Root-growth behavior of the Arabidopsis mutant rgr1. Roles of gravitropism and circumnutation in the waving/coiling phenomenon

On the mechanical origins of waving, coiling and skewing in Arabidopsis thaliana roots

By masterfully balancing directed growth and passive mechanics, plant roots are remarkably capable of navigating complex heterogeneous environments to find resources. Here, we present a theoretical and numerical framework which allows us to interrogate and simulate the mechanical impact of solid interfaces on the growth pattern of plant organs. We focus on the well-known waving, coiling, and skewing patterns exhibited by roots of Arabidopsis thaliana when grown on inclined surfaces, serving as a minimal model of the intricate interplay with solid substrates. By modeling growing slender organs as Cosserat rods that mechanically interact with the environment, our simulations verify hypotheses of waving and coiling arising from the combination of active gravitropism and passive root-plane responses. Skewing is instead related to intrinsic twist due to cell file rotation. Numerical investigations are outfitted with an analytical framework that consistently relates transitions between straight, waving, coiling, and skewing patterns with substrate tilt angle. Simulations are found to corroborate theory and recapitulate a host of reported experimental observations, thus providing a systematic approach for studying in silico plant organs behavior in relation to their environment.

Arabidopsis thaliana RPL13aC affects root system architecture through shoot potassium accumulation

Plant root system architecture shows complex patterns adapting to different nutritional conditions. In Arabidopsis thaliana, root slanting is a behaviour that is observed when plants are grown on a solid agar plate vertically. However, the regulatory mechanisms of root slanting in response to nutrient conditions are not fully understood. In this study, we found that mutants of A. thaliana ribosome protein RPL13aC, which is expressed in root tips and leaves, exhibit a decreased root-slanting phenotype. Ionomic analysis revealed that rpl13ac mutants have a reduced K content in shoots but not in roots. Because K+ availability has been suggested to affect root coiling, we hypothesized that the decreased root slanting of rpl13ac mutants is caused by the decrease in K content in their shoots. Decapitating shoots or limiting K supply dramatically decreased root slanting in wild-type (WT) plants. We found that the expression of HIGH-AFFINITY K+ TRANSPORTER 5 (HAK5) significantly decreased in the roots of rpl13ac mutants. Mutants of hak5 showed decreased shoot K contents and decreased root slanting, supporting that the decreased shoot K+ accumulation results in less root slanting. K+ replenishment to the shoots of rpl13ac, hak5 mutants and K-starved WT plants recovered their root slanting significantly. These results indicate that plants adjust root slanting in response to K+ accumulation in shoots. Further analysis showed that rpl13ac mutants have abnormal thigmotropic responses, which may be responsible for their defects in root slanting. Altogether, these results revealed K+ -dependent mechanisms that affect root system architecture.

Perspectives on Computation in Plants

Plants thrive in virtually all natural and human-adapted environments and are becoming popular models for developing robotics systems because of their strategies of morphological and behavioral adaptation. Such adaptation and high plasticity offer new approaches for designing, modeling, and controlling artificial systems acting in unstructured scenarios. At the same time, the development of artifacts based on their working principles reveals how plants promote innovative approaches for preservation and management plans and opens new applications for engineering-driven plant science. Environmentally mediated growth patterns (e.g., tropisms) are clear examples of adaptive behaviors displayed through morphological phenotyping. Plants also create networks with other plants through subterranean roots-fungi symbiosis and use these networks to exchange resources or warning signals. This article discusses the functional behaviors of plants and shows the close similarities with a perceptron-like model that could act as a behavior-based control model in plants. We begin by analyzing communication rules and growth behaviors of plants; we then show how we translated plant behaviors into algorithmic solutions for bioinspired robot controllers; and finally, we discuss how those solutions can be extended to embrace original approaches to networking and robotics control architectures.

Loss of Multiple ABCB Auxin Transporters Recapitulates the Major twisted dwarf 1 Phenotypes in Arabidopsis thaliana

FK506-BINDING PROTEIN 42/TWISTED DWARF 1 (FKBP42/TWD1) directly regulates cellular trafficking and activation of multiple ATP-BINDING CASSETTE (ABC) transporters from the ABCB and ABCC subfamilies. abcb1 abcb19 double mutants exhibit remarkable phenotypic overlap with twd1 including severe dwarfism, stamen elongation defects, and compact circinate leaves; however, twd1 mutants exhibit greater loss of polar auxin transport and additional helical twisting of roots, inflorescences, and siliques. As abcc1 abcc2 mutants do not exhibit any visible phenotypes and TWD1 does not interact with PIN or AUX1/LAX auxin transporters, loss of function of other ABCB auxin transporters is hypothesized to underly the remaining morphological phenotypes. Here, gene expression, mutant analyses, pharmacological inhibitor studies, auxin transport assays, and direct auxin quantitations were used to determine the relative contributions of loss of other reported ABCB auxin transporters (4, 6, 11, 14, 20, and 21) to twd1 phenotypes. From these analyses, the additional reduction in plant height and the twisted inflorescence, root, and silique phenotypes observed in twd1 compared to abcb1 abcb19 result from loss of ABCB6 and ABCB20 function. Additionally, abcb6 abcb20 root twisting exhibited the same sensitivity to the auxin transport inhibitor 1-napthalthalamic acid as twd1 suggesting they are the primary contributors to these auxin-dependent organ twisting phenotypes. The lack of obvious phenotypes in higher order abcb4 and abcb21 mutants suggests that the functional loss of these transporters does not contribute to twd1 root or shoot twisting. Analyses of ABCB11 and ABCB14 function revealed capacity for auxin transport; however, their activities are readily outcompeted by other substrates, suggesting alternate functions in planta, consistent with a spectrum of relative substrate affinities among ABCB transporters. Overall, the results presented here suggest that the ABCB1/19 and ABCB6/20 pairs represent the primary long-distance ABCB auxin transporters in Arabidopsis and account for all reported twd1 morphological phenotypes. Other ABCB transporters appear to participate in highly localized auxin streams or mobilize alternate transport substrates.

Mechanism and function of root circumnutation

Early root growth is critical for plant establishment and survival. We have identified a molecular pathway required for helical root tip movement known as circumnutation. Here, we report a multiscale investigation of the regulation and function of this phenomenon. We identify key cell signaling events comprising interaction of the ethylene, cytokinin, and auxin hormone signaling pathways. We identify the gene Oryza sativa histidine kinase-1 (HK1) as well as the auxin influx carrier gene OsAUX1 as essential regulators of this process in rice. Robophysical modeling and growth challenge experiments indicate circumnutation is critical for seedling establishment in rocky soil, consistent with the long-standing hypothesis that root circumnutation facilitates growth past obstacles. Thus, the integration of robotics, physics, and biology has elucidated the functional importance of root circumnutation and uncovered the molecular mechanisms underlying its regulation.

A Method Enabling Comprehensive Isolation of Arabidopsis Mutants Exhibiting Unusual Root Mechanical Behavior

Root penetration into soils is fundamental for land plants to support their own aboveground parts and forage water and nutrients. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying root mechanical penetration, mutants defective in this behavior need to be comprehensively isolated; however, established methods are currently scarce. We herein report a method to screen for these mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana and present their phenotypes. We isolated five mutants using this method, tentatively named creep1 to creep5, the primary roots of which crept over the surface of horizontal hard medium that hampered penetration by the primary root of the wild type, thereby forcing it to spring up on the surface and die. By examining root skewing, which is induced by a touch stimulation that is generated as the primary roots grow along a vertical impenetrable surface, the five creep mutants were subdivided into three groups, namely mutants with the primary root skewing leftward, those skewing rightward, and that growing dispersedly. While the majority of wild type primary roots skewed slightly leftward, nearly half of the primary roots of creep1 and creep5 skewed rightward as viewed from above. The primary roots of creep4 displayed scattered growth, while those of creep2 and creep3 showed a similar phenotype to the wild type primary roots. These results demonstrate the potential of the method developed herein to isolate various mutants that will be useful for investigating root mechanical behavior regulation not only in Arabidopsis, but also in major crops with economical value.

Abscisic Acid Regulates the Root Growth Trajectory by Reducing Auxin Transporter PIN2 Protein Levels in Arabidopsis thaliana

The root is in direct contact with soil. Modulation of root growth in response to alterations in soil conditions is pivotal for plant adaptation. Extensive research has been conducted concerning the adjustment of root elongation and architecture in response to environmental factors. However, little is known about the modulation of the root growth trajectory, as well as its hormonal mechanism. Here we report that abscisic acid (ABA) participated in controlling root growth trajectory. The roots upon ABA treatment or from ABA-accumulation double mutant cyp707a1,3 exhibit agravitropism-like growth pattern (wavy growth trajectory). The agravitropism-like phenotype is mainly ascribed to the compromised shootward transportation of auxin since we detected a reduced fluorescence intensity of auxin reporter DR5:VENUS in the root epidermis upon exogenous ABA application or in the endogenous ABA-accumulation double mutant cyp707a1,3. We then tried to decipher the mechanism by which ABA suppressed shootward auxin transport. The membrane abundance of PIN2, a facilitator of shootward auxin transport, was significantly reduced following ABA treatment and in cyp707a1,3. Finally, we revealed that ABA reduced the membrane PIN2 intensity through suppressing the PIN2 expression rather than accelerating PIN2 degradation. Ultimately, our results suggest a pivotal role for ABA in the root growth trajectory and the hormonal interactions orchestrating this process.

Optimal control of plant root tip dynamics in soil

This paper aims to propose a novel approach to model the dynamics of objects that move within the soil, e.g. plants roots. One can assume that external forces are significant only at the tip of the roots, where the plant's growth is actuated. We formulate an optimal control problem that minimises the energy spent by a growing root subject to physical constraints imposed by the surrounding soil at the tip. We study the motion strategy adopted by plant roots to facilitate penetration into the soil, which we hypothesize to be a circumnutation movement. By solving the proposed optimal control problem numerically, we validate the hypothesis that plant roots adopt a circumnutation motion pattern to reduce soil penetration resistance during growth. The proposed formalisation could be applied to replicate such a biological behaviour in robotic systems, to adopt the most efficient strategy for autonomous devices in soil exploration.

A human pathogenic bacterium Shigella proliferates in plants through adoption of type III effectors for shigellosis

Shigella, which infects primates, can be transmitted via fresh vegetables; however, its molecular interactions with plants have not been elucidated. Here, we show that four Shigella strains, Shigella boydii, Shigella sonnei, Shigella flexneri 2a, and S. flexneri 5a, proliferate at different levels in Arabidopsis thaliana. Microscopic studies revealed that these bacteria were present inside leaves and damaged plant cells. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged S. boydii and S. flexneri 5a colonized leaves only, whereas S. flexneri 2a colonized both leaves and roots. Using Shigella mutants lacking type III secretion systems (T3SSs), we found that T3SSs that regulate the pathogenesis of shigellosis in humans also play a central role in bacterial proliferation in Arabidopsis. Strikingly, the immunosuppressive activity of two T3S effectors, OspF and OspG, was required for proliferation of Shigella in Arabidopsis. Of note, delivery of OspF or OspG effectors inside plant cells upon Shigella inoculation was confirmed using a split GFP system. These findings demonstrate that the human pathogen Shigella can proliferate in plants by adapting immunosuppressive machinery used in the original host human.

Calcium signals are necessary to establish auxin transporter polarity in a plant stem cell niche

In plants mechanical signals pattern morphogenesis through the polar transport of the hormone auxin and through regulation of interphase microtubule (MT) orientation. To date, the mechanisms by which such signals induce changes in cell polarity remain unknown. Through a combination of time-lapse imaging, and chemical and mechanical perturbations, we show that mechanical stimulation of the SAM causes transient changes in cytoplasmic calcium ion concentration (Ca²⁺) and that transient Ca²⁺ response is required for downstream changes in PIN-FORMED 1 (PIN1) polarity. We also find that dynamic changes in Ca²⁺ occur during development of the SAM and this Ca²⁺ response is required for changes in PIN1 polarity, though not sufficient. In contrast, we find that Ca²⁺ is not necessary for the response of MTs to mechanical perturbations revealing that Ca²⁺ specifically acts downstream of mechanics to regulate PIN1 polarity response.

Auxin transport and microtubule orientation respond to mechanical stimulation at the shoot apical meristem. Here Li et al. show that mechanical stimulation causes cytosolic calcium concentration transients, and preventing such changes impairs reorientation of the PIN1 auxin efflux carrier, but not of microtubules.

Regulation of Root Angle and Gravitropism

Regulation of plant root angle is critical for obtaining nutrients and water and is an important trait for plant breeding. A plant’s final, long-term root angle is the net result of a complex series of decisions made by a root tip in response to changes in nutrient availability, impediments, the gravity vector and other stimuli. When a root tip is displaced from the gravity vector, the short-term process of gravitropism results in rapid reorientation of the root toward the vertical. Here, we explore both short- and long-term regulation of root growth angle, using natural variation in tomato to identify shared and separate genetic features of the two responses. Mapping of expression quantitative trait loci mapping and leveraging natural variation between and within species including Arabidopsis suggest a role for PURPLE ACID PHOSPHATASE 27 and CELL DIVISION CYCLE 73 in determining root angle.

An efficient soil penetration strategy for explorative robots inspired by plant root circumnutation movements

This paper presents a comparative analysis in terms of energy required by an artificial probe to penetrate soil implementing two different strategies: a straight penetration movement and a circumnutation, which is an oscillatory movement performed by plant roots. The role of circumnutations in plant roots is still debated. We hypothesized that circumnutation movements can help roots in penetrating soil, and validated our assumption by testing the probe at three distinct soil densities and using various combinations of circumnutation amplitudes and periods for each soil. The comparison was based on the total work done by the system while circumnutating at its tip level with respect to that shown by the same system in straight penetration. The total energy evaluation confirmed an improvement obtained by circumnutations up to 33%. We also proposed a fitting model for our experimental data that was used to estimate energy needed by the probe to penetrate soil at different dimensions and circumnutation amplitudes. Results showed the existence of a trade-off among penetration velocity, circumnutation period, and amplitude toward an energy consumption optimization, expressed by the lead angle of the helical path that should stay in the range between 46° and 65°. Moreover, circumnutations with appropriate amplitude (~10°) and period (~80 s) values were more efficient than straight penetration also at different probe tip dimensions, up to a threshold diameter (from 2 mm to 55 mm). Based on the obtained results, we speculated that circumnutations can represent a strategy used by plant roots to reduce the pressure and energy needed to penetrate soil. The translation of this biological feature in robotic systems will allow improving their energetic efficiency in digging tasks, and thus open new scenarios for use in search and rescue, environmental monitoring, and soil exploration.

Inhibition of auxin transport and auxin signaling and treatment with far red light induces root coiling in the phospholipase-A mutant ppla-I-1. Significance for surface penetration?

When grown on a non-penetretable at a surface angle of 45°, Arabidopsis roots form wave-like structures and, in wild type rarely, but in certain mutants the tip root even may form circles. These circles are called coils. The formation of coils depends on the complex interaction of circumnutation, gravitropism and negative thigmotropism where - at least - gravitropism is intimately linked to auxin transport and signaling. The knockout mutant of patatin-related phospholipase-AI-1 (pplaI-1) is an auxin-signaling mutant which forms moderately increased numbers of coils on tilted agar plates. We tested the effects of the auxin efflux transport inhibitor NPA (1-naphthylphtalamic acid) and of the influx transport inhibitor 1-NOA (1-naphthoxyacetic acid) which both further increased root coil formation. The pPLAI-1 inhibitors HELSS (haloenol lactone suicide substrate=E-6-(bromomethylene)tetrahydro-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-pyran-2-one) and ETYA (eicosatetraynoic acid) which are auxin signaling inhibitors also increased coil formation. In addition, far red light treatment increased coil formation. The results point out that a disturbance of auxin transport and signaling is one potential cause for root coils. As we show that the mutant pplaI-1 penetrates horizontal agar plates better than wild type plants root movements may help penetrating the soil.

Identification of Polymorphisms Associated with Drought Adaptation QTL in Brassica napus by Resequencing

Brassica napus is a globally important oilseed for which little is known about the genetics of drought adaptation. We previously mapped twelve quantitative trait loci (QTL) underlying drought-related traits in a biparental mapping population created from a cross between winter and spring B. napus cultivars. Here we resequence the genomes of the mapping population parents to identify genetic diversity across the genome and within QTL regions. We sequenced each parental cultivar on the Illumina HiSeq platform to a minimum depth of 23 × and performed a reference based assembly in order to describe the molecular variation differentiating them at the scale of the genome, QTL and gene. Genome-wide patterns of variation were characterized by an overall higher single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) density in the A genome and a higher ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions in the C genome. Nonsynonymous substitutions were used to categorize gene ontology terms differentiating the parent genomes along with a list of putative functional variants contained within each QTL. Marker assays were developed for several of the discovered polymorphisms within a pleiotropic QTL on chromosome A10. QTL analysis with the new, denser map showed the most associated marker to be that developed from an insertion/deletion polymorphism located in the candidate gene Bna.FLC.A10, and it was the only candidate within the QTL interval with observed polymorphism. Together, these results provide a glimpse of genome-wide variation differentiating annual and biennial B. napus ecotypes as well as a better understanding of the genetic basis of root and drought phenotypes.

Mutants of phospholipase A (pPLA-I) have a red light and auxin phenotype

pPLA-I is the evolutionarily oldest patatin-related phospholipase A (pPLA) in plants, which have previously been implicated to function in auxin and defence signalling. Molecular and physiological analysis of two allelic null mutants for pPLA-I [ppla-I-1 in Wassilewskija (Ws) and ppla-I-3 in Columbia (Col) ] revealed pPLA-I functions in auxin and light signalling. The enzyme is localized in the cytosol and to membranes. After auxin application expression of early auxin-induced genes is significantly slower compared with wild type and both alleles show a slower gravitropic response of hypocotyls, indicating compromised auxin signalling. Additionally, phytochrome-modulated responses like abrogation of gravitropism, enhancement of phototropism and growth in far red-enriched light are decreased in both alleles. While early flowering, root coils and delayed phototropism are only observed in the Ws mutant devoid of phyD, the light-related phenotypes observed in both alleles point to an involvement of pPLA-I in phytochrome signalling.

Gravity-dependent differentiation and root coils in Arabidopsis thaliana wild type and phospholipase-A-I knockdown mutant grown on the International Space Station

Arabidopsis roots on 45° tilted agar in 1-g grow in wave-like figures. In addition to waves, formation of root coils is observed in several mutants compromised in gravitropism and/or auxin transport. The knockdown mutant ppla-I-1 of patatin-related phospholipase-A-I is delayed in root gravitropism and forms increased numbers of root coils. Three known factors contribute to waving: circumnutation, gravisensing and negative thigmotropism. In microgravity, deprivation of wild type (WT) and mutant roots of gravisensing and thigmotropism and circumnutation (known to slow down in microgravity, and could potentially lead to fewer waves or increased coiling in both WT and mutant). To resolve this, mutant ppla-I-1 and WT were grown in the BIOLAB facility in the International Space Station. In 1-g, roots of both types only showed waving. In the first experiment in microgravity, the mutant after 9 days formed far more coils than in 1-g but the WT also formed several coils. After 24 days in microgravity, in both types the coils were numerous with slightly more in the mutant. In the second experiment, after 9 days in microgravity only the mutant formed coils and the WT grew arcuated roots. Cell file rotation (CFR) on the mutant root surface in microgravity decreased in comparison to WT, and thus was not important for coiling. Several additional developmental responses (hypocotyl elongation, lateral root formation, cotyledon expansion) were found to be gravity-influenced. We tentatively discuss these in the context of disturbances in auxin transport, which are known to decrease through lack of gravity.

Modulation of root-skewing responses by KNAT1 in Arabidopsis thaliana

The KNOTTED1 homeobox (KNOX) family transcription factors are essential for stem cell establishment and maintenance and regulate various aspects of development in all green plants. Expression patterns of the KNOX genes in the roots of plants have been reported, but their role in development remains unclear. Here we show how the KNAT1 gene is specifically involved in root skewing in Arabidopsis. The roots of two mutant alleles of KNAT1 (bp-1 and bp-5) exhibited exaggerated skewing to the right of gravity when grown on both vertical and tilted agar medium surfaces. This skewing phenotype was enhanced by treatments with low concentrations of propyzamide, and required auxin transport. The KNAT1 mutation substantially decreased basipetal auxin transport and increased auxin accumulation in the roots. Using a PIN2-GFP reporter and western blot analysis, we found that this alteration in auxin transport was accompanied by a decrease in PIN2 levels in the root tip. Decreased PIN2 expression in the mutant roots was not accompanied by reduced mRNA levels, suggesting that the KNAT1 mutations affected PIN2 expression at the posttranscriptional level. In vivo visualization of intracellular vacuolar targeting indicated that vacuolar degradation of PIN2-GFP was significantly promoted in the root tips of the bp allelic mutants. Together, these results demonstrate that KNAT1 negatively modulates root skewing, possibly by regulating auxin transport.

A novel tracking tool for the analysis of plant-root tip movements

The growth process of roots consists of many activities, such as exploring the soil volume, mining minerals, avoiding obstacles and taking up water to fulfil the plant's primary functions, that are performed differently, depending on environmental conditions. Root movements are strictly related to a root decision strategy, which helps plants to survive under stressful conditions by optimizing energy consumption. In this work, we present a novel image-analysis tool to study the kinematics of the root tip (apex), named analyser for root tip tracks (ARTT). The software implementation combines a segmentation algorithm with additional software imaging filters in order to realize a 2D tip detection. The resulting paths, or tracks, arise from the sampled tip positions through the acquired images during the growth. ARTT allows work with no markers and deals autonomously with new emerging root tips, as well as handling a massive number of data relying on minimum user interaction. Consequently, ARTT can be used for a wide range of applications and for the study of kinematics in different plant species. In particular, the study of the root growth and behaviour could lead to the definition of novel principles for the penetration and/or control paradigms for soil exploration and monitoring tasks. The software capabilities were demonstrated by experimental trials performed with Zea mays and Oryza sativa.

Circumnutation as an autonomous root movement in plants

Although publications on circumnutation of the aerial parts of flowering plants are numerous and primarily from the time between Darwin (1880) and the 1950s, reports on circumnutation of roots are scarce. With the introduction of modern molecular biology techniques, many topics in the plant sciences have been revitalized; among these is root circumnutation. The most important research in this area has been done on Arabidopsis thaliana, which has roots that behave differently from those of many other plants; roots grown on inclined agar dishes produce a pattern of half waves slanted to one side. When grown instead on horizontally set dishes, the roots grow in loops or in tight right-handed coils that are characterized by a tight torsion to the left-hand. The roots of the few plants that differ from Arabidopsis and have been similarly tested do not present such patterns, because even if they circumnutate generally in a helical pattern, they subsequently straighten. Research on plants in space or on a clinostat has allowed the testing of these roots in a habitat lacking gravity or simulating the lack. Recently, molecular geneticists have started to connect various root behaviors to specific groups of genes. For example, anomalies in auxin responses caused by some genes can be overcome by complementation with wild-type genes. Such important studies contribute to understanding the mechanisms of growth and elongation, processes that are only superficially understood.

Low phosphate alters lateral root setpoint angle and gravitropism

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Lateral roots, responsible for water and nutrient uptake, maintain nonvertical angles throughout development. Soil phosphate is one limiting nutrient for plant growth that is known to induce changes to root system architecture, such as increased lateral root formation. This study seeks to determine whether phosphate concentration affects lateral root orientation in addition to its previously described influences on root architecture.

METHODS

Images of intact Arabidopsis root systems were recorded for 24 h, and lateral root tip angles were measured for wild-type and mutant pgm-1 and pin3-1 roots on a full or low phosphate medium. Setpoint angles of unstimulated root systems were determined, as were gravitropic responses of lateral roots over time.

KEY RESULTS

The root system setpoint angles of wild-type and mutant pin3-1 roots showed a shift toward a more vertical orientation on low orthophosphate (Pi) medium. The gravitropic responses of both pgm-1 and pin3-1 roots on low Pi medium was elevated relative to control Pi medium. Mutations in two phosphate transporters with high levels of expression in the root showed a gravitropic response similar to wild-type roots grown on low Pi, supporting a role for Pi status in regulating lateral root gravitropism.

CONCLUSIONS

Lateral root orientation and gravitropism are affected by Pi status and may provide an important additional parameter for describing root responses to low Pi. The data also support the conclusion that gravitropic setpoint angle reacts to nutrient status and is under dynamic regulation.

Molecular mechanisms of root gravity sensing and signal transduction

Plants use gravity as a guide to direct their roots down into the soil to anchor themselves and to find resources needed for growth and development. In higher plants, the columella cells of the root tip form the primary site of gravity sensing, and in these cells the sedimentation of dense, starch-filled plastids (amyloplasts) triggers gravity signal transduction. This generates an auxin gradient across the root cap that is transmitted to the elongation zone where it promotes differential cell elongation, allowing the root to direct itself downward. It is still not well understood how amyloplast sedimentation leads to auxin redistribution. Models have been proposed to explain how mechanosensitive ion channels or ligand-receptor interactions could connect these events. Although their roles are still unclear, possible second messengers in this process include protons, Ca(2+), and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate. Upon gravistimulation, the auxin efflux facilitators PIN3 and PIN7 relocalize to the lower side of the columella cells and mediate auxin redistribution. However, evidence for an auxin-independent secondary mechanism of gravity sensing and signal transduction suggests that this physiological process is quite complex. Furthermore, plants must integrate a variety of environmental cues, resulting in multifaceted relationships between gravitropism and other directional growth responses such as hydro-, photo-, and thigmotropism.

An endogenous growth pattern of roots is revealed in seedlings grown in microgravity

In plants, sensitive and selective mechanisms have evolved to perceive and respond to light and gravity. We investigated the effects of microgravity on the growth and development of Arabidopsis thaliana (ecotype Landsberg) in a spaceflight experiment. These studies were performed with the Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC) hardware system in the middeck region of the space shuttle during mission STS-131 in April 2010. Seedlings were grown on nutrient agar in Petri dishes in BRIC hardware under dark conditions and then fixed in flight with paraformaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, or RNAlater. Although the long-term objective was to study the role of the actin cytoskeleton in gravity perception, in this article we focus on the analysis of morphology of seedlings that developed in microgravity. While previous spaceflight studies noted deleterious morphological effects due to the accumulation of ethylene gas, no such effects were observed in seedlings grown with the BRIC system. Seed germination was 89% in the spaceflight experiment and 91% in the ground control, and seedlings grew equally well in both conditions. However, roots of space-grown seedlings exhibited a significant difference (compared to the ground controls) in overall growth patterns in that they skewed to one direction. In addition, a greater number of adventitious roots formed from the axis of the hypocotyls in the flight-grown plants. Our hypothesis is that an endogenous response in plants causes the roots to skew and that this default growth response is largely masked by the normal 1 g conditions on Earth.

Cytokinin interplay with ethylene, auxin, and glucose signaling controls Arabidopsis seedling root directional growth

Optimal root architecture is established by multiple intrinsic (e.g. hormones) and extrinsic (e.g. gravity and touch) signals and is established, in part, by directed root growth. We show that asymmetrical exposure of cytokinin (CK) at the root tip in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) promotes cell elongation that is potentiated by glucose in a hexokinase-influenced, G protein-independent manner. This mode of CK signaling requires the CK receptor, ARABIDOPSIS HISTIDINE KINASE4 and, at a minimum, its cognate type B ARABIDOPSIS RESPONSE REGULATORS ARR1, ARR10, and ARR11 for full responsiveness, while type A response regulators act redundantly to attenuate this CK response. Ethylene signaling through the ethylene receptor ETHYLENE RESISTANT1 and its downstream signaling element ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE2 are required for CK-induced root cell elongation. Negative and positive feedback loops are reinforced by CK regulation of the expression of the genes encoding these elements in both the CK and ethylene signaling pathways. Auxin transport facilitated by PIN-FORMED2 as well as auxin signaling through control of the steady-state level of transcriptional repressors INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID7 (IAA7), IAA14, and IAA17 via TRANSPORT INHIBITOR RESPONSE1/AUXIN SIGNALING F-BOX PROTEIN are involved in CK-induced root cell elongation. This action lies downstream of ethylene and CK induction. Intrinsic signaling in this response operates independently of the extrinsic signal touch, although actin filament organization, which is important in the touch response, may be important for this response, since latrunculin B can induce similar growth. This root growth response may have adaptive significance, since CK responsiveness is inversely related to root coiling and waving, two root behaviors known to be important for fitness.

Root cap angle and gravitropic response rate are uncoupled in the Arabidopsis pgm-1 mutant

The sedimentation of starch-filled plastids is thought to be the primary mechanism by which gravity is perceived in roots. Following gravity perception, auxin redistribution toward the lower flank of roots, initiated in the root cap, is believed to play a role in regulation of the gravity response. Amyloplast sedimentation and auxin flux, however, have never been directly linked. The overall aim of this study was to investigate the relationship among plastid sedimentation, gravitropism and auxin flux. Our data show that pgm-1 roots respond to gravity at one-third the rate of wild-type (WT) roots. Maintaining the root tip at a constant angle using image analysis coupled to a rotating stage resulted in a constant rate of response regardless of the angle of tip orientation in pgm-1 mutants, in contrast to the responses of WT and pin3-1 mutants, which showed increasing response rates as the tip was constrained at greater angles. To indirectly visualize auxin flux following reorientation, we generated a pgm-1 mutant line expressing the DR5::GFPm reporter gene. In WT roots a GFP gradient was observed with a maximum along the lower flank, whereas pgm-1 roots formed a GFP maximum in the central columella but lacked any observable gradient up to 6 h following reorientation. Our study suggests that the relationship between root cap angle and gravitropic response depends upon plastid sedimentation-based gravity sensing and supports the idea that there are multiple, overlapping sensory response networks involved in gravitropism.

Dynamics of auxin-dependent Ca2+ and pH signaling in root growth revealed by integrating high-resolution imaging with automated computer vision-based analysis

Plants adapt to a changing environment by entraining their growth and development to prevailing conditions. Such 'plastic' development requires a highly dynamic integration of growth phenomena with signal perception and transduction systems, such as occurs during tropic growth. The plant hormone auxin has been shown to play a key role in regulating these directional growth responses of plant organs to environmental cues. However, we are still lacking a cellular and molecular understanding of how auxin-dependent signaling cascades link stimulus perception to the rapid modulation of growth patterns. Here, we report that in root gravitropism of Arabidopsis thaliana, auxin regulates root curvature and associated apoplastic, growth-related pH changes through a Ca2+-dependent signaling pathway. Using an approach that integrates confocal microscopy and automated computer vision-based image analysis, we demonstrate highly dynamic root surface pH patterns during vertical growth and after gravistimulation. These pH dynamics are shown to be dependent on auxin, and specifically on auxin transport mediated by the auxin influx carrier AUX1 in cells of the lateral root cap and root epidermis. Our results further indicate that these pH responses require auxin-dependent changes in cytosolic Ca2+ levels that operate independently of the TIR1 auxin perception system. These results demonstrate a methodology that can be used to visualize vectorial auxin responses in a manner that can be integrated with the rapid plant growth responses to environmental stimuli.

Inhibition of phospholipase C disrupts cytoskeletal organization and gravitropic growth in Arabidopsis roots

The phospholipase protein superfamily plays an important role in hormonal signalling and cellular responses to environmental stimuli. There is also growing evidence for interactions between phospholipases and the cytoskeleton. In this report we used a pharmacological approach to investigate whether inhibiting a member of the phospholipase superfamily, phospholipase C (PLC), affects microtubules and actin microfilaments as well as root growth and morphology of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. Inhibiting PLC activity using the aminosteroid U73122 significantly inhibited root elongation and disrupted root morphology in a concentration-dependent manner, with the response being saturated at 5 μM, whereas the inactive analogue U73343 was ineffective. The primary root appeared to lose growth directionality accompanied by root waving and formation of curls. Immunolabelling of roots exposed to increasingly higher U73122 concentrations revealed that the normal transverse arrays of cortical microtubules in the elongation zone became progressively more disorganized or depolymerized, with the disorganization appearing within 1 h of incubation. Likewise, actin microfilament arrays also were disrupted. Inhibiting PLC using an alternative inhibitor, neomycin, caused similar disruptions to both cytoskeletal organization and root morphology. In seedlings gravistimulated by rotating the culture plates by 90°, both U73122 and neomycin disrupted the normal gravitropic growth of roots and etiolated hypocotyls. The effects of PLC inhibitors are therefore consistent with the notion that, as with phospholipases A and D, PLC likewise interacts with the cytoskeleton, alters growth morphology, and is involved in gravitropism.

Two seven-transmembrane domain MILDEW RESISTANCE LOCUS O proteins cofunction in Arabidopsis root thigmomorphogenesis

Directional root expansion is governed by nutrient gradients, positive gravitropism and hydrotropism, negative phototropism and thigmotropism, as well as endogenous oscillations in the growth trajectory (circumnutation). Null mutations in phylogenetically related Arabidopsis thaliana genes MILDEW RESISTANCE LOCUS O 4 (MLO4) and MLO11, encoding heptahelical, plasma membrane-localized proteins predominantly expressed in the root tip, result in aberrant root thigmomorphogenesis. mlo4 and mlo11 mutant plants show anisotropic, chiral root expansion manifesting as tightly curled root patterns upon contact with solid surfaces. The defect in mlo4 and mlo11 mutants is nonadditive and dependent on light and nutrients. Genetic epistasis experiments demonstrate that the mutant phenotype is independently modulated by the Gbeta subunit of the heterotrimeric G-protein complex. Analysis of expressed chimeric MLO4/MLO2 proteins revealed that the C-terminal domain of MLO4 is necessary but not sufficient for MLO4 action in root thigmomorphogenesis. The expression of the auxin efflux carrier fusion, PIN1-green fluorescent protein, the pattern of auxin-induced gene expression, and acropetal as well as basipetal auxin transport are altered at the root tip of mlo4 mutant seedlings. Moreover, addition of auxin transport inhibitors or the loss of EIR1/AGR1/PIN2 function abolishes root curling of mlo4, mlo11, and wild-type seedlings. These results demonstrate that the exaggerated root curling phenotypes of the mlo4 and mlo11 mutants depend on auxin gradients and suggest that MLO4 and MLO11 cofunction as modulators of touch-induced root tropism.

Arabidopsis root growth movements and their symmetry: progress and problems arising from recent work

Over the last fifteen years, an increasing number of plant scientists have become interested in the Arabidopsis root growth pattern, that is produced on the surface of an agar plate, inclined from the vertical. In this situation, the roots wave intensely and slant preferentially towards one side, showing torsions in the epidermal cell files alternately right-and left handed. In addition, the pattern switches to the formation of large or strict coils when the plate is set horizontally. After this finding, different hypotheses were advanced attempting to explain the forces that shape these patterns. These basically appear to be gravitropism, circumnutation and negative thigmotropism. With regard to the symmetry, the coils and the slanting in the wild-type are essentially right-handed, but mutants were also reported which show a left-handed symmetry, while some do not show a regular growth pattern at all. This review article discusses the earlier as well as the most recent findings on the topic, and investigates the possibility of describing the different mechanisms shaping the root growth patterns via unifying hypothesis.

Regulation of root-wave response by extra large and conventional G proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana

Heterotrimeric G proteins composed of alpha, beta and gamma subunits regulate a number of fundamental processes concerned with growth and development in plants. In addition to the canonical heterotrimeric G proteins, plants also contain a small family of extra large G proteins (XLGs) that show significant similarity to the G-protein alpha subunit in their C-terminal regions. In this paper we show that one of the three XLG genes, XLG3, and the Gbeta subunit (AGB1) of the Arabidopsis G-protein heterotrimer are specifically involved in the regulation of a subset of root morphological and growth responses. Based on analysis of T-DNA insertional mutant phenotypes, XLG3 and AGB1 each positively regulate root waving and root skewing. Since these responses are regulated by physical as well as physiological cues, we assessed the roles of AGB1 and XLG3 in gravitropism, thigmotropism and hormonal responses. Our data show that mutants lacking either XLG3 or AGB1 genes are hypersensitive to ethylene and show growth responses consistent with alterations in auxin transport, while maintaining an essentially wild-type response to the physical cues of gravity and touch. These results suggest that XLG3 and AGB1 proteins regulate the hormonal determinants of root-waving and root-skewing responses in plants and possibly interact in a tissue-specific or signal-specific manner. Because plants harboring knockout mutations in the Galpha subunit gene, GPA1, exhibit wild-type root waving and skewing, our results may indicate that the AGB1 subunit functions in these processes without formation of a classic Galphabetagamma heterotrimer.

The microtubule plus-end binding protein EB1 functions in root responses to touch and gravity signals in Arabidopsis

Microtubules function in concert with associated proteins that modify microtubule behavior and/or transmit signals that effect changes in growth. To better understand how microtubules and their associated proteins influence growth, we analyzed one family of microtubule-associated proteins, the END BINDING1 (EB1) proteins, in Arabidopsis thaliana (EB1a, EB1b, and EB1c). We find that antibodies directed against EB1 proteins colocalize with microtubules in roots, an observation that confirms previous reports using EB1-GFP fusions. We also find that T-DNA insertion mutants with reduced expression from EB1 genes have roots that deviate toward the left on vertical or inclined plates. Mutant roots also exhibit extended horizontal growth before they bend downward after tracking around an obstacle or after a 90 degrees clockwise reorientation of the root. These observations suggest that leftward deviations in root growth may be the result of delayed responses to touch and/or gravity signals. Root lengths and widths are normal, indicating that the delay in bend formation is not due to changes in the overall rate of growth. In addition, the genotype with the most severe defects responds to low doses of microtubule inhibitors in a manner indistinguishable from the wild type, indicating that microtubule integrity is not a major contributor to the leftward deviations in mutant root growth.

Roles of amyloplasts and water deficit in root tropisms

Directed growth of roots in relation to a moisture gradient is called hydrotropism. The no hydrotropic response (nhr1) mutant of Arabidopsis lacks a hydrotropic response, and shows a stronger gravitropic response than that of wild type (wt) in a medium with an osmotic gradient. Local application of abscisic acid (ABA) to seeds or root tips of nhr1 increased root downward growth, indicating the critical role of ABA in tropisms. Wt roots germinated and treated with ABA in this system were strongly gravitropic, even though they had almost no starch amyloplasts in the root-cap columella cells. Hydrotropically stimulated nhr1 roots, with or without ABA, maintained starch in the amyloplasts, as opposed to those of wt. Hence, the near-absence (wt) or abundant presence (nhr1) of starch granules does not influence the extent of downward gravitropism of the roots in an osmotic gradient medium. Starch degradation in the wt might help the root sustain osmotic stress and carry out hydrotropism, instead of reducing gravity responsiveness. nhr1 roots might be hydrotropically inactive because they maintain this starch reserve in the columella cells, sustaining both their turgor and growth, and in effect minimizing the need for hydrotropism and at least partially disabling its mechanism. We conclude that ABA and water stress are critical regulators of root tropic responses.

Spatio-temporal quantification of differential growth processes in root growth zones based on a novel combination of image sequence processing and refined concepts describing curvature production

Differential growth processes in root and shoot growth zones are governed by the transport kinetics of auxin and other plant hormones. While gene expression and protein localization of hormone transport facilitators are currently being unraveled using state-of-the-art techniques of live cell imaging, the quantitative analysis of growth reactions is lagging behind because of a lack of suitable methods. A noninvasive technique, based on digital image sequence processing, for visualizing and quantifying highly resolved spatio-temporal root growth processes was applied in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and was adapted to provide precise information on differential curvature production activity within the root growth zone. Comparison of root gravitropic curvature kinetics in wild-type and mutant plants altered in a facilitator for auxin translocation allowed the determination of differences in the location and in the temporal response of curvature along the growth zone between the investigated plant lines. The findings of the quantitative growth analysis performed here confirm the proposed action of the investigated transport facilitator. The procedure developed here for the investigation of differential growth processes is a valuable tool for characterizing the phenomenology of a wide range of shoot and root growth movements and hence facilitates elucidation of their molecular characterization.

Waving and skewing: how gravity and the surface of growth media affect root development in Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis seedlings growing on inclined agar surfaces exhibit characteristic root behaviours called 'waving' and 'skewing': the former consists of a series of undulations, whereas the latter is a deviation from the direction of gravity. Even though the precise basis of these growth patterns is not well understood, both gravity and the contact between the medium and the root are considered to be the major players that result in these processes. The influence of these forces on root surface-dependent behaviours can be verified by growing seedlings at different gel pitches: plants growing on vertical plates present roots with slight waving and skewing when compared with seedlings grown on plates held at minor angles of < 90 degrees . However, other factors are thought to modulate root growth on agar; for instance, it has been demonstrated that the presence and concentration of certain compounds in the medium (such as sucrose) and of drugs able to modify the plant cell cytoskeleton also affect skewing and waving. The recent discovery of an active role of ethylene on surface-dependent root behaviour, and the finding of new mutants showing anomalous growth, pave the way for a more detailed description of these phenomena.

Ethylene stimulates nutations that are dependent on the ETR1 receptor

Ethylene influences a number of processes in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) through the action of five receptors. In this study, we used high-resolution, time-lapse imaging to examine the long-term effects of ethylene on growing, etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings. These measurements revealed that ethylene stimulates nutations of the hypocotyls with an average delay in onset of over 6 h. The nutation response was constitutive in ctr1-2 mutants maintained in air, whereas ein2-1 mutants failed to nutate when treated with ethylene. Ethylene-stimulated nutations were also eliminated in etr1-7 loss-of-function mutants. Transformation of the etr1-7 mutant with a wild-type genomic ETR1 transgene rescued the nutation phenotype, further supporting a requirement for ETR1. Loss-of-function mutations in the other receptor isoforms had no effect on ethylene-stimulated nutations. However, the double ers1-2 ers2-3 and triple etr2-3 ers2-3 ein4-4 loss-of-function mutants constitutively nutated in air. These results support a model where all the receptors are involved in ethylene-stimulated nutations, but the ETR1 receptor is required and has a contrasting role from the other receptor isoforms in this nutation phenotype. Naphthylphthalamic acid eliminated ethylene-stimulated nutations but had no effect on growth inhibition caused by ethylene, pointing to a role for auxin transport in the nutation phenotype.

TheHVE/CAND1gene is required for the early patterning of leaf venation inArabidopsis

The hemivenata-1 (hve-1) recessive allele was isolated in a search for natural variations in the leaf venation pattern of Arabidopsis thaliana, where it was seen to cause extremely simple venation in vegetative leaves and cotyledons, increased shoot branching, and reduced root waving and fertility, traits that are reminiscent of some mutants deficient in auxin signaling. Reduced sensitivity to exogenous auxin was found in the hve-1 mutant, which otherwise displayed a wild-type response to auxin transport inhibitors. The HVE gene was positionally cloned and found to encode a CAND1 protein. The hve-1 mutation caused mis-splicing of the transcripts of the HVE/CAND1 gene and a vein phenotype indistinguishable from that of hve-2 and hve-3,two putatively null T-DNA alleles. Inflorescence size and fertility were more affected by hve-2 and hve-3, suggesting that hve-1is hypomorphic. The simple venation pattern of hve plants seems to arise from an early patterning defect. We found that HVE/CAND1 binds to CULLIN1, and that the venation patterns of axr1 and hvemutants are similar, which suggest that ubiquitin-mediated auxin signaling is required for venation patterning in laminar organs, the only exception being cauline leaves. Our analyses of double mutant and transgenic plants indicated that auxin transport and perception act independently to pattern leaf veins,and that the HVE/CAND1 gene acts upstream of ATHB-8 at least in higher order veins, in a pathway that involves AXR1, but not LOP1, PIN1, CVP1 or CVP2.

AXR4 Is Required for Localization of the Auxin Influx Facilitator AUX1

The AUX1 and PIN auxin influx and efflux facilitators are key regulators of root growth and development. For root gravitropism to occur, AUX1 and PIN2 must transport auxin via the lateral root cap to elongating epidermal cells. Genetic studies suggest that AXR4 functions in the same pathway as AUX1. Here we show that AXR4 is a previously unidentified accessory protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that regulates localization of AUX1 but not of PIN proteins. Loss of AXR4 resulted in abnormal accumulation of AUX1 in the ER of epidermal cells, indicating that the axr4 agravitropic phenotype is caused by defective AUX1 trafficking in the root epidermis.

The WAG1 and WAG2 protein kinases negatively regulate root waving in Arabidopsis

The WAG1 and WAG2 genes of Arabidopsis thaliana encode protein-serine/threonine kinases that are closely related to PINOID. In order to determine what roles WAG1 and WAG2 play in seedling development, we used a reverse genetics approach to study the wag1, wag2 and wag1/wag2 mutant phenotypes for clues. Although the wag mutants do not contain detectable amounts of the corresponding mRNA, they are wild type in most respects. However, wag1/wag2 double mutants exhibit a pronounced wavy root phenotype when grown vertically on agar plates, a phenotype observed in wild-type plants only on plates inclined to angles less than 90 degrees. The wag1 and wag2 mutants also demonstrate enhanced root waving, but to a lesser extent. Moreover, the double mutant roots are more resistant to the effects of N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid on the inhibition of root curling, raising the possibility that transport of auxin is affected in the wag mutants. Promoter fusions to the gusA reporter gene demonstrate that the WAG promoters are most active in root tips, consistent with the observed phenotypes in the wag mutants.

Quantification of curvature production in cylindrical organs, such as roots and hypocotyls

Differential growth curvature rate (DGCR), defined as the spatial derivative of the tropic speed, was derived as a measure of curvature production in cylindrical organs. Its relation to usual concepts, such as curvature (kappa), rate of curvature (dkappa/dt) and differential growth profiles, was determined. A root gravitropism model, testing the hypothesis of one and two motors, exemplified its capabilities.DGCR was derived using cylindrical geometry and its meaning was obtained through a curvature conservation equation. The root gravitropism model was solved using a discrete difference method on a computer.DGCR described curvature production independently of growth, and was superior to dkappa/dt, which underestimated production. Moreover, DGCR profiles were able to differ between one and two motors, while profiles of kappa and dkappa/dt were not. The choice of the measure of curvature production has a large impact on experimental results, in particular when spatial and temporal patterns of differential growth need to be determined. DGCR was shown to fulfill the accuracy needed in the quantification of curvature production and should thus serve as a helpful tool for measurements.

Loss-of-function mutations of ROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE3 suppress root waving, skewing, and epidermal cell file rotation in Arabidopsis

Wild-type Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana L. Heynh.) roots growing on a tilted surface of impenetrable hard-agar media adopt a wave-like pattern and tend to skew to the right of the gravity vector (when viewed from the back of the plate through the medium). Reversible root-tip rotation often accompanies the clockwise and counterclockwise curves that form each wave. These rotations are manifested by epidermal cell file rotation (CFR) along the root. Loss-of-function alleles of ROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE3 (RHD3), a gene previously implicated in the control of vesicle trafficking between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi compartments, resulted in an almost complete suppression of epidermal CFR, root skewing, and waving on hard-agar surfaces. Several other root hair defective mutants (rhd2-1, rhd4-1, and rhd6-1) did not exhibit dramatic alterations in these root growth behaviors, suggesting that a generalized defect in root hair formation is not responsible for the surface-dependent phenotypes of rhd3. However, similar alterations in root growth behavior were observed in a variety of mutants characterized by defects in cell expansion (cob-1, cob-2, eto1-1, eto2-1, erh2-1, and erh3-1). The erh2-1 and rhd3-1 mutants differed from other anisotropic cell expansion mutants, though, by an inability to respond to low doses of the microtubule-binding drug propyzamide, which normally causes enhanced left-handed CFR and right skewing. We hypothesize that RHD3 may control epidermal CFR, root skewing, and waving on hard-agar surfaces by regulating the traffic of wall- or plasma membrane-associated determinants of anisotropic cell expansion.

Morphometric analysis of root shape

Alterations in the root shape in plant mutants indicate defects in hormonal signalling, transport and cytoskeleton function. To quantify the root shape, we introduced novel parameters designated vertical growth index (VGI) and horizontal growth index (HGI). VGI was defined as a ratio between the root tip ordinate and the root length. HGI was the ratio between the root tip abscissa and the root length. To assess the applicability of VGI and HGI for quantification of root shape, we analysed root development in agravitropic Arabidopsis mutants. Statistical analysis indicated that VGI is a sensitive morphometric parameter enabling detection of weak gravitropic defects. VGI dynamics were qualitatively similar in auxin-transport mutants aux1, pin2 and trh1, but different in the auxin-signalling mutant axr2. Analysis of VGI and HGI of roots grown on tilted plates showed that the trh1 mutation affected downstream cellular responses rather than perception of the gravitropic stimulus. All these tests indicate that the VGI and HGI analysis is a versatile and sensitive method for the study of root morphology.

Hydrotropism: root growth responses to water

The survival of terrestrial plants depends upon the capacity of roots to obtain water and nutrients from the soil. Directed growth of roots in relation to a gradient in moisture is called hydrotropism and begins in the root cap with the sensing of the moisture gradient. Even though the lack of sufficient water is the single-most important factor affecting world agriculture, there are surprisingly few studies on hydrotropism. Recent genetic analysis of hydrotropism in Arabidopsis has provided new insights about the mechanisms that the root cap uses to perceive and respond simultaneously to moisture and gravity signals. This knowledge might enable us to understand how the root cap processes environmental signals that are capable of regulating whole plant growth.

Root-gel interactions and the root waving behavior of Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis roots grown on inclined agarose gels exhibit a sinusoidal growth pattern known as root waving. While root waving has been attributed to both intrinsic factors (e.g. circumnutation) and growth responses to external signals such as gravity, the potential for physical interactions between the root and its substrate to influence the development of this complex phenotype has been generally ignored. Using a rotating stage microscope and time-lapse digital imaging, we show that (1) root tip mobility is impeded by the gel surface, (2) this impedance causes root tip deflections by amplifying curvature in the elongation zone in a way that is distinctly nontropic, and (3) root tip impedance is augmented by normal gravitropic pressure applied by the root tip against the gel surface. Thus, both lateral corrective bending near the root apex and root tip impedance could be due to different vector components of the same graviresponse. Furthermore, we speculate that coupling between root twisting and bending is a mechanical effect resulting from root tip impedance.

Root-gel interactions and the root waving behavior of Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis roots grown on inclined agarose gels exhibit a sinusoidal growth pattern known as root waving. While root waving has been attributed to both intrinsic factors (e.g. circumnutation) and growth responses to external signals such as gravity, the potential for physical interactions between the root and its substrate to influence the development of this complex phenotype has been generally ignored. Using a rotating stage microscope and time-lapse digital imaging, we show that (1) root tip mobility is impeded by the gel surface, (2) this impedance causes root tip deflections by amplifying curvature in the elongation zone in a way that is distinctly nontropic, and (3) root tip impedance is augmented by normal gravitropic pressure applied by the root tip against the gel surface. Thus, both lateral corrective bending near the root apex and root tip impedance could be due to different vector components of the same graviresponse. Furthermore, we speculate that coupling between root twisting and bending is a mechanical effect resulting from root tip impedance.

The Arabidopsis sku6/spiral1 gene encodes a plus end-localized microtubule-interacting protein involved in directional cell expansion

The sku6-1 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana exhibits altered patterns of root and organ growth. sku6 roots, etiolated hypocotyls, and leaf petioles exhibit right-handed axial twisting, and root growth on inclined agar media is strongly right skewed. The touch-dependent sku6 root skewing phenotype is suppressed by the antimicrotubule drugs propyzamide and oryzalin, and right skewing is exacerbated by cold treatment. Cloning revealed that sku6-1 is allelic to spiral1-1 (spr1-1). However, modifiers in the Columbia (Col) and Landsberg erecta (Ler) ecotype backgrounds mask noncomplementation in sku6-1 (Col)/spr1-1 (Ler) F1 plants. The SPR1 gene encodes a plant-specific 12-kD protein that is ubiquitously expressed and belongs to a six-member gene family in Arabidopsis. An SPR1:green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion expressed in transgenic seedlings localized to microtubules within the cortical array, preprophase band, phragmoplast, and mitotic spindle. SPR1:GFP was concentrated at the growing ends of cortical microtubules and was dependent on polymer growth state; the microtubule-related fluorescence dissipated upon polymer shortening. The protein has a repeated motif at both ends, separated by a predicted rod-like domain, suggesting that it may act as an intermolecular linker. These observations suggest that SPR1 is involved in microtubule polymerization dynamics and/or guidance, which in turn influences touch-induced directional cell expansion and axial twisting.

An aluminum influence on root circumnutation in dark revealed by a new super-HARP (high-gain avalanche rushing amorphous photoconductor) camera

The circumnutation of a rice root under dark conditions was observed using a highly sensitive camera, a new super-HARP camera. A rice root showed regular rhythmic movement with fixed angle. When treated with Al (5 microM AlCl3), the rotation angle of the root tip was drastically decreased and then the movement was resumed again, whereas the root elongation rate was constant. With the increase of Al concentration, the cycle-fading period became shorter. This is the first report to show that an Al treatment ceased the rotation movement of the root but not elongation.

Ethylene modulates root-wave responses in Arabidopsis

When stimulated to bend downward by being held at 45 degrees off vertical but unable to penetrate into agar-based media, Arabidopsis roots develop waving and looping growth patterns. Here, we demonstrate that ethylene modulates these responses. We determined that agar-containing plates sealed with low-porosity film generate abiotic ethylene concentrations of 0.1 to 0.3 microL L(-1), whereas in plates wrapped with porous tape, ethylene remains at trace levels. We demonstrate that exogenous ethylene at concentrations as low as a few nanoliters per liter modulates root waving, root growth direction, and looping but through partly different mechanisms. Nutrients and Suc modify the effects of ethylene on root waving. Thus, ethylene had little effect on temporal wave frequency when nutrients were omitted but reduced it significantly on nutrient-supplemented agar. Suc masked the ethylene response. Ethylene consistently suppressed the normal tendency for roots of Landsberg erecta to skew to the right as they grow against hard-agar surfaces and also generated righthanded petiole twisting. Furthermore, ethylene suppressed root looping, a gravity-dependent growth response that was enhanced by high nutrient and Suc availability. Our work demonstrates that cell file twisting is not essential for root waving or skewing to occur. Differential flank growth accounted for both the extreme root waving on zero-nutrient plates and for root skewing. Root twisting was nutrient-dependent and was thus strongly associated with the looping response. The possible role of auxin transport in these responses and the involvement of circadian rhythms are discussed.

Gravity-regulated differential auxin transport from columella to lateral root cap cells

Gravity-induced root curvature has long been considered to be regulated by differential distribution of the plant hormone auxin. However, the cells establishing these gradients, and the transport mechanisms involved, remain to be identified. Here, we describe a GFP-based auxin biosensor to monitor auxin during Arabidopsis root gravitropism at cellular resolution. We identify elevated auxin levels at the root apex in columella cells, the site of gravity perception, and an asymmetric auxin flux from these cells to the lateral root cap (LRC) and toward the elongation zone after gravistimulation. We differentiate between an efflux-dependent lateral auxin transport from columella to LRC cells, and an efflux- and influx-dependent basipetal transport from the LRC to the elongation zone. We further demonstrate that endogenous gravitropic auxin gradients develop even in the presence of an exogenous source of auxin. Live-cell auxin imaging provides unprecedented insights into gravity-regulated auxin flux at cellular resolution, and strongly suggests that this flux is a prerequisite for root gravitropism.

Gravity-regulated differential auxin transport from columella to lateral root cap cells

Gravity-induced root curvature has long been considered to be regulated by differential distribution of the plant hormone auxin. However, the cells establishing these gradients, and the transport mechanisms involved, remain to be identified. Here, we describe a GFP-based auxin biosensor to monitor auxin during Arabidopsis root gravitropism at cellular resolution. We identify elevated auxin levels at the root apex in columella cells, the site of gravity perception, and an asymmetric auxin flux from these cells to the lateral root cap (LRC) and toward the elongation zone after gravistimulation. We differentiate between an efflux-dependent lateral auxin transport from columella to LRC cells, and an efflux- and influx-dependent basipetal transport from the LRC to the elongation zone. We further demonstrate that endogenous gravitropic auxin gradients develop even in the presence of an exogenous source of auxin. Live-cell auxin imaging provides unprecedented insights into gravity-regulated auxin flux at cellular resolution, and strongly suggests that this flux is a prerequisite for root gravitropism.