival, migration and invasion, metabolic reprogramming, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). BCSCs harness autophagy to maintain stemness properties, evade immune surveillance, and resist therapeutic interventions. Conversely, excessive, or dysregulated autophagy may lead to BCSC differentiation or cell death, offering a potential avenue for therapeutic exploration. The molecular mechanisms that regulate autophagy in BCSCs including the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), AMPK, and Beclin-1 signaling pathways may be potential targets for pharmacological intervention in breast cancer. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the relationship between autophagy and BCSCs, highlighting recent advancements in our understanding of their interplay. We also discuss the current state of autophagy-targeting agents and their preclinical and clinical development in BCSCs.

Unveiling the physiological impact of ESCRT-dependent autophagosome closure by targeting the VPS37A ubiquitin E2 variant-like domain

Macroautophagy (autophagy) involves the formation of phagophores that mature into autophagosomes. The impact of inhibiting autophagosome closure remains unclear. Here, we report the generation and analysis of mice with impaired autophagosome closure by targeting the ubiquitin E2 variant-like (UEVL) β strands of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) I subunit VPS37A. The VPS37A UEVL mutation (Δ43-139) impairs bulk autophagic flux without disrupting ESCRT-I complex assembly and endosomal function. Homozygous mutant mice exhibit signs of autophagy impairment, including p62/SQSTM1 and ubiquitinated protein accumulation, neuronal dysfunction, growth retardation, antioxidant gene upregulation, and tissue abnormalities. However, about half of the mutant neonates survive to adulthood without severe liver injury. LC3 proximity proteomics reveals that the VPS37A UEVL mutation leads to active TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) accumulation on phagophores, resulting in increased p62 phosphorylation and inclusion formation. These findings reveal a previously unappreciated role of LC3-conjugated phagophores in facilitating protein aggregation and sequestration, potentially alleviating proteotoxicity.

Castration-resistant prostate cancer is resensitized to androgen deprivation by autophagy-dependent apoptosis induced by blocking SKP2

Resistance to androgen receptor (AR)-targeted therapies for prostate cancer (PCa) is characteristic of an aggressive subtype called castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and is often associated with tumor relapse. Both relapse and poor prognosis in patients with CRPC are associated with increased abundance of the E3 ubiquitin ligase SKP2. Therefore, we investigated the therapeutic potential of combined inhibition of AR and SKP2 for CRPC. We found that combined targeting of AR and SKP2 with small-molecule inhibitors decreased proliferation in two CRPC cell lines in culture and in xenografts in humanized mice. Furthermore, combined therapy in mice markedly decreased the growth of Pten/Trp53 double-knockout tumors, a particularly invasive model of CRPC, whereas disruption of either AR or SKP2 alone only modestly suppressed their growth. Mechanistically, the inhibition of SKP2 in CRPC cells induced autophagy-dependent apoptosis and promoted luminal-associated phenotypes, which promoted responsiveness to AR-targeted therapy. These effects were further enhanced by coinhibition of AR and were not induced by the AR inhibitor alone. Our findings indicate that targeting both AR and SKP2 signaling pathways is necessary to treat CRPC.

Autophagy-based therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: from standard treatments to combination therapy, oncolytic virotherapy, and targeted nanomedicines

Human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been identified as a significant cause of mortality worldwide. In recent years, extensive research has been conducted to understand the underlying mechanisms of autophagy in the pathogenesis of the disease, with the aim of developing novel therapeutic agents. Targeting autophagy with conventional therapies in invasive HCC has opened up new opportunities for treatment. However, the emergence of resistance and the immunosuppressive tumor environment highlight the need for combination therapy or specific targeting, as well as an efficient drug delivery system to ensure targeted tumor areas receive sufficient doses without affecting normal cells or tissues. In this review, we discuss the findings of several studies that have explored autophagy as a potential therapeutic approach in HCC. We also outline the potential and limitations of standard therapies for autophagy modulation in HCC treatment. Additionally, we discuss how different combination therapies, nano-targeted strategies, and oncolytic virotherapy could enhance autophagy-based HCC treatment in future research.

Acetazolamide suppresses the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma induced by diethylnitrosamine in Wistar albino rats

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) continues to be the most prevalent type of liver cancer worldwide. Diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCC is an extensively used hepatic cancer model in experimental animals. Acetazolamide (AZA) is a carbonic anhydrase enzyme inhibitor. This study aimed to assess the therapeutic mechanism of AZA against DEN-induced HCC. Thirty male Wistar albino rats were divided equally into three groups. Group I (C): control group, Group II (HCC): DEN-induced HCC, and Group III (HCC/AZA): AZA-treated HCC. Verification of the HCC induced by DEN was confirmed by elevated liver enzymes' activities, and increased α-fetoprotein (AFP) levels, as well as distinct liver architecture changes. On the other hand, the AZA-treated HCC group experienced decreases in the activities of serum liver enzymes and AFP levels, as well as, regulated liver architecture. Additionally, it downregulated p-p38 MAPK/p-JNK1/JNK2/p-C-Jun/p-NF-κB p65 protein expressions. Moreover, it ameliorated autophagy by controlling the expression of the p-AMPK/p-mTOR1/LC3 I/II proteins. Furthermore, it downregulated the relative gene expressions of carbonic anhydrase-IX (CAIX) and hexokinase-II (HKII). Histopathological examination of AZA-treated HCC liver tissues supported these findings. Conclusion: AZA provides a new dimension in ameliorating experimentally induced HCC through regulation of hepatic biomarkers, antioxidant status, inflammatory markers, and autophagy, mediated by amelioration of CAIX and HKII gene expressions.

Mechanisms and cross-talk of regulated cell death and their epigenetic modifications in tumor progression

Cell death is a fundamental part of life for metazoans. To maintain the balance between cell proliferation and metabolism of human bodies, a certain number of cells need to be removed regularly. Hence, the mechanisms of cell death have been preserved during the evolution of multicellular organisms. Tumorigenesis is closely related with exceptional inhibition of cell death. Mutations or defects in cell death-related genes block the elimination of abnormal cells and enhance the resistance of malignant cells to chemotherapy. Therefore, the investigation of cell death mechanisms enables the development of drugs that directly induce tumor cell death. In the guidelines updated by the Cell Death Nomenclature Committee (NCCD) in 2018, cell death was classified into 12 types according to morphological, biochemical and functional classification, including intrinsic apoptosis, extrinsic apoptosis, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT)-driven necrosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, PARP-1 parthanatos, entotic cell death, NETotic cell death, lysosome-dependent cell death, autophagy-dependent cell death, immunogenic cell death, cellular senescence and mitotic catastrophe. The mechanistic relationships between epigenetic controls and cell death in cancer progression were previously unclear. In this review, we will summarize the mechanisms of cell death pathways and corresponding epigenetic regulations. Also, we will explore the extensive interactions between these pathways and discuss the mechanisms of cell death in epigenetics which bring benefits to tumor therapy.

Autophagy and cancer therapy

Autophagy is an intracellular degradation process that sequesters cytoplasmic components in double-membrane vesicles known as autophagosomes, which are degraded upon fusion with lysosomes. This pathway maintains the integrity of proteins and organelles while providing energy and nutrients to cells, particularly under nutrient deprivation. Deregulation of autophagy can cause genomic instability, low protein quality, and DNA damage, all of which can contribute to cancer. Autophagy can also be overactivated in cancer cells to aid in cancer cell survival and drug resistance. Emerging evidence indicates that autophagy has functions beyond cargo degradation, including roles in tumor immunity and cancer stem cell survival. Additionally, autophagy can also influence the tumor microenvironment. This feature warrants further investigation of the role of autophagy in cancer, in which autophagy manipulation can improve cancer therapies, including cancer immunotherapy. This review discusses recent findings on the regulation of autophagy and its role in cancer therapy and drug resistance.

Dual Role of Lysosome in Cancer Development and Progression

Lysosomes are essential intracellular catabolic organelles that contain digestive enzymes involved in the degradation and recycle of damaged proteins, organelles, etc. Thus, they play an important role in various biological processes, including autophagy regulation, ion homeostasis, cell death, cell senescence. A myriad of studies has shown that the dysfunction of lysosome is implicated in human aging and various age-related diseases, including cancer. However, what is noteworthy is that the modulation of lysosome-based signaling and degradation has both the cancer-suppressive and cancer-promotive functions in diverse cancers depending on stage, biology, or tumor microenvironment. This dual role limits their application as targets in cancer therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of lysosome and autophagy-lysosomal pathway and outline their critical roles in many cellular processes, including cell death. We highlight the different functions of autophagy-lysosomal pathway in cancer development and progression, underscoring its potential as a target for effective cancer therapies.

Current Understanding of the Role of Autophagy in the Treatment of Myeloid Leukemia

The most important issues in acute myeloid leukemia are preventing relapse and treating relapse. Although the remission rate has improved to approximately 80%, the 5-year survival rate is only around 30%. The main reasons for this are the high relapse rate and the limited treatment options. In chronic myeloid leukemia patients, when a deep molecular response is achieved for a certain period of time through tyrosine kinase inhibitor treatment, about half of them will reach treatment-free remission, but relapse is still a problem. Therefore, potential therapeutic targets for myeloid leukemias are eagerly awaited. Autophagy suppresses the development of cancer by maintaining cellular homeostasis; however, it also promotes cancer progression by helping cancer cells survive under various metabolic stresses. In addition, autophagy is promoted or suppressed in cancer cells by various genetic mutations. Therefore, the development of therapies that target autophagy is also being actively researched in the field of leukemia. In this review, studies of the role of autophagy in hematopoiesis, leukemogenesis, and myeloid leukemias are presented, and the impact of autophagy regulation on leukemia treatment and the clinical trials of autophagy-related drugs to date is discussed.

Exploring COX-Independent Pathways: A Novel Approach for Meloxicam and Other NSAIDs in Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Treatment

As a fundamental process of innate immunity, inflammation is associated with the pathologic process of various diseases and constitutes a prevalent risk factor for both cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Studies have indicated that several non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including Meloxicam, may prevent tumorigenesis, reduce the risk of carcinogenesis, improve the efficacy of anticancer therapies, and reduce the risk of CVD, in addition to controlling the body's inflammatory imbalances. Traditionally, most NSAIDs work by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) activity, thereby blocking the synthesis of prostaglandins (PGs), which play a role in inflammation, cancer, and various cardiovascular conditions. However, long-term COX inhibition and reduced PGs synthesis can result in serious side effects. Recent studies have increasingly shown that some selective COX-2 inhibitors and NSAIDs, such as Meloxicam, may exert effects beyond COX inhibition. This emerging understanding prompts a re-evaluation of the mechanisms by which NSAIDs operate, suggesting that their benefits in cancer and CVD treatment may not solely depend on COX targeting. In this review, we will explore the potential COX-independent mechanisms of Meloxicam and other NSAIDs in addressing oncology and cardiovascular health.

Transcriptional changes impact hepatic proteome in autophagy-impaired liver

Hepatic proteomes are intricately controlled through biosynthesis, extracellular secretion, and intrahepatic degradation. Autophagy governs lysosome-mediated intrahepatic degradation and the hepatic proteome. When autophagy is impaired, it leads to the accumulation of intrahepatic proteins, causing proteinopathy. This study investigates whether autophagy can modulate the hepatic proteome non-degradatively. Utilizing conditional, inducible, and hepatotoxin models of hepatic autophagy impairment, we assessed the overall hepatic proteome expression using Coomassie brilliant blue (CBB) staining and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS). We pinpointed and confirmed four specific hepatic proteins-Cps1, Ahcy, Ca3, and Gstm1-that were selectively modified in autophagy-deficient livers. Expression of Cps1, Ahcy, and Ca3 were significantly reduced, while Gstm1 expression increased in livers with autophagy impairment. Interestingly, these changes in hepatic protein levels were not due to defective autophagic degradation but were associated with alterations in mRNA transcript levels. Moreover, as a result of autophagic dysfunction, sustained activation of the nuclear erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2) transcription factor, transcriptionally regulated the mRNA levels of these proteins. Our findings indicate that autophagy can influence hepatic proteins not solely via traditional degradative routes but also through non-degradative transcriptional processes by modulating Nrf2.

Autophagy-related miRNAs, exosomal miRNAs, and circRNAs in tumor progression and drug-and radiation resistance in colorectal cancer

Targeted therapies are often more tolerable than traditional cytotoxic ones. Nurses play a critical role in providing patients and caregivers with information about the disease, available therapies, and the kind, severity, and identification of any potential adverse events. By doing this, it may be possible to ensure that any adverse effects are managed quickly, maximizing the therapeutic benefit. In colorectal cancer (CRC), autophagy-related activities are significantly influenced by miRNAs and exosomal miRNAs. CRC development and treatment resistance have been associated with the cellular process of autophagy. miRNAs, which are short non-coding RNA molecules, have the ability to control the expression of genes by binding to the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of target mRNAs and either preventing or suppressing translation. It has been discovered that several miRNAs are significant regulators of CRC autophagy. By preventing autophagy, these miRNAs enhance the survival and growth of cancer cells. Exosomes are small membrane vesicles that are released by cells and include miRNAs among other bioactive compounds. Exosomes have the ability to modify recipient cells' biological processes by delivering their cargo, which includes miRNAs. It has been demonstrated that exosomal miRNAs control autophagy in CRC in both autocrine and paracrine ways. We will discuss the potential roles of miRNAs, exosomal miRNAs, and circRNAs in CRC autophagy processes and how nursing care can reduce unfavorable outcomes.

The heterogeneity of breast cancer metastasis: a bioinformatics analysis utilizing single-cell RNA sequencing data

PURPOSE

Breast cancer is a common malignancy in women, and its metastasis is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) can distinguish the molecular characteristics of metastasis and identify predictor genes for patient prognosis. This article explores gene expression in primary breast cancer tumor tissue against metastatic cells in the lymph node and liver using scRNA-seq.

METHODS

Breast cancer scRNA-seq data from the Gene Expression Omnibus were used. The data were processed using R and the Seurat package. The cells were clustered and identified using Metascape. InferCNV is used to analyze the variation in copy number. Differential expression analysis was conducted for the cancer cells using Seurat and was enriched using Metascape.

RESULTS

We identified 18 distinct cell clusters, 6 of which were epithelial. CNV analysis identified significant alterations with duplication of chromosomes 1, 8, and 19. Differential gene analysis resulted in 17 upregulated and 171 downregulated genes for the primary tumor in the primary tumor vs. liver metastasis comparison and 43 upregulated and 4 downregulated genes in the primary tumor in the primary tumor vs lymph node metastasis comparison. Several enriched terms include Ribosome biogenesis, NTP synthesis, Epithelial dedifferentiation, Autophagy, and genes associated with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transitions.

CONCLUSION

No single gene or pathway can clearly explain the mechanisms behind tumor metastasis. Several mechanisms contribute to lymph node and liver metastasis, such as the loss of differentiation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and autophagy. These findings necessitate further study of metastatic tissue for effective drug development.

Let's talk about flux: the rising potential of autophagy rate measurements in disease

Macroautophagy/autophagy is increasingly implicated in a variety of diseases, making it an attractive therapeutic target. However, many aspects of autophagy are not fully understood and its impact on many diseases remains debatable and context-specific. The lack of systematic and dynamic measurements in these cases is a key reason for this ambiguity. In recent years, Loos et al. 2014 and Beesabathuni et al. 2022 developed methods to quantitatively measure autophagy holistically. In this commentary, we pose some of the unresolved biological questions regarding autophagy and consider how quantitative measurements may address them. While the applications are ever-expanding, we provide specific use cases in cancer, virus infection, and mechanistic screening. We address how the rate measurements themselves are central to developing cancer therapies and present ways in which these tools can be leveraged to dissect the complexities of virus-autophagy interactions. Screening methods can be combined with rate measurements to mechanistically decipher the labyrinth of autophagy regulation in cancer and virus infection. Taken together, these approaches have the potential to illuminate the underlying mechanisms of various diseases.Abbreviation MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; R1: rate of autophagosome formation; R2: rate of autophagosome-lysosome fusion; R3: rate of autolysosome turnover.

Anti-Cancer Strategy Based on Changes in the Role of Autophagy Depending on the Survival Environment and Tumorigenesis Stages

Autophagy is a crucial mechanism for recycling intracellular materials, and under normal metabolic conditions, it is maintained at low levels in cells. However, when nutrients are deficient or under hypoxic conditions, the level of autophagy significantly increases. Particularly in cancer cells, which grow more rapidly than normal cells and tend to grow in a three-dimensional manner, cells inside the cell mass often face limited oxygen supply, leading to inherently higher levels of autophagy. Therefore, the initial development of anticancer drugs targeting autophagy was based on a strategy to suppress these high levels of autophagy. However, anticancer drugs that inhibit autophagy have not shown promising results in clinical trials, as it has been revealed that autophagy does not always play a role that favors cancer cell survival. Hence, this review aims to suggest anticancer strategies based on the changes in the role of autophagy according to survival conditions and tumorigenesis stage.

Integrating molecular, biochemical, and immunohistochemical features as predictors of hepatocellular carcinoma drug response using machine-learning algorithms

Introduction

Liver cancer, particularly Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), remains a significant global health concern due to its high prevalence and heterogeneous nature. Despite the existence of approved drugs for HCC treatment, the scarcity of predictive biomarkers limits their effective utilization. Integrating diverse data types to revolutionize drug response prediction, ultimately enabling personalized HCC management.

Method

In this study, we developed multiple supervised machine learning models to predict treatment response. These models utilized classifiers such as logistic regression (LR), k-nearest neighbors (kNN), neural networks (NN), support vector machines (SVM), and random forests (RF) using a comprehensive set of molecular, biochemical, and immunohistochemical features as targets of three drugs: Pantoprazole, Cyanidin 3-glycoside (Cyan), and Hesperidin. A set of performance metrics for the complete and reduced models were reported including accuracy, precision, recall (sensitivity), specificity, and the Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC).

Results and Discussion

Notably, (NN) achieved the best prediction accuracy where the combined model using molecular and biochemical features exhibited exceptional predictive power, achieving solid accuracy of 0.9693 ∓ 0.0105 and average area under the ROC curve (AUC) of 0.94 ∓ 0.06 coming from three cross-validation iterations. Also, found seven molecular features, seven biochemical features, and one immunohistochemistry feature as promising biomarkers of treatment response. This comprehensive method has the potential to significantly advance personalized HCC therapy by allowing for more precise drug response estimation and assisting in the identification of effective treatment strategies.

Liver CYP4A autophagic-lysosomal degradation (ALD): A major role for the autophagic receptor SQSTM1/p62 through an uncommon target interaction site

The hepatic P450 hemoproteins CYPs 4A are typical N-terminally anchored Type I endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-proteins, that are inducible by hypolipidemic drugs and other "peroxisome proliferators". They are engaged in the ω-/ω-1-oxidation of various fatty acids including arachidonic acid, prostaglandins and leukotrienes and in the biotransformation of some therapeutic drugs. Herein we report that of the mammalian liver CYPs 4A, human CYP4A11 and mouse Cyp4a12a are preferential targets of the ER-lysosome-associated degradation (ERLAD). Consequently, these proteins are stabilized both as 1%Triton X100-soluble and -insoluble species in mouse hepatocytes and HepG2-cells deficient in the autophagic initiation ATG5-gene. Although these proteins exhibit surface LC3-interacting regions (LIRs) that would target them directly to the autophagosome, they nevertheless interact intimately with the autophagic receptor SQSTM1/p62. Through structural deletion analyses and site-directed mutagenesis, we have identified the Cyp4A-interacting p62 subdomain to lie between residues 170 and 233, which include its Traf6-binding and LIM-binding subdomains. Mice carrying a liver-specific genetic deletion of p62 residues 69-251 (p62Mut) that includes the CYP4A-interacting subdomain also exhibit Cyp4a-protein stabilization both as Triton X100-soluble and -insoluble species. Consistently, p62Mut mouse liver microsomes exhibit enhanced ω- and ω-1-hydroxylation of arachidonic acid to its physiologically active metabolites 19- and 20-HETEs relative to the corresponding wild-type mouse liver microsomes. Collectively, our findings suggest that any disruption of CYP4A ERLAD results in functionally active P450 protein and consequent production of proinflammatory metabolites on one hand, and insoluble aggregates on the other, which may contribute to pathological aggregates i.e. Mallory-Denk bodies/inclusions, hallmarks of many liver diseases.

The dual role of autophagy in suppressing and promoting hepatocellular carcinoma

The 5-year survival rate for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a deadly form of liver cancer, is quite low. Although drug therapy is successful, patients with advanced liver cancer frequently develop resistance because of the significant phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of these cells. The overexpression of drug efflux transporters, downstream adaptive responses, malfunctioning DNA damage repair, epigenetic modification, the tumor microenvironment, and the extracellular matrix can all be linked to drug resistance. The evolutionary process of autophagy, which is in charge of intracellular breakdown, is intimately linked to medication resistance in HCC. Autophagy is involved in both the promotion and suppression of cancer by influencing treatment resistance, metastasis, carcinogenesis, and the viability of stem cells. Certain autophagy regulators are employed in anticancer treatment; however, because of the dual functions of autophagy, their use is restricted, and therapeutic failure is increased. By focusing on autophagy, it is possible to reduce HCC expansion and metastasis, and enhance tumor cell reactivity to treatment. Macroautophagy, the best-characterized type of autophagy, involves the formation of a sequestering compartment termed a phagophore, which surrounds and encloses aberrant or superfluous components. The phagophore matures into a double-membrane autophagosome that delivers the cargo to the lysosome; lysosomes and autophagosomes fuse to degrade and recycle the cargo. Macroautophagy plays dual functions in both promoting and suppressing cancer in a variety of cancer types.

Excess glucose alone induces hepatocyte damage due to oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is a significant risk factor for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). With the increasing prevalence of type 2 DM and MASLD due to lifestyle changes, understanding their impact on liver health is crucial. However, the hepatocellular damage caused by glucose alone is unknown. This study investigates the effect of excess glucose on hepatocytes, focusing on oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress), apoptosis, autophagy, and cell proliferation. We treated an immortalized-human hepatocyte cell line with excess glucose and analyzed. Excess glucose induced oxidative stress and ER stress in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, leading to apoptosis. Oxidative stress and ER stress were independently induced by excess glucose. Proteasome inhibitors and palmitic acid exacerbated glucose-induced stress, leading to the formation of Mallory-Denk body-like inclusion bodies. Despite these stresses, autophagic flux was not altered. Excess glucose also caused DNA damage but did not affect cell proliferation. This suggests that glucose itself can contribute to the progression of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) and carcinogenesis of HCC in patients with type 2 DM. Managing blood glucose levels is crucial to prevent hepatocyte damage and associated complications.

Promising and challenging phytochemicals targeting LC3 mediated autophagy signaling in cancer therapy

BACKGROUND

Phytochemicals possess a wide range of anti-tumor properties, including the modulation of autophagy and regulation of programmed cell death. Autophagy is a critical process in cellular homeostasis and its dysregulation is associated with several pathological conditions, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes. In cancer, autophagy plays a dual role by either promoting tumor growth or suppressing it, depending on the cellular context. During autophagy, autophagosomes engulf cytoplasmic components such as proteins and organelles. LC3-II (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-II) is an established marker of autophagosome formation, making it central to autophagy monitoring in mammals.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the regulatory role of phytochemicals in LC3-mediated autophagy and their potential therapeutic impact on cancer. The review emphasizes the involvement of autophagy in tumor promotion and suppression, particularly focusing on autophagy-related signaling pathways like oxidative stress through the NRF2 pathway, and its implications for genomic stability in cancer development.

METHODS

The review focuses on a comprehensive analysis of bioactive compounds including Curcumin, Celastrol, Resveratrol, Kaempferol, Naringenin, Carvacrol, Farnesol, and Piperine. Literature on these compounds was examined to assess their influence on autophagy, LC3 expression, and tumor-related signaling pathways. A systematic literature search was conducted across databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science from inception to 2023. Studies were selected from prominent databases, focusing on their roles in cancer diagnosis and therapeutic interventions, particularly in relation to LC3-mediated mechanisms.

RESULTS

Phytochemicals have been shown to modulate autophagy through the regulation of LC3-II levels and autophagic flux in cancer cells. The interaction between autophagy and other cellular pathways such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and epigenetic modulation highlights the complex role of autophagy in tumor biology. For instance, Curcumin and Resveratrol have been reported to either induce or inhibit autophagy depending on cancer type, influencing tumor progression and therapeutic responses.

CONCLUSION

Targeting autophagy through LC3 modulation presents a promising strategy for cancer therapy. The dual role of autophagy in tumor suppression and promotion, however, necessitates careful consideration of the context in which autophagy is induced or inhibited. Future research should aim to delineate these context-specific roles and explore how phytochemicals can be optimized for therapeutic efficacy. Novel therapeutic strategies should focus on the use of bioactive compounds to fine-tune autophagy, thereby maximizing tumor suppression and inducing programmed cell death in cancer cells.

Glutamine deprivation in glioblastoma stem cells triggers autophagic SIRT3 degradation to epigenetically restrict CD133 expression and stemness

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly malignant brain tumor, and glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) are the primary cause of GBM heterogeneity, invasiveness, and resistance to therapy. Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) is mainly localized in the mitochondrial matrix and plays an important role in maintaining GSC stemness through cooperative interaction with the chaperone protein tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated protein 1 (TRAP1) to modulate mitochondrial respiration and oxidative stress. The present study aimed to further elucidate the specific mechanisms by which SIRT3 influences GSC stemness, including whether SIRT3 serves as an autophagy substrate and the mechanism of SIRT3 degradation. We first found that SIRT3 is enriched in CD133+ GSCs. Further experiments revealed that in addition to promoting mitochondrial respiration and reducing oxidative stress, SIRT3 maintains GSC stemness by epigenetically regulating CD133 expression via succinate. More importantly, we found that SIRT3 is degraded through the autophagy-lysosome pathway during GSC differentiation into GBM bulk tumor cells. GSCs are highly dependent on glutamine for survival, and in these cells, we found that glutamine deprivation triggers autophagic SIRT3 degradation to restrict CD133 expression, thereby disrupting the stemness of GSCs. Together our results reveal a novel mechanism by which SIRT3 regulates GSC stemness. We propose that glutamine restriction to trigger autophagic SIRT3 degradation offers a strategy to eliminate GSCs, which combined with other treatment methods may overcome GBM resistance to therapy as well as relapse.

Uncovering the connection between obesity and thyroid cancer: the therapeutic potential of adiponectin receptor agonist in the AdipoR2-ULK axis

Adiponectin, a unique adipose-derived factor, is significantly downregulated in obesity, making it a crucial target for tumor-related metabolic research. AdipoRon is a novel adiponectin receptor agonist with the advantages of a small molecular weight, high stability and a long half-life. By screening the cervical adipose tissue of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) patients with adipokine antibody array, we found that adiponectin was a potential correlation factor between obesity and PTC progression. AdipoRon has oral activity and is easily absorbed and delivered to target tissues. The effects of AdipoRon on thyroid cancer have not been reported. In this study, we identified adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1) and AdipoR2 on the surface of thyroid cancer cell lines. AdipoRon inhibited the proliferation and migration of thyroid cancer cells, limited energy metabolism in thyroid cancer cells, promoted differentiation of thyroid cancer cells, and induced autophagy and apoptosis. Mechanistic studies revealed that AdipoRon inhibited p-mTOR Ser2448 and p-p70S6K Thr389, and activated ULK1 and p-ULK1. ULK1 knockdown suppressed the effect of AdipoRon on LC3BII/I protein and lysosomes. AdipoR2 knockdown reduced AdipoRon-induced autophagy in thyroid cancer cells. This study is the first to demonstrate the role of AdipoRon in PTC. Our findings illustrate a previously unknown function and mechanism of the AdipoRon-AdipoR2-ULK/p-ULK1 axis in PTC and lay the foundation for clinical translation of AdipoRon to PTC. Targeting the AdipoRon-AdipoR2-ULK/p-ULK1 axis may represent a new therapeutic strategy for PTC.

Roles of clinical application of lenvatinib and its resistance mechanism in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (Review)

Lenvatinib (LEN) is a multi-target TKI, which plays a pivotal role in the treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The inevitable occurrence of drug resistance still prevents curative potential and is deleterious for the prognosis, and a growing body of studies is accumulating, which have devoted themselves to unveiling its underlying resistance mechanism and made some progress. The dysregulation of crucial signaling pathways, non-coding RNA and RNA modifications were proven to be associated with LEN resistance. A range of drugs were found to influence LEN therapeutic efficacy. In addition, the superiority of LEN combination therapy has been shown to potentially overcome the limitations of LEN monotherapy in a series of research, and a range of promising indicators for predicting treatment response and prognosis have been discovered in recent years. In this review, we summarize the latest developments in LEN resistance, the efficacy and safety of LEN combination therapy as well as associated indicators, which may provide new insight into its resistance as well as ideas in the treatment of advanced HCC.

Targeting cell death mechanisms: the potential of autophagy and ferroptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Ferroptosis is a type of cell death that plays a remarkable role in the growth and advancement of malignancies including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have a considerable impact on HCC by functioning as either oncogenes or suppressors. Recent research has demonstrated that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have the ability to control ferroptosis in HCC cells, hence impacting the advancement of tumors and the resistance of these cells to drugs. Autophagy is a mechanism that is conserved throughout evolution and plays a role in maintaining balance in the body under normal settings. Nevertheless, the occurrence of dysregulation of autophagy is evident in the progression of various human disorders, specifically cancer. Autophagy plays dual roles in cancer, potentially influencing both cell survival and cell death. HCC is a prevalent kind of liver cancer, and genetic mutations and changes in molecular pathways might worsen its advancement. The role of autophagy in HCC is a subject of debate, as it has the capacity to both repress and promote tumor growth. Autophagy activation can impact apoptosis, control proliferation and glucose metabolism, and facilitate tumor spread through EMT. Inhibiting autophagy can hinder the growth and spread of HCC and enhance the ability of tumor cells to respond to treatment. Autophagy in HCC is regulated by several signaling pathways, such as STAT3, Wnt, miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs. Utilizing anticancer drugs to target autophagy may have advantageous implications for the efficacy of cancer treatment.

Autophagy in aging-related diseases and cancer: Principles, regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Macroautophagy/autophagy is primarily accountable for the degradation of damaged organelles and toxic macromolecules in the cells. Regarding the essential function of autophagy for preserving cellular homeostasis, changes in, or dysfunction of, autophagy flux can lead to disease development. In the current paper, the complicated function of autophagy in aging-associated pathologies and cancer is evaluated, highlighting the underlying molecular mechanisms that can affect longevity and disease pathogenesis. As a natural biological process, a reduction in autophagy is observed with aging, resulting in an accumulation of cell damage and the development of different diseases, including neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. The MTOR, AMPK, and ATG proteins demonstrate changes during aging, and they are promising therapeutic targets. Insulin/IGF1, TOR, PKA, AKT/PKB, caloric restriction and mitochondrial respiration are vital for lifespan regulation and can modulate or have an interaction with autophagy. The specific types of autophagy, such as mitophagy that degrades mitochondria, can regulate aging by affecting these organelles and eliminating those mitochondria with genomic mutations. Autophagy and its specific types contribute to the regulation of carcinogenesis and they are able to dually enhance or decrease cancer progression. Cancer hallmarks, including proliferation, metastasis, therapy resistance and immune reactions, are tightly regulated by autophagy, supporting the conclusion that autophagy is a promising target in cancer therapy.

Genipin promotes the apoptosis and autophagy of neuroblastoma cells by suppressing the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway

This study investigated the underlying function and mechanism of genipin in neuroblastoma (NB). Using flow cytometry analysis and cytotoxicity tests, in vitro studies were conducted to assess the effects of genipin on the SK-N-SH cell line. The mechanism of action of genipin was explored through immunofluorescence staining, Western blotting, and caspase-3 activity assays. In addition, we also created a xenograft tumour model to investigate the effects of genipin in vivo. This research confirmed that genipin suppressed cell viability, induced apoptosis, and promoted autophagy, processes that are likely linked to the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway. Autophagy inhibition increases the sensitivity of SK-N-SH cells to genipin. Furthermore, combination treatment with a PI3K inhibitor enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of genipin. These results highlight the potential of genipin as a candidate drug for the treatment of NB.

SERPINH1 modulates apoptosis by inhibiting P62 ubiquitination degradation to promote bone metastasis of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most prevalent urogenital malignancies. Bone metastasis from PCa reduces patient survival rates significantly. There currently exists no effective treatment for bone metastatic PCa, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study performed transcriptomic screening on PCa bone metastasis specimens and intersection analysis in public databases and identified SERPINH1 as a potential target for treatment. SERPINH1 was found to be upregulated in PCa bone metastases and with poor prognosis, high Gleason score, and advanced metastatic status. SERPINH1 induced PCa cells' bone metastasis in vivo, promoted their proliferation, and mitigated apoptosis. Mechanistically, SERPINH1 bound to P62, reducing TRIM21-mediated K63-linked ubiquitination degradation of P62 and promoting proliferation and resistance to apoptosis of PCa. This study suggests the regulation of ubiquitination degradation of P62 by SERPINH1 that promotes PCa bone metastasis and can be considered as a potential target for treatment of bone metastatic PCa.

Role of Autophagy and AMPK in Cancer Stem Cells: Therapeutic Opportunities and Obstacles in Cancer

Cancer stem cells represent a resilient subset within the tumor microenvironment capable of differentiation, regeneration, and resistance to chemotherapeutic agents, often using dormancy as a shield. Their unique properties, including drug resistance and metastatic potential, pose challenges for effective targeting. These cells exploit certain metabolic processes for their maintenance and survival. One of these processes is autophagy, which generally helps in energy homeostasis but when hijacked by CSCs can help maintain their stemness. Thus, it is often referred as an Achilles heel in CSCs, as certain cancers tend to depend on autophagy for survival. Autophagy, while crucial for maintaining stemness in cancer stem cells (CSCs), can also serve as a vulnerability in certain contexts, making it a complex target for therapy. Regulators of autophagy like AMPK (5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase) also play a crucial role in maintaining CSCs stemness by helping CSCs in metabolic reprogramming in harsh environments. The purpose of this review is to elucidate the interplay between autophagy and AMPK in CSCs, highlighting the challenges in targeting autophagy and discussing therapeutic strategies to overcome these limitations. This review focuses on previous research on autophagy and its regulators in cancer biology, particularly in CSCs, addresses the remaining unanswered questions, and potential targets for therapy are also brought to attention.

VAMP2 controls murine epidermal differentiation and carcinogenesis by regulation of nucleophagy

Differentiation of murine epidermal stem/progenitor cells involves the permanent withdrawal from the cell cycle, the synthesis of various protein and lipid components for the cornified envelope, and the controlled dissolution of cellular organelles and nuclei. Deregulated epidermal differentiation contributes to the development of various skin diseases, including skin cancers. With a genome-wide shRNA screen, we identified vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2) as a critical factor involved in skin differentiation. Deletion of VAMP2 leads to aberrant skin stratification and enucleation in vivo. With quantitative proteomics, we further identified an autophagy protein, focal adhesion kinase family interacting protein of 200 kDa (FIP200), as a binding partner of VAMP2. Additionally, we showed that both VAMP2 and FIP200 are critical for murine keratinocyte enucleation and epidermal differentiation. Loss of VAMP2 or FIP200 enhances cutaneous carcinogenesis in vivo. Together, our findings identify important molecular mechanisms underlying epidermal differentiation and skin tumorigenesis.

Terf2ip deficiency accelerates non-alcoholic steatohepatitis through regulating lipophagy and fatty acid oxidation via Sirt1/AMPK pathway

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Our previous study has demonstrated that Telomeric repeat-binding factor 2-interacting protein 1(Terf2ip), played an important role in hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury. This study is aimed to explore the function and mechanism of Terf2ip in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

METHODS

The expression of Terf2ip was detected in liver tissue samples obtained from patients diagnosed with NASH. Mice NASH models were constructed by fed with high-fat diet (HFD) or methionine/choline deficient diet (MCD) in Terf2ip knockout and wild type (WT) mice. To further investigate the role of Terf2ip in NASH, adeno-associated viruses (AAV)-Terf2ip was administrated to mice.

RESULTS

We observed a significant down-regulation of Terf2ip levels in the livers of NASH patients and mice NASH models. Terf2ip deficiency was associated with an exacerbation of hepatic steatosis in mice under HFD or MCD. Additionally, Terf2ip deficiency impaired lipophagy and fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in NASH models. Mechanically, we discovered that Terf2ip bound to the promoter region of Sirt1 to regulate Sirt1/AMPK pathway activation. As a result, Terf2ip deficiency was shown to inhibit lipophagy through the AMPK pathway, while the activation of Sirt1 alleviated steatohepatitis in the livers of mice. Finally, re-expression of Terf2ip in hepatocyes alleviated liver steatosis, inflammation, and restored lipophagy.

CONCLUSIONS

These results revealed that Terf2ip played a protective role in the progression of NASH through regulating lipophagy and FAO by binding to Sirt1 promoter. Our findings provided a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of NASH.

Aloperine Suppresses Cancer Progression by Interacting with VPS4A to Inhibit Autophagosome-lysosome Fusion in NSCLC

Aloperine (ALO), a quinolizidine-type alkaloid isolated from a natural Chinese herb, has shown promising antitumor effects. Nevertheless, its common mechanism of action and specific target remain elusive. Here, it is demonstrated that ALO inhibits the proliferation and migration of non-small cell lung cancer cell lines in vitro and the tumor development in several mouse tumor models in vivo. Mechanistically, ALO inhibits the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes and the autophagic flux, leading to the accumulation of sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1) and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby inducing tumor cell apoptosis and preventing tumor growth. Knockdown of SQSTM1 in cells inhibits ROS production and reverses ALO-induced cell apoptosis. Furthermore, VPS4A is identified as a direct target of ALO, and the amino acids F153 and D263 of VPS4A are confirmed as the binding sites for ALO. Knockout of VPS4A in H1299 cells demonstrates a similar biological effect as ALO treatment. Additionally, ALO enhances the efficacy of the anti-PD-L1/TGF-β bispecific antibody in inhibiting LLC-derived subcutaneous tumor models. Thus, ALO is first identified as a novel late-stage autophagy inhibitor that triggers tumor cell death by targeting VPS4A.

SNX14 inhibits autophagy via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling cascade in breast cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Sorting nexin 14 (SNX14) is a member of the sorting junction protein family. Its specific roles in cancer development remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to determine the effects and underlying mechanisms of SNX14 on autophagy of breast cancer cells to aid in the therapeutic treatment of breast cancer.

METHODS

In this study, we performed in vitro experiments to determine the effect of SNX14 on breast cancer cell growth. Moreover, we used an MCF7 breast cancer tumor-bearing mouse model to confirm the effect of SNX14 on tumor cell growth in vivo. We also performed western blotting and quantitative polymerase chain reaction to identify the mechanism by which SNX14 affects breast cancer MCF7 cells.

RESULTS

We found that SNX14 regulated the onset and progression of breast cancer by promoting the proliferation and inhibiting the autophagy of MCF7 breast cancer cells. In vivo experiments further confirmed that SNX14 knockdown inhibited the tumorigenicity and inhibited the growth of tumor cells in tumor tissues of nude mice. In addition, western blotting analysis revealed that SNX14 modulate the autophagy of MCF7 breast cancer cells via the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that SNX14 is an essential tumor-promoting factor in the development of breast cancer.

Reactive Oxygen Species Modulation in the Current Landscape of Anticancer Therapies

Significance: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated during mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, and are tightly controlled through homeostatic mechanisms to maintain intracellular redox, regulating growth and proliferation in healthy cells. However, ROS production is perturbed in cancers where abnormal accumulation of ROS leads to oxidative stress and genomic instability, triggering oncogenic signaling pathways on one hand, while increasing oxidative damage and triggering ROS-dependent death signaling on the other. Recent Advances: Our review illuminates how critical interactions between ROS and oncogenic signaling, the tumor microenvironment, and DNA damage response (DDR) pathways have led to interest in ROS modulation as a means of enhancing existing anticancer strategies and developing new therapeutic opportunities. Critical Issues: ROS equilibrium exists via a delicate balance of pro-oxidant and antioxidant species within cells. "Antioxidant" approaches have been explored mainly in the form of chemoprevention, but there is insufficient evidence to advocate its routine application. More progress has been made via the "pro-oxidant" approach of targeting cancer vulnerabilities and inducing oxidative stress. Various therapeutic modalities have employed this approach, including direct ROS-inducing agents, chemotherapy, targeted therapies, DDR therapies, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Finally, emerging delivery systems such as "nanosensitizers" as radiotherapy enhancers are currently in development. Future Directions: While approaches designed to induce ROS have shown considerable promise in selectively targeting cancer cells and dealing with resistance to conventional therapies, most are still in early phases of development and challenges remain. Further research should endeavor to refine treatment strategies, optimize drug combinations, and identify predictive biomarkers of ROS-based cancer therapies.

Comparative time-series multi-omics analyses suggest H1.2 involvement in anoxic adaptation and cancer resistance

The naked mole rat (NMR), Heterocephalus glaber, is known as the longest-lived rodent and is extraordinarily resistant to hypoxia and cancer. Here, both NMR embryonic fibroblasts (NEFs) and their mouse counterparts (MEFs) were subjected to anoxic conditions (0% O2, 5% CO2). A combination of comparative transcriptomics and proteomics was then employed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Notably, we observed distinct levels of histone H1.2 (encoded by HIST1H1C) accumulation between NEFs and MEFs. Subsequent mechanistic analyses showed that higher H1.2 expression in NEFs was associated with the lower expression of its inhibitor, PARP1. Additionally, we discovered that H1.2 can directly interact with HIF-1α PAS domains, thereby promoting the expression of HIF-1α through facilitating the dimerization with HIF-1β. The overexpression of H1.2 was also found to trigger autophagy and to suppress the migration of cancer cells, as well as the formation of xenograft tumors, via the NRF2/P62 signaling pathway. Moreover, an engineered H1.2 knock-in mouse model exhibited significantly extended survival in hypoxic conditions (4% O2) and showed a reduced rate of tumor formation. Collectively, our results indicate a potential mechanistic link between H1.2 and the dual phenomena of anoxic adaptation and cancer resistance.

Anticancer Activity of Delta-Tocotrienol in Human Hepatocarcinoma: Involvement of Autophagy Induction

(1) Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the predominant form of primary liver cancer. Surgical resection, tumor ablation, and liver transplantation are curative treatments indicated for early-stage HCC. The management of intermediate and advanced stages of pathology is based on the use of systemic therapies which often show important side effects. Vitamin E-derivative tocotrienols (TTs) play antitumoral properties in different tumors. Here, we analyzed the activity of delta-TT (δ-TT) on HCC human cell lines. (2) We analyzed the ability of δ-TT to trigger apoptosis, to induce oxidative stress, autophagy, and mitophagy in HepG2 cell line. We evaluated the correlation between the activation of autophagy with the ability of δ-TT to induce cell death. (3) The data obtained demonstrate that δ-TT exerts an antiproliferative and proapoptotic effect in HCC cells. Furthermore, δ-TT induces the release of mitochondrial ROS and causes a structural and functional alteration of the mitochondria compatible with a fission process. Finally, δ-TT triggers selective autophagy process removing dysfunctional mitochondria. Inhibition of autophagy reversed the cytotoxic action of δ-TT. (4) Our results demonstrate that δ-TT through the activation of autophagy could represent a potential new approach in the treatment of advanced HCC.

Chemotherapy's effects on autophagy in the treatment of Hodgkin's lymphoma: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Classical Hodgkin Lymphomas (HL) are a unique malignant growth with an excellent initial prognosis. However, 10-30% of patients will still relapse after remission. One primary cellular function that has been the focus of tumor progression is autophagy. This process can preserve cellular homeostasis under stressful conditions. Several studies have shown that autophagy may play a role in developing HL. Therefore, this review aimed to explore chemotherapy's effect on autophagy in HL, and the effects of autophagy on HL.

METHODS

A scoping review in line with the published PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) was conducted. A literature search was conducted on the MEDLINE database and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL). All results were retrieved and screened, and the resulting articles were synthesized narratively.

RESULTS

The results showed that some cancer chemotherapy also induces autophagic flux. Although the data on HL is limited, since the mechanisms of action of these drugs are similar, we can infer a similar relationship. However, this increased autophagy activity may reflect a mechanism for increasing tumor growth or a cellular compensation to inhibit its growth. Although evidence supports both views, we argued that autophagy allowed cancer cells to resist cell death, mainly due to DNA damage caused by cytotoxic drugs.

CONCLUSION

Autophagy reflects the cell's adaptation to survive and explains why chemotherapy generally induces autophagy functions. However, further research on autophagy inhibition is needed as it presents a viable treatment strategy, especially against drug-resistant populations that may arise from HL chemotherapy regimens.

Enhancing Therapeutic Efficacy in Cancer Treatment: Integrating Nanomedicine with Autophagy Inhibition Strategies

The complicated stepwise lysosomal degradation process known as autophagy is in charge of destroying and eliminating damaged organelles and defective cytoplasmic components. This mechanism promotes metabolic adaptability and nutrition recycling. Autophagy functions as a quality control mechanism in cells that support homeostasis and redox balance under normal circumstances. However, the role of autophagy in cancer is controversial because, mostly depending on the stage of the tumor, it may either suppress or support the disease. While autophagy delays the onset of tumors and slows the dissemination of cancer in the early stages of tumorigenesis, numerous studies demonstrate that autophagy promotes the development and spread of tumors as well as the evolution and development of resistance to several anticancer drugs in advanced cancer stages. In this Review, we primarily emphasize the therapeutic role of autophagy inhibition in improving the treatment of multiple cancers and give a broad overview of how its inhibition modulates cancer responses. There have been various attempts to inhibit autophagy, including the use of autophagy inhibitor drugs, gene silencing therapy (RNA interference), and nanoparticles. In this Review, all these topics are thoroughly covered and illustrated by recent studies and field investigations.

The role of Atg5 gene in tumorigenesis under autophagy deficiency conditions

Autophagy is a self-recycling machinery to maintain cellular homeostasis by degrading harmful materials in the cell. Autophagy-related gene 5 (Atg5) is required for autophagosome maturation. However, the role of Atg5 in tumorigenesis under autophagy deficient conditions remains unclear. This study focused on the autophagy-independent role of Atg5 and the underlying mechanism in tumorigenesis. We demonstrated that knockout of autophagy-related genes including Atg5, Atg7, Atg9, and p62 in mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells consistently decreased cell proliferation and motility, implying that autophagy is required to maintain diverse cellular functions. An Atg7 knockout MEF (Atg7-/- MEF) cell line representing deprivation of autophagy function was used to clarify the role of Atg5 transgene in tumorigenesis. We found that Atg5-overexpressed Atg7-/-MEF (clone A) showed increased cell proliferation, colony formation, and migration under autophagy deficient conditions. Accordingly, rescuing the autophagy deficiency of clone A by overexpression of Atg7 gene shifts the role of Atg5 from pro-tumor to anti-tumor status, indicating the dual role of Atg5 in tumorigenesis. Notably, the xenograft mouse model showed that clone A of Atg5-overexpressed Atg7-/- MEF cells induced temporal tumor formation, but could not prolong further tumor growth. Finally, biomechanical analysis disclosed increased Wnt5a secretion and p-JNK expression along with decreased β-catenin expression. In summary, Atg5 functions as a tumor suppressor to protect the cell under normal conditions. In contrast, Atg5 shifts to a pro-tumor status under autophagy deprivation conditions.

Role of Tumor Cell Intrinsic and Host Autophagy in Cancer

Macroautophagy (autophagy hereafter) is an intracellular nutrient scavenging pathway induced by starvation and other stressors whereby cellular components such as organelles are captured in double-membrane vesicles (autophagosomes), whereupon their contents are degraded through fusion with lysosomes. Two main purposes of autophagy are to recycle the intracellular breakdown products to sustain metabolism and survival during starvation and to eliminate damaged or excess cellular components to suppress inflammation and maintain homeostasis. In contrast to most normal cells and tissues in the fed state, tumor cells up-regulate autophagy to promote their growth, survival, and malignancy. This tumor-cell-autonomous autophagy supports elevated metabolic demand and suppresses tumoricidal activation of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Tumor-cell-nonautonomous (e.g., host) autophagy also supports tumor growth by maintaining essential tumor nutrients in the circulation and tumor microenvironment and by suppressing an antitumor immune response. In the setting of cancer therapy, autophagy is a resistance mechanism to chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. Thus, tumor and host autophagy are protumorigenic and autophagy inhibition is being examined as a novel therapeutic approach to treat cancer.

Harnessing autophagy: A potential breakthrough in digestive disease treatment

Autophagy, a conserved cellular degradation process, is crucial for various cellular processes such as immune responses, inflammation, metabolic and oxidative stress adaptation, cell proliferation, development, and tissue repair and remodeling. Dysregulation of autophagy is suspected in numerous diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, digestive disorders, metabolic syndromes, and infectious and inflammatory diseases. If autophagy is disrupted, for example, this can have serious consequences and lead to chronic inflammation and tissue damage, as occurs in diseases such as Chron's disease and ulcerative colitis. On the other hand, the influence of autophagy on the development and progression of cancer is not clear. Autophagy can both suppress and promote the progression and metastasis of cancer at various stages. From inflammatory bowel diseases to gastrointestinal cancer, researchers are discovering the intricate role of autophagy in maintaining gut health and its potential as a therapeutic target. Researchers should carefully consider the nature and progression of diseases such as cancer when trying to determine whether inhibiting or stimulating autophagy is likely to be beneficial. Multidisciplinary approaches that combine cutting-edge research with clinical expertise are key to unlocking the full therapeutic potential of autophagy in digestive diseases.

Tumor Dormancy and Reactivation: The Role of Heat Shock Proteins

Tumors are a heterogeneous group of cell masses originating in various organs or tissues. The cellular composition of the tumor cell mass interacts in an intricate manner, influenced by humoral, genetic, molecular, and tumor microenvironment cues that dictate tumor growth or suppression. As a result, tumors undergo a period of a dormant state before their clinically discernible stage, which surpasses the clinical dormancy threshold. Moreover, as a genetically imprinted strategy, early-seeder cells, a distinct population of tumor cells, break off to dock nearby or extravasate into blood vessels to secondary tissues, where they form disseminated solitary dormant tumor cells with reversible capacity. Among the various mechanisms underlying the dormant tumor mass and dormant tumor cell formation, heat shock proteins (HSPs) might play one of the most important roles in how the dormancy program plays out. It is known that numerous aberrant cellular processes, such as malignant transformation, cancer cell stemness, tumor invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and signaling pathway maintenance, are influenced by the HSPs. An accumulating body of knowledge suggests that HSPs may be involved in the angiogenic switch, immune editing, and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling cascades, crucial genetically imprinted strategies important to the tumor dormancy initiation and dormancy maintenance program. In this review, we highlight the biological events that orchestrate the dormancy state and the body of work that has been conducted on the dynamics of HSPs in a tumor mass, as well as tumor cell dormancy and reactivation. Additionally, we propose a conceptual framework that could possibly underlie dormant tumor reactivation in metastatic relapse.