Mycotoxin exposure and human cancer risk: A systematic review of epidemiological studies

Multiple mycotoxin exposure assessment through human biomonitoring in an esophageal cancer case-control study in the Arsi-Bale districts of Oromia region of Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Esophageal cancer (EC) is a malignancy with a poor prognosis and a five-year survival rate of less than 20%. It is the ninth most frequent cancer globally and the sixth leading cause of cancer-related deaths. The incidence of EC has been found to vary significantly by geography, indicating the importance of environmental and lifestyle factors along with genetic factors in the onset of the disease. In this work, we investigated mycotoxin exposure in a case-control study from the Arsi-Bale districts of Oromia regional state in Ethiopia, where there is a high incidence of EC while alcohol and tobacco use - two established risk factors for EC - are very rare.

METHODS

Internal exposure to 39 mycotoxins and metabolites was assessed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in plasma samples of EC cases (n = 166) and location-matched healthy controls (n = 166) who shared similar dietary sources. Demographic and lifestyle data were collected using structured questionnaires. Principal Component Analysis and machine learning models were used to identify the most relevant demographic, lifestyle, and mycotoxin (co-)exposure variables associated with EC. Multivariate binary logistic regression analysis was used to assess EC risk.

RESULT

Evidence of mycotoxin exposure was observed in all plasma samples, with 10 different mycotoxins being detected in samples from EC cases, while only 6 different mycotoxins were detected in samples from healthy controls. Ochratoxin A was detected in plasma from all cases and controls, while tenuazonic acid was detected in plasma of 145 (87.3%) cases and 71 (42.8%) controls. Using multivariable logistic regression analysis, exposure to tenuazonic acid (AOR = 1.88 [95% CI: 1.68-2.11]) and to multiple mycotoxins (AOR = 2.54 [95% CI: 2.10-3.07]) were positively associated with EC.

CONCLUSION

All cases and controls were exposed to at least one mycotoxin. Cases were exposed to a statistically significantly higher number of mycotoxins than controls. Exposure to tenuazonic acid and to multiple mycotoxins were associated with increased risk of EC in the study population. Although aflatoxin B1-lysine and the ratio of sphinganine to sphingosine (as a biomarker of effect to fumonisin exposure) were not assessed in this study, our result emphasizes the need to characterize the effect of mycotoxin co-exposure as part of the exposome and include it in risk assessment, since the current mycotoxin safety levels do not consider the additive or synergistic effects of mycotoxin co-exposure. Moreover, a prospective study design with regular sampling should be considered in this high incidence area of EC in Ethiopia to obtain conclusive results on the role of mycotoxin exposure in the onset and development of the disease.

Effective multicolor visual biosensor for ochratoxin A detection enabled by DNAzyme catalysis and gold nanorod etching

A novel detection technique is introduced that offers sensitive and reliable ochratoxin A (OTA) detection. The method leverages the etching of gold nanorods (AuNRs) stabilized by hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) using the oxidized form of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethyl benzidine sulfate (TMB2+), creating a susceptible multicolor visual detection system for OTA. The visual detection is enabled by Mg2+-assisted DNAzyme catalysis combined with the catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA) signal amplification strategy. The presence of OTA triggers CHA and signaling responses along with the formation of G-quadruplex-hemin DNAzyme, which promotes the oxidation of TMB with H2O2, leading to the etching of AuNRs and a reduction in their aspect ratio. AuNRs experienced a blue shift in the longitudinal localized surface plasmon resonance peak, resulting in a color change. The technique has been shown to detect OTA with a low detection limit of 0.309 pg/mL, demonstrating high sensitivity and specificity. The detection technique offers versatility by enabling the detection of other pollutants through a simple replacement of the aptamer, expanding the range of detection platforms available for pollutant determinations.

Zearalenone delays tissue regeneration by dysregulating neutrophil balance in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae

Zearalenone (ZEA), a common mycotoxin, poses significant environmental and health risks. While its toxicological effects are well-studied, its impact on regeneration remains unclear. This study explored ZEA's effects on zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae, focusing on developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, and tissue regeneration. Embryos were exposed to 0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 μM ZEA from 6 to 72 h post-fertilization (hpf). Although hatching and survival rates remained unaffected, malformations, including body axis bending and pericardial edema, increased dose-dependently, with 4.44 % abnormalities observed at 1.5 μM (p = 0.01). Heart rates also declined significantly at 1.5 μM (75.40 vs. 72.53 beats/30s, p = 0.0054). Immunotoxicity was assessed using Tg(mpx: eGFP) zebrafish to monitor neutrophil responses post-injury. ZEA exposure led to increased neutrophil counts (229.87 vs. 330.80, p < 0.0001) and chemotaxis (21.15 % vs. 34.57 %, p < 0.0001). RNA sequencing of 0 and 1.5 μM groups revealed disrupted redox balance and oxygen transport, with down-regulation of hbae1, hbbe2, and hbae3 and up-regulation of hif1a, indicating hypoxia involvement. Elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced antioxidant enzyme activity, and increased apoptosis were also observed. Tail fin regeneration assays showed delayed regeneration at 1 and 1.5 μM ZEA, linked to impaired immune function and oxidative stress. These findings highlight ZEA's adverse effects on developmental and regenerative processes, underscoring its environmental and health implications and the need for further research.

Associations between dietary mycotoxins exposures and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in a European cohort

Mycotoxins have been hypothesized to contribute to a diversity of adverse health effects in humans, even at low concentrations. Certain mycotoxins are established human carcinogens, whereas for others research suggests potential carcinogenic effects. The aim of this study was to determine the association between dietary exposure to mycotoxins and hepatobiliary cancers in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. EPIC questionnaire data were matched to mycotoxin food occurrence data compiled by the European Food Safety Authority to assess long-term dietary mycotoxin exposure (expressed as μg/kg body weight/day) and then relate them to the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) (n = 255) and biliary tract cancers (n = 273). Analyses were conducted using multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models to compute hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Key food groups contributing to mycotoxin exposure were cereals and cereal-based products, vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages (including fruit juices) and fruits. Estimated intake of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives was positively associated with HCC risk (HRT3vsT1: 1.90, 95% CI: 1.18-3.05, p-trend <0.01). No statistically significant associations were found for the other mycotoxins. Further research to confirm our observations and investigate potential underlying mechanisms of these compounds is warranted. These data may provide evidence of HCC risks associated with higher dietary intake levels of DON, which has not yet been classified as a human carcinogen.

Integration of National Chemical Hazards Monitoring, Total Diet Study, and Human Biomonitoring Programmes for Food Safety Exposure Assessment in Singapore

Food safety and food security can impact the quality of human life, and these two aspects are interrelated alongside many influencing external factors. Global stressors such as climate change, recent pandemic, and geopolitical tensions have demonstrated tangible impacts on food security and safety. Food and food system innovation is a key strategy towards feeding the world in a more sustainable and climate-resilient manner. This paper highlights the use of a science-based risk assessment and management in Singapore's food safety system, specifically in the integration of exposure assessment approaches to support evidence-based food safety risk analysis and decision-making. The use of complementary top-down and bottom-up exposure assessment approaches through the market monitoring programme, total diet study and human biomonitoring forms a comprehensive integrated exposure assessment strategy which can ultimately inform policy and measures in ensuring and securing a supply of safe food. The discussion on such application for chemical food safety in Singapore offers additional insights into the synergistic inter-relationships contributing to the exposure assessment associated with chemicals in food.

Exposure assessment of the European adult population to deoxynivalenol - Results from the HBM4EU Aligned Studies

Mycotoxins are natural toxins produced by fungi that may cause adverse health effects thus constituting a public health concern. Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin affecting the immune system and causing intestinal disorders, was selected as a priority under the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU). Urinary total DON levels (tDON) of 1270 participants from six countries were used to characterize the internal exposure of the adult European population and identify the most relevant determinants of exposure. tDON concentrations' P50 and P95 were in the range of 0.41-10.16 µg/L (0.39-9.05 µg/g crt) and 3.25-46.58 µg/L (2.12-33.50 µg/g crt) respectively. Higher tDON levels were observed for (i) male participants from France and Germany, (ii) samples collected in spring and summer, (iii) participants with a lower educational level, (iv) participants living in rural areas, (v) individuals without a job in France and Luxembourg, while in Portugal higher exposure was observed in working individuals, (vi) individuals with higher consumption of cereals and bread. The proportion of individuals with exposure levels exceeding the HBM-GV of 23 µg/L was 12.3 %, ranging from 0.8 % to 20.7 % in the individual countries. This study on mycotoxins exposure has used post harmonized questionnaire data and validated analytical methodologies for analysis and covered countries representing the four geographical regions of Europe, having produced much needed knowledge on the exposure of the European adult population to deoxynivalenol.

The interplay of dietary mycotoxins and oncogenic viruses toward human carcinogenesis: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins, fungal metabolites prevalent in many foods, are recognized for their role in carcinogenesis, especially when interacting with oncogenic viruses.

OBJECTIVES

This scoping review synthesizes current evidence on the human cancer risk associated with mycotoxin exposure and oncogenic virus infections.

METHODS

Searches were conducted on PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Studies were selected based on the PECOS framework. Data extraction involved narrative and qualitative presentation of findings, with meta-analysis where feasible. Risk of bias and outcome quality were assessed using the OHAT tool and GRADE approach.

RESULTS

From 25 included studies, 18 focused on aflatoxins and hepatitis viruses in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Four studies examined aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and human papilloma virus (HPV) in cervical cancer, while three investigated AFB1 with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in lymphomagenesis. The review highlights a significant synergistic effect between AFB1 and hepatitis B and C viruses in HCC development. Significant interactions between AFB1 and HPV, as well as AFB1 and EBV, were observed, but further research is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

The synergistic impact of mycotoxins and oncogenic viruses is a critical public health concern. Future research, especially prospective cohort studies and investigations into molecular mechanisms, is essential to address this complex issue.

Rats exposed to Alternaria toxins in vivo exhibit altered liver activity highlighted by disruptions in riboflavin and acylcarnitine metabolism

Natural toxins produced by Alternaria fungi include the mycotoxins alternariol, tenuazonic acid and altertoxins I and II. Several of these toxins have shown high toxicity even at low levels including genotoxic, mutagenic, and estrogenic effects. However, the metabolic effects of toxin exposure from Alternaria are understudied, especially in the liver as a key target. To gain insight into the impact of Alternaria toxin exposure on the liver metabolome, rats (n = 21) were exposed to either (1) a complex culture extract with defined toxin profiles from Alternaria alternata (50 mg/kg body weight), (2) the isolated, highly genotoxic altertoxin-II (ATX-II) (0.7 mg/kg of body weight) or (3) a solvent control. The complex mixture contained a spectrum of Alternaria toxins including a controlled dose of ATX-II, matching the concentration of the isolated ATX-II. Liver samples were collected after 24 h and analyzed via liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Authentic reference standards (> 100) were used to identify endogenous metabolites and exogenous compounds from the administered exposures in tandem with SWATH-acquired MS/MS data which was used for non-targeted analysis/screening. Screening for metabolites produced by Alternaria revealed several compounds solely isolated in the liver of rats exposed to the complex culture, confirming results from a previously performed targeted biomonitoring study. This included the altersetin and altercrasin A that were tentatively identified. An untargeted metabolomics analysis found upregulation of acylcarnitines in rats receiving the complex Alternaria extract as well as downregulation of riboflavin in rats exposed to both ATX-II and the complex mixture. Taken together, this work provides a mechanistic view of Alternari toxin exposure and new suspect screening insights into hardly characterized Alternaria toxins.

Dietary soluble, insoluble, and total fiber intake and their dietary sources in association with breast cancer

BACKGROUND

A few studies have examined the association between different types of dietary fiber as well as their sources and the risk of breast cancer (BC) and the present study aimed to investigate these associations in a case-control study among Iranian women.

METHODS

A total of 464 women with pathologically confirmed breast cancer within the past year and 498 age-matched healthy controls were included. Dietary intakes were assessed using a 168-item food frequency questionnaire. The association between dietary soluble, insoluble, total dietary fiber, as well as, fiber from fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals, and nuts intake with odds of breast cancer was assessed using multivariate logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

Mean total dietary fiber intake of patients with and without cancer were 33.1 ± 15.3 g per day (g/d) and 34.2 ± 16.5 (g/d), respectively. Dietary total fiber (OR = 0.65; 95%CI: 0.47-0.90, Ptrend = 0.01), insoluble fiber (OR = 0.68; 95%CI: 0.49-0.93, Ptrend = 0.01), fruits' fiber (OR = 0.68; 95%CI: 0.49-0.94, Ptrend = 0.02), and vegetables' fiber (OR = 0.66; 95%CI: 0.48-0.91, Ptrend = 0.01) were significantly associated with reduced likelihood of developing breast cancer in all participants. Furthermore, dietary total and insoluble fiber, as well as, fiber from fruits were significantly associated with lower odds of breast cancer in premenopausal women (P < 0.05). In contrast, cereals' fiber significantly increased the risk of breast cancer by 84% in premenopausal women (OR = 1.84; 95%CI: 1.18-2.86, Ptrend = 0.009). In postmenopausal women, cereals' fiber had a significant inverse association with odds of breast cancer (OR = 0.56; 95%CI: 0.31-1.03, Ptrend = 0.04). Also, fiber from vegetables was significantly associated with a lower risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women (OR = 0.53; 95%CI: 0.30-0.94, Ptrend = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

Dietary fiber intake and more specifically insoluble, fruits', and vegetables' fiber intake might be associated with a reduced breast cancer risk, particularly in premenopausal women. Future prospective investigations are needed to confirm these findings.

The Expanding Mycovirome of Aspergilli

Mycoviruses are viruses that infect fungi and are widespread across all major fungal taxa, exhibiting great biological diversity. Since their discovery in the 1960s, researchers have observed a myriad of fungal phenotypes altered due to mycoviral infection. In this review, we examine the nuanced world of mycoviruses in the context of the medically and agriculturally important fungal genus, Aspergillus. The advent of RNA sequencing has revealed a previous underestimate of viral prevalence in fungi, in particular linear single-stranded RNA viruses, and here we outline the diverse viral families known to date that contain mycoviruses infecting Aspergillus. Furthermore, we describe these novel mycoviruses, highlighting those with peculiar genome structures, such as a split RNA dependent RNA polymerase gene. Next, we delineate notable mycovirus-mediated phenotypes in Aspergillus, in particular reporting on observations of mycoviruses that affect their fungal host's virulence and explore how this may relate to virus-mediated decreased stress tolerance. Furthermore, mycovirus effects on microbial competition and antifungal resistance are discussed. The factors that influence the manifestation of these phenotypes, such as temperature, fungal life stage, and infection with multiple viruses, among others, are also evaluated. In addition, we attempt to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that underpin these phenotypes, examining how mycoviruses can be targets, triggers, and even suppressors of RNA silencing and how this can affect fungal gene expression and phenotypes. Finally, we highlight the potential therapeutic applications of mycoviruses and how, in an approach analogous to bacteriophage therapy, their ability to produce hypovirulence in Aspergillus might be used to attenuate invasive aspergillosis infections in humans.

Evaluation of Cross-Talk and Alleviate Potential of Cytotoxic Factors Induced by Deoxynivalenol in IPEC-J2 Cells Interference with Curcumin

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum, and curcumin (CUR) is a natural polyphenolic compound found in turmeric. However, the combined treatment of CUR and DON to explore the mitigating effect of CUR on DON and their combined mechanism of action is not clear. Therefore, in this study, we established four treatment groups (CON, CUR, DON and CUR + DON) to investigate their mechanism in the porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2). In addition, the cross-talk and alleviating potential of CUR interfering with DON-induced cytotoxic factors were evaluated by in vitro experiments; the results showed that CUR could effectively inhibit DON-exposed activated TNF-α/NF-κB pathway, attenuate DON-induced apoptosis, and alleviate DON-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress through PERK/CHOP pathways, which were verified at both mRNA and protein levels. In conclusion, these promising findings may contribute to the future use of CUR as a novel feed additive to protect livestock from the harmful effects of DON.

Studies of Mycotoxins in Medicinal Plants Conducted Worldwide over the Last Decade: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Exposure Risk Assessment

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins have been reported to be present in medicinal plants. With the growing usage of medicinal plants, contamination of mycotoxins has emerged as one of the biggest threats to global food hygiene and ecological environment, posing a severe threat to human health.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the mycotoxin prevalence and levels in medicinal plants and conduct a risk assessment by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

A thorough search on Web of Science and PubMed was conducted for the last decade, resulting in 54 studies (meeting the inclusion criteria) with 2829 data items that were included in the meta-analysis.

RESULTS

The combined prevalence of mycotoxins in medicinal plants was 1.7% (95% confidence interval, CI = 1.1% - 2.4%), with a mean mycotoxin concentration in medicinal plants of 3.551 µg/kg (95% CI = 3.461 - 3.641 µg/kg). Risk assessment results indicated that aflatoxins and ochratoxin A found in several medicinal plants posed a health risk to humans; additionally, emerging enniatins exhibited possible health risks.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, the study underlines the need for establishing stringent control measures to reduce the severity of mycotoxin contamination in medicinal plants.

Determination of fumonisin content in maize using near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) technology and chemometric methods

Maize (Zea mays L.) is of socioeconomic importance as an essential food for human and animal nutrition. However, cereals are susceptible to attack by mycotoxin-producing fungi, which can damage health. The methods most commonly used to detect and quantify mycotoxins are expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, alternative non-destructive methods are required urgently. The present study aimed to use near-infrared spectroscopy with hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) and multivariate image analysis to develop a rapid and accurate method for quantifying fumonisins in whole grains of six naturally contaminated maize cultivars. Fifty-eight samples, each containing 40 grains, were subjected to NIR-HSI. These were subsequently divided into calibration (38 samples) and prediction sets (20 samples) based on the multispectral data obtained. The averaged spectra were subjected to various pre-processing techniques (standard normal variate (SNV), first derivative, or second derivative). The most effective pre-treatment performed on the spectra was SNV. Partial least squares (PLS) models were developed to quantify the fumonisin content. The final model presented a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.98 and root mean square error of calibration (RMSEC) of 508 µg.kg-1 for the calibration set, an R2 of 0.95 and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 508 µg.kg-1 for the test validation set and a ratio of performance to deviation of 4.7. It was concluded that NIR-HSI with partial least square regression is a rapid, effective, and non-destructive method to determine the fumonisin content in whole maize grains.

Development and validation of a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of 10 mycotoxins in beer of the Chinese market and exposure estimate

Mycotoxins are important risk factors in beer. In this study, a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed to determine 10 mycotoxins in beer within 6 min. The method is fast, efficient, and has a simple and quick sample preparation. Validation was conducted based on the performance standards specified in Commission Decision 657/2002/EC, and the results demonstrated excellent linearity (R2 > 0.99), repeatability (RSD < 5 %), quantification limits (0.005-20.246 µg/L), and recovery rates (77 %-118 %). The prevalence of the 10 mycotoxins in 96 beers purchased from the Chinese market was analyzed, and the exposure of the Chinese population to mycotoxins through beer consumption was assessed. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was detected in 93.75 % of the beers, and the incidence of fumonisins (FBs) and zearalenone (ZEN) exceeded 50 %. Beer intake contributed significantly to the exposure of aflatoxins (AFs) and DON, especially in males. Correlation analysis between mycotoxin content in beer, raw materials, and the brewing process revealed that the brewing process significantly affected the content of DON (P < 0.001), while auxiliary materials also had a significant impact on the content of FBs and DON (P < 0.001). This study holds great significance in producing higher quality and safer beer.

A comprehensive review of mycotoxins: Toxicology, detection, and effective mitigation approaches

Mycotoxins, harmful compounds produced by fungal pathogens, pose a severe threat to food safety and consumer health. Some commonly produced mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and patulin have serious health implications in humans and animals. Mycotoxin contamination is particularly concerning in regions heavily reliant on staple foods like grains, cereals, and nuts. Preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for a sustainable food supply. Chromatographic methods like thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS), are commonly used to detect mycotoxins; however, there is a need for on-site, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods. Currently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular analytical tools for rapid detection. Meanwhile, preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for food safety and a sustainable food supply. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches have been used to inhibit fungal growth and mycotoxin production. However, new strains resistant to conventional methods have led to the exploration of novel strategies like cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) technology, polyphenols and flavonoids, magnetic materials and nanoparticles, and natural essential oils (NEOs). This paper reviews recent scientific research on mycotoxin toxicity, explores advancements in detecting mycotoxins in various foods, and evaluates the effectiveness of innovative mitigation strategies for controlling and detoxifying mycotoxins.

Food-Grade Expression of Two Laccases in Pichia pastoris and Study on Their Enzymatic Degradation Characteristics for Mycotoxins

Mycotoxin contamination poses substantial health risks to humans and animals. In this study, the two laccases PpLac1 and AoLac2 from Pleurotus pulmonarius and Aspergillus oryzae were selected and heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris in a food-grade manner to detoxify aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON). Both laccases exhibited degradation activity toward these three mycotoxins, while the efficiency of these for DON was relatively low. Therefore, molecular docking between these laccases and DON was conducted to analyze their potential interaction mechanisms. Furthermore, the degradation conditions of AFB1 and ZEN by the two laccases were optimized, and the optimal degradation rates for AFB1 and ZEN by PpLac1 reached 78.51 and 78.90%, while those for AFB1 and ZEN by AoLac2 reached 72.27 and 80.60%, respectively. The laccases PpLac1 and AoLac2 successfully transformed AFB1 and ZEN into the compounds AFQ1 and 15-OH-ZEN, which were 90 and 98% less toxic than the original compounds, respectively. Moreover, the culture supernatants demonstrated effective mycotoxin degradation results for AFB1 and ZEN in contaminated feed samples. The residual levels of AFB1 and ZEN in all samples ranged from 6.61 to 8.72 μg/kg and 3.44 to 98.15 μg/kg, respectively, and these levels were below the limit set by the European Union standards. All of the results in this study indicated that the two laccases have excellent application potential in the feed industry.

Mycotoxins and bone growth: a review of the literature on associations between xenobiotic exposure and bone growth and development

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that are known to be associated with linear growth faltering because of their impact on inflammation, intestinal damage, inhibition of protein synthesis, and micronutrient absorption. In this narrative review, we aim to extend this analysis to further explore associations between mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes including deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, and fumonisins) and long-bone growth, particularly during the saltatory periods of development. Linear growth is a direct function of skeletal development and long-bone growth. We therefore explored biological pathways and mechanisms of impact of these toxins in both animal and human studies, in addition to the epidemiology literature (post-2020). Given what is known of the effects of individual and combinations of mycotoxins based on the animal literature, we have identified a need for further research and examination of how these toxins and exposures may be studied in humans to elucidate the downstream impact on bone-related biomarkers and anthropometric indices used to identify and predict stunting in population-based studies.

Assessing human exposure to pesticides and mycotoxins: optimization and validation of a method for multianalyte determination in urine samples

Humans are exposed to an increasing number of contaminants, with diet being one of the most important exposure routes. In this framework, human biomonitoring is considered the gold standard for evaluating human exposure to chemicals. Pesticides and mycotoxins are chemicals of special concern due to their health implications. They constitute the predominant border rejection notifications for food and feed in Europe and the USA. However, current biomonitoring studies are focused on a limited number of compounds and do not evaluate mycotoxins and pesticides together. In this study, an analytical method has been developed for the determination of 30 pesticides and 23 mycotoxins of concern in urine samples. A salting-out liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE) procedure was optimized achieving recoveries between 70 and 120% for almost all the compounds and limits as lower as when QuEChERS was applied. The compounds were then determined by liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Different chromatographic conditions and analytical columns were tested, selecting a Hypersild gold aQ column as the best option. Finally, the method was applied to the analysis of 45 urine samples, in which organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides (detection rates (DR) of 82% and 42%, respectively) and ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol (DR of 51% and 33%, respectively) were the most detected compounds. The proposed analytical method involves the simultaneous determination of a diverse set of pesticides and mycotoxins, including their most relevant metabolites, in human urine. It serves as an essential tool for biomonitoring the presence of highly prevalent contaminants in modern society.

Foodborne Disease Outbreaks Caused by Biotoxins in Yantai City: A 10-Year Spatiotemporal Monitoring Study

Unsafe food causes 600 million cases of foodborne diseases and 420,000 deaths every year. Meanwhile, biological toxins such as poisonous mushrooms, saponins, and aflatoxin can cause significant damage to humans. Therefore, it is particularly important to study foodborne disease outbreaks caused by biotoxins (FDOB). We collected FDOB in Yantai City from 2013 to 2022 and further established a corresponding database. Statistical analysis was carried out according to time, place, pathogen, and contamination of pathogenic factors. There were 128 FDOB, resulting in 417 patients and 6 deaths. The third quarter was a high season for foodborne disease outbreaks, the number of events, patients and deaths accounted for 65.63% (84/128), 55.88% (233/417), and 100% (6/6) of the total number, respectively. The highest number of outbreaks per 10,000 persons was Qixia (0.41), followed by Zhifu (0.36) and Laiyang (0.33). The top three causes of outbreaks were poisonous mushroom toxin, saponins and hemagglutinin, and Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Sixty-five (50.78%) outbreaks were attributed to poisonous mushroom toxin, 18 (14.06%) outbreaks to saponin and hemagglutinin, and 12 (9.38%) outbreaks to L. siceraria (Molina) Standl. The largest number of outbreaks, patients and deaths all occurred in families, accounting for 82.81% (106/128) outbreaks, 66.19% (276/417) patients, and 100% (6/6) deaths, respectively. Followed by catering service establishments, accounting for 14.84% (19/128), 30.22% (126/417), and 0% (0/6), respectively. The main poisoning link of outbreaks was ingestion and misuse, accounting for 72.66% (93/128), followed by improper processing, accounting for 20.31% (26/128). It is necessary to carry out targeted family publicity and education, strengthen the integration of medical and prevention, explore innovative monitoring and early warning mechanisms for foodborne diseases, and reduce the occurrence of underreporting of foodborne disease outbreaks.

27-Hydroxycholesterol/liver X receptor/apolipoprotein E mediates zearalenone-induced intestinal immunosuppression: A key target potentially linking zearalenone and cancer

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that extensively contaminates food and feed, posing a significant threat to public health. However, the mechanisms behind ZEN-induced intestinal immunotoxicity remain unclear. In this study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to ZEN at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day b.w. for a duration of 14 days. The results demonstrated that ZEN exposure led to notable pathological alterations and immunosuppression within the intestine. Furthermore, ZEN exposure caused a significant reduction in the levels of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and liver X receptor (LXR) (P < 0.05). Conversely, it upregulated the levels of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) markers (P < 0.05) and decreased the presence of 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-HC) in the intestine (P < 0.05). It was observed that ApoE or LXR agonists were able to mitigate the immunosuppressive effects induced by ZEN. Additionally, a bioinformatics analysis highlighted that the downregulation of ApoE might elevate the susceptibility to colorectal, breast, and lung cancers. These findings underscore the crucial role of the 27-HC/LXR/ApoE axis disruption in ZEN-induced MDSCs proliferation and subsequent inhibition of T lymphocyte activation within the rat intestine. Notably, ApoE may emerge as a pivotal target linking ZEN exposure to cancer development.

Advancing Global Health Surveillance of Mycotoxin Exposures using Minimally Invasive Sampling Techniques: A State-of-the-Science Review

Mycotoxins are a heterogeneous group of toxins produced by fungi that can grow in staple crops (e.g., maize, cereals), resulting in health risks due to widespread exposure from human consumption and inhalation. Dried blood spot (DBS), dried serum spot (DSS), and volumetric tip microsampling (VTS) assays were developed and validated for several important mycotoxins. This review summarizes studies that have developed these assays to monitor mycotoxin exposures in human biological samples and highlights future directions to facilitate minimally invasive sampling techniques as global public health tools. A systematic search of PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase (Elsevier), and CINAHL (EBSCO) was conducted. Key assay performance metrics were extracted to provide a critical review of the available methods. This search identified 11 published reports related to measuring mycotoxins (ochratoxins, aflatoxins, and fumonisins) using DBS/DSS and VTS assays. Multimycotoxin assays adapted for DBS/DSS and VTS have undergone sufficient laboratory validation for applications in large-scale population health and human biomonitoring studies. Future work should expand the number of mycotoxins that can be measured in multimycotoxin assays, continue to improve multimycotoxin assay sensitivities of several biomarkers with low detection rates, and validate multimycotoxin assays across diverse populations with varying exposure levels. Validated low-cost and ultrasensitive minimally invasive sampling methods should be deployed in human biomonitoring and public health surveillance studies to guide policy interventions to reduce inequities in global mycotoxin exposures.

A new and promiscuous α/β hydrolase from Acinetobacter tandoii DSM 14970 T inactivates the mycotoxin ochratoxin A

The presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in food and feed represents a serious concern since it raises severe health implications. Bacterial strains of the Acinetobacter genus hydrolyse the amide bond of OTA yielding non-toxic OTα and L-β-phenylalanine; in particular, the carboxypeptidase PJ15_1540 from Acinetobacter sp. neg1 has been identified as an OTA-degrading enzyme. Here, we describe the ability to transform OTA of cell-free protein extracts from Acinetobacter tandoii DSM 14970 T, a strain isolated from sludge plants, and also report on the finding of a new and promiscuous α/β hydrolase (ABH), with close homologs highly distributed within the Acinetobacter genus. ABH from A. tandoii (AtABH) exhibited amidase activity against OTA and OTB mycotoxins, as well as against several carboxypeptidase substrates. The predicted structure of AtABH reveals an α/β hydrolase core composed of a parallel, six-stranded β-sheet, with a large cap domain similar to the marine esterase EprEst. Further biochemical analyses of AtABH reveal that it is an efficient esterase with a similar specificity profile as EprEst. Molecular docking studies rendered a consistent OTA-binding mode. We proposed a potential procedure for preparing new OTA-degrading enzymes starting from promiscuous α/β hydrolases based on our results. KEY POINTS: • AtABH is a promiscuous αβ hydrolase with both esterase and amidohydrolase activities • AtABH hydrolyses the amide bond of ochratoxin A rendering nontoxic OTα • Promiscuous αβ hydrolases are a possible source of new OTA-degrading enzymes.

Patulin contamination of hard apple cider by Paecilomyces niveus and other postharvest apple pathogens: Assessing risk factors

Hard apple cider is considered to be a low-risk product for food spoilage and mycotoxin contamination due to its alcoholic nature and associated food sanitation measures. However, the thermotolerant mycotoxin-producing fungus Paecilomyces niveus may pose a significant threat to hard cider producers. P. niveus is known to infect apples (Malus xdomestica), and previous research indicates that it can survive thermal processing and contaminate finished apple juice with the mycotoxin patulin. To determine if hard apple cider is susceptible to a similar spoilage phenomenon, cider apples were infected with P. niveus or one of three patulin-producing Penicillium species and the infected fruits underwent benchtop fermentation. Cider was made with lab inoculated Dabinett and Medaille d'Or apple cultivars, and patulin was quantified before and after fermentation. Results show that all four fungi can infect cider apples and produce patulin, some of which is lost during fermentation. Only P. niveus was able to actively grow throughout the fermentation process. To determine if apple cider can be treated to hinder P. niveus growth, selected industry-grade sanitation measures were tested, including chemical preservatives and pasteurization. High concentrations of preservatives inhibited P. niveus growth, but apple cider flash pasteurization was not found to significantly impact spore germination. This study confirms that hard apple cider is susceptible to fungal-mediated spoilage and patulin contamination. P. niveus is an important concern for hard apple cider producers due to its demonstrated thermotolerance, survival in fermentative environments, and resistance to sanitation measures.

Degradation of deoxynivalenol by a microbial consortia C1 from duck intestine

Deoxynivalenol (DON), one of the most widespread mycotoxins in food and feed, poses a persistent health threat to humans and farm animals, and is difficult to eliminate. The utilization of the biotransformation mechanism by microorganisms to detoxify DON is a promising strategy. Although individual strains are capable of DON degradation, their isolation and purification are challenging and time-consuming. Recently, the microbial consortia concept has been proposed, owing to their ability to perform more complex tasks and are more tolerant to environmental changes than individual strains or species. In this study, the novel microbial consortia C1 that could efficiently convert DON to de-epoxy DON (DOM-1) was screened from the cecum contents of ducks. After 24 h anaerobic incubation, 100 μg/ml DON was completely degraded by C1. In vitro, C1 can effectively degrade DON in corn steep liquor (CSL) with an efficiency of 49.44% within 14 days. Furthermore, C1 effectively alleviated the DON poisoning in mice. After C1 treatment, the serum DON level decreased by 40.39%, and the reduction in serum total protein and albumin levels were mitigated. Additionally, C1 is effective in protecting the mouse liver against 5 mg/kg DON. These findings suggest that C1 could be a promising DON biological detoxifier and provide novel microbial resources for preventing DON contamination.

Associated factors with mycotoxin exposure in Spanish population

Human exposure to mycotoxins is a global concern since filamentous fungi can contaminate food and feed from crops to ready-to-eat meals. Human urine biomonitoring is a widely used technique to evaluate mycotoxins exposure, as an alternative to food correlation studies. The aim of this study is to describe human exposure to mycotoxins and to investigate the associated sociodemographic, lifestyle and dietary variables. Participants were 540 women from the Valencia (Spain) cohort of the Spanish Childhood and Environment Project (INMA). A validated multi-mycotoxin method using HPLC-Q-TOF-MS was applied to determine the concentration of ten selected mycotoxins: Enniatin A, Enniatin B, Enniatin A1, Enniatin B1, Beauvericine, Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin B2, Aflatoxin G1, Aflatoxin G2 and Ochratoxin A. A simultaneous untargeted screening of mycotoxins and their metabolites has been performed. Mycotoxins associations were assessed by bivariate and multivariate regression models using participants' sociodemographic, lifestyle and dietary data collected through questionnaires. Mycotoxins were detected in 81% of urine samples. The method quantified mycotoxins concentrations in up to 151 samples. Most quantified mycotoxins were: Enniatin B [% of detection (concentration range)] = 26% (1.0-39.7 ng/mg) and Enniatin B1 = 7% (0.5-14.4 ng/mg). Besides the ten-targeted mycotoxins, other mycotoxins and metabolites were studied, and higher incidence was observed for Deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (45%), Ochratoxin B (18%) and Ochratoxin α (17%). Higher mycotoxins concentrations were associated with rural areas as well as with participants belonged to lower social class, beer, light sodas and fruit juice consumers. On the contrary, higher processed meat intake was related to lower mycotoxins' levels. Studies are required to better evaluate the exposure to mycotoxins from food and their environmental relationships.

Dietary mycotoxin exposure and human health risks: A protocol for a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate a wide spectrum of essential foods worldwide, such as grain-based products, nuts and spices, causing adverse health effects pertaining to their carcinogenic, nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic nature, among others.

AIM

The aim of this systematic review (SR) is to systematically search for, appraise and synthesize primary research evidence to identify what is known about dietary mycotoxin-related health effects and what remains unknown, as well as the uncertainty around findings and the recommendations for the future.

SEARCH STRATEGY AND ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Search strategies, as well as eligibility criteria were structured according to a predefined PECO (population, exposure, comparison, and outcome) research question and developed in an iterative scoping process. Several bibliographic databases, including Embase, Cochrane Library, Pubmed, Web of Science Core Collection and Scopus, will be searched. Primary research on any measured or modelled dietary exposure to a single or multiple mycotoxins, and adverse human health outcomes (i.e. cancer, non-carcinogenic diseases, and reproductive & developmental adverse outcomes) will be included, and references will be imported into Covidence. In vitro, ex vivo, in silico, animal and review studies, as well as expert's opinions, secondary literature, conference abstracts, presentations, posters, book chapters, dissertations and studies involving non-dietary mycotoxin exposure, will be excluded.

STUDY SELECTION

Two independent reviewers will screen titles and abstracts, and review full-texts. Any disagreements will be resolved by a third reviewer based on two-third majority.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data from retained eligible studies will be extracted by the principal reviewer, and peer-checked by a second reviewer.

STUDY QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Eligible studies will be evaluated for risk of bias (Overall High-Quality Assessment Tool, OHAT) and certainty of evidence (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation, GRADE).

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

A detailed summary of the included studies will be provided within a tabular format and narratively discussed. Heat maps will be constructed to provide information on available knowledge (gaps), and a meta-analysis may be performed based on the variability in predefined PECO elements and depending on the heterogeneity of studies.

CONCLUSION

This protocol describes the methodology for the conduct of a SR on mycotoxin-related human health risks, that could guide future research and inform regulatory decisions, as emphasized by the European Commission within the field of regulatory risk assessment for emerging chemicals.

Influence of sampling location and processing on the assembly and network of Polygoni Multiflori Radix surface microbiome

The raw and processed roots of Polygonum multiflorum Thunb is a popular traditional Chinese medicine. However, Polygoni Multiflori Radix is easily contaminated by toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins during harvesting, processing, and transportation, thereby posing a health risk for consumers. This study aims to investigate the presence of fungi on the surface of raw and processed Polygoni Multiflori Radix collected from four producing areas using high-throughput sequencing. Results showed that the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, the genera Xeromyces, Cystofilobasidium, Eurotium, and Aspergillus were the dominant fungus, and significant differences are presented in four areas and two processed products. Three potential mycotoxin-producing fungi were detected, namely Trichosporon cutaneum, Aspergillus restrictus, and Fusarium oxysporum. The α-diversity and network complexity showed significant differences in four areas. Chao 1 and Shannon were highest in Yunnan (YN), then incrementally decreased from SC (Sichuan) to AH (Anhui) and GD (Guangdong) areas. Meanwhile, α-diversity was also strongly influenced by processing. Chao 1 and Shannon indices were higher in the raw group, however, the network complexity and connectivity were higher in the processed group. In conclusion, the assembly and network of the surface microbiome on Polygoni Multiflori Radix were influenced by sampling location and processing. This work provides details on the surface microbiome of Polygoni Multiflori Radix samples, which could ensure the drug and consumers' safety.

Innovative approaches for mycotoxin detection in various food categories

Mycotoxins (MTs), produced by filamentous fungi, represent a severe hazard to the health of humans and food safety, affecting the quality of various agricultural products. They can contaminate a wide range of foods, during any processing phase before or after harvest. Animals and humans who consume MTs-contaminated food or feed may experience acute or chronic poisoning, which may result in serious pathological consequences. Accordingly, developing rapid, easy, and accurate methods of MTs detection in food becomes highly urgent and critical as a quality control and to guarantee food safety and lower health hazards. In this review, we highlighted and discussed innovative approaches like biosensors, fluorescent polarization, capillary electrophoresis, infrared spectroscopy, and electronic noses for MT identification pointing out current challenges and future directions. The limitations, current challenges, and future directions of conventional detection methods versus innovative methods have also been highlighted and discussed.

A mechanistic toxicology study to grasp the mechanics of zearalenone estrogenicity: Spotlighting aromatase and the effects of its genetic variability

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogen produced by Fusarium fungi contaminating cereals and in grain-based products threatening human and animal health due to its endocrine disrupting effects. Germane to the mechanisms of action, ZEN may activate the estrogen receptors and inhibit the estrogens-producing enzyme aromatase (CYP19A1). Both show single nucleotide variants (SNVs) among humans associated with a diverse susceptibility of being activated or inhibited. These variations might modify the endocrine disrupting action of ZEN, requiring dedicated studies to improve its toxicological understanding. This work focused on human aromatase investigating via 3D molecular modelling whether some of the SNVs reported so far (n = 434) may affect the inhibitory potential of ZEN. It has been also calculated the inhibition capability of α-zearalenol, the most prominent and estrogenically potent phase I metabolite of ZEN, toward those aromatase variants with an expected diverse sensitivity of being inhibited by ZEN. The study: i) described SNVs likely associated with a different susceptibility to ZEN and α-zearalenol inhibition - like T310S that is likely more susceptible to inhibition, or D309G and S478F that are possibly inactive variants; ii) proofed the possible existence of inter-individual susceptibility to ZEN; iii) prioritized aromatase variants for future investigations toward a better comprehension of ZEN xenoestrogenicity at an individual level.

Polysaccharide from walnut green husk alleviates liver inflammation and gluconeogenesis dysfunction by altering gut microbiota in ochratoxin A-induced mice

Walnut green husk polysaccharides (WGP) are isolated from the walnut green husk with a mean molecular weight of 12.77 kDa. The structural characterization revealed by methylation and NMR analysis indicated that WGP might consist of →4-α-D-Galp-(1→, α-D-Galp (1→, and →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→. Previous studies have been demonstrated that WGP effectively prevented liver injury and modulated gut microbiota in high fructose-treated mice and high fat diet-treated rats. In this study, we found for the first time that WGP presenting outstanding protective effects on liver inflammation and gluconeogenesis dysfunction induced by ochratoxin A (OTA) in mice. Firstly, WGP decreased oxidative stress, down-regulated the expression of inflammatory factors and inhibited the TLR4/p65/IκBα pathway in the liver. Then, WGP reversed OTA-induced lower phosphoenolpyruvate carboxyl kinase (PEPCK), and glucose 6-phosphatase (G6PC) activities in the liver. Furthermore, WGP increased the diversity of gut microbiota and the abundance of beneficial bacteria, especially Lactobacillus and Akkermansia. Importantly, the results of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) experiment further confirmed that gut microbiota involved in the protective effects of WGP on liver damage induced by OTA. Our results indicated that the protective effect of WGP on liver inflammation and gluconeogenesis dysfunction caused by OTA may be due to the regulation of gut microbiota.

Biosensors based on core-shell nanoparticles for detecting mycotoxins in food: A review

Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi in the process of infecting agricultural products, posing serious threat to the health of human and animals. Thus, sensitive and reliable analytical techniques for mycotoxin detection are needed. Biosensors equipped with antibodies or aptamers as recognition elements and core-shell nanoparticles (NPs) for the pre-treatment and detection of mycotoxins have been extensively studied. By comparison with monocomponent NPs, core-shell nanostructures exhibit unique optical, electric, magnetic, plasmonic, and catalytic properties due to the combination of functionalities and synergistic effects, resulting in significant improvement of sensing capacities in various platforms, such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence, lateral flow immunoassay and electrochemical sensors. This review focused on the development of core-shell NPs based biosensors for the sensitive and accurate detection of mycotoxins in food samples. Recent developments were categorised and summarised, along with detailed discussion of advantages and shortcomings. The future potential of utilising core-shell NPs in food safety testing was also highlighted.

Overview of Risk Factors for Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma in China

(1) Background: China has the highest esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) incidence areas in the world, with some areas of incidence over 100 per 100,000. Despite extensive public health efforts, its etiology is still poorly understood. This study aims to review and summarize past research into potential etiologic factors for ESCC in China. (2) Methods: Relevant observational and intervention studies were systematically extracted from four databases using key terms, reviewed using Rayyan software, and summarized into Excel tables. (3) Results: Among the 207 studies included in this review, 129 studies were focused on genetic etiologic factors, followed by 22 studies focused on dietary-related factors, 19 studies focused on HPV-related factors, and 37 studies focused on other factors. (4) Conclusions: ESCC in China involves a variety of factors including genetic variations, gene-environment interactions, dietary factors like alcohol, tobacco use, pickled vegetables, and salted meat, dietary behavior such as hot food/drink consumption, infections like HPV, poor oral health, gastric atrophy, and socioeconomic factors. Public health measures should prioritize genetic screening for relevant polymorphisms, conduct comprehensive investigations into environmental, dietary, and HPV influences, enhance oral health education, and consider socioeconomic factors overall as integral strategies to reduce ESCC in high-risk areas of China.

A comprehensive review of microbial contamination in the indoor environment: sources, sampling, health risks, and mitigation strategies

The quality of the indoor environment significantly impacts human health and productivity, especially given the amount of time individuals spend indoors globally. While chemical pollutants have been a focus of indoor air quality research, microbial contaminants also have a significant bearing on indoor air quality. This review provides a comprehensive overview of microbial contamination in built environments, covering sources, sampling strategies, and analysis methods. Microbial contamination has various origins, including human occupants, pets, and the outdoor environment. Sampling strategies for indoor microbial contamination include air, surface, and dust sampling, and various analysis methods are used to assess microbial diversity and complexity in indoor environments. The review also discusses the health risks associated with microbial contaminants, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and their products in indoor air, highlighting the need for evidence-based studies that can relate to specific health conditions. The importance of indoor air quality is emphasized from the perspective of the COVID-19 pandemic. A section of the review highlights the knowledge gap related to microbiological burden in indoor environments in developing countries, using India as a representative example. Finally, potential mitigation strategies to improve microbiological indoor air quality are briefly reviewed.

Strategies to control mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination by nano-semiconductor in food and agro-food: a review

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites generated from toxigenic fungi in the contaminated food and agro-food, which have been regarded as a serious threat to the food safety and human health. Therefore, the control of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination is of great significance and has attracted the increasing attention of researchers. As we know, nano-semiconductors have many unique properties such as large surface area, structural stability, good biocompatibility, excellent photoelectrical properties, and low cost, which have been developed and applied in many research fields. Recently, nano-semiconductors have also been promisingly applied in mitigating or controlling mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contaminations in food and agro-food. In this review, the type, occurrence, and toxicity of main mycotoxins in food and agro-food were introduced. Then, a variety of strategies to mitigate the mycotoxin contamination based on nano-semiconductors involving mycotoxins detection, inhibition of toxigenic fungi, and mycotoxins degradation were summarized. Finally, the outlook, opportunities, and challenges have prospected in the future for the mitigation of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi based on nano-semiconductors.

Aflatoxin M1 decreases the expression of genes encoding tight junction proteins and influences the intestinal epithelial integrity

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a mycotoxin that is commonly found as a milk contaminant, and its presence in milk has been linked to cytotoxicity. The present study aimed to evaluate the acute cytotoxic effects of AFM1 on intestinal Caco-2 cells. Initially, we checked the morphology and viability of Caco-2 cells after treatment with different concentrations of AFM1 (5 ng/L, 50 ng/L, 250 ng/L, 500 ng/L, 1000 ng/L, and 2000 ng/L) for different time intervals (6 h, 12 h, and 24 h). It was found that AFM1 did not show any effect on cell morphology, but 10% decrease in viability above 1000 ng/L after 12 h. Furthermore, DCFDA assay showed increased ROS production after 6 h treatments. qPCR analysis showed an increased expression of epithelial-specific cytoskeleton marker genes, Cytokeratin, Villin, Vimentin, and JAM-1, and a decreased expression of tight junction protein genes, Claudin-1, Occludin, and ZO-1. Similarly, we found an increased expression of Cyp1a1 transcript with an increasing AFM1 concentration and incubation time. This gene expression analysis showed AFM1 can cause disruption of tight junctions between intestinal cells, which was further confirmed by a transwell experiment. In conclusion, consumption of AFM1-contaminated milk does not show any effect on cells morphology and viability but decreases the expression of intestinal barrier transcripts that may lead to the disruption of intestinal barrier function and leaky gut.

Zearalenone-14-glucoside specifically promotes dysplasia of Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue: A natural product for constructing intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia model

INTRODUCTION

Zearalenone-14-glucoside (Z14G) is a modified mycotoxin that widely contaminates food across the world. Our preliminary experiment showed that Z14G degrades to zearalenone (ZEN) in the intestine exerting toxicity. Notably, oral administration of Z14G in rats induces intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the mechanism of Z14G intestinal toxicity and how it differs from ZEN toxicity. We conducted a precise toxicology study on the intestine of rats exposed to Z14G and ZEN using multi-omics technology.

METHODS

Rats were exposed to ZEN (5 mg/kg), Z14G-L (5 mg/kg), Z14G-H (10 mg/kg), and pseudo germ free (PGF)-Z14G-H (10 mg/kg) for 14 days. Histopathological studies were performed on intestines from each group and compared. Metagenomic, metabolomic, and proteomic analyses were performed on rat feces, serum, and intestines, respectively.

RESULTS

Histopathological studies showed that Z14G exposure resulted in dysplasia of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) compared to ZEN exposure. The elimination of gut microbes in the PGF-Z14G-H group alleviated or eliminated Z14G-induced intestinal toxicity and GALT dysplasia. Metagenomic analysis revealed that Z14G exposure significantly promoted the proliferation of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides compared to ZEN. Metabolomic analysis showed that Z14G exposure significantly reduced bile acid, while proteomic analysis found that Z14G exposure significantly reduced the expression of C-type lectins compared to ZEN.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experimental results and previous research suggest that Z14G is hydrolyzed to ZEN by Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides promoting their co-trophic proliferation. This leads to inactivation of lectins by hyperproliferative Bacteroides when ZEN caused intestinal involvement, resulting in abnormal lymphocyte homing and ultimately GALT dysplasia. It is noteworthy that Z14G is a promising model drug to establish rat models of intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia (INLH), which is of great significance for studying the pathogenesis, drug screening and clinical application of INLH.

Mycotoxin Determination in Peaches and Peach Products with a Modified QuEChERS Extraction Procedure Coupled with UPLC-MS/MS Analysis

Peaches are the most significant temperate fruit crop worldwide. However, peach fruits are susceptible to fungal and mycotoxin contamination. Consequently, monitoring the residual levels of multiple mycotoxins in peaches and related products is essential. In this study, a novel method based on QuEChERS extraction, followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) detection, was developed for analyzing 14 mycotoxins in peaches and peach products from China. Matrix-matched calibrations were employed to accurately quantify the mycotoxins and compensate for matrix effects. Recoveries for the target analytes ranged from 84.6% to 117.6%, with intra-day and inter-day precision below 20%. The limits of quantification were 2 or 5 μg/L for the 14 mycotoxins. This method was utilized to detect the presence of target mycotoxins in 109 fresh peaches, 100 diseased peaches, and 89 peach products from China. Six mycotoxins were identified in the rotten parts of the diseased peaches, with concentrations ranging from 5.2 to 1664.3 µg/kg. In the remaining parts of the diseased peach samples, only two toxins, alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), were quantified at levels of 15.3 µg/kg and 15.5 µg/kg, respectively. No mycotoxins were detected in fresh peaches. For peach products, all contamination levels were below the quantitative limits and significantly lower than the maximum legal limits established for the products.

Bibliometric study of immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), recognized as a significant global health concern, ranks as the sixth most prevalent form of cancer and is the third leading cause of cancer-associated mortality. Over half of HCC patients are diagnosed at advanced stages, an unfortunate phenomenon primarily attributed to the liver's robust compensatory mechanisms. Given the limited availability of donor livers, existing clinical surgical approaches have yet to provide universally applicable treatment strategies offering substantial prognostic improvement for late-stage cancer. Although the past few decades have witnessed significant advancements in chemotherapy and targeted therapy for HCC, the emergence of drug resistance poses a substantial impediment to their successful execution. Furthermore, issues such as diminished quality of life post-treatment and high treatment costs warrant critical attention. Consequently, the imperative for an effective treatment strategy for advanced liver cancer is unequivocal. In recent years, notable progress in the development and application of immunotherapy has sparked a revolution in advanced liver cancer treatment. This study aims to elucidate a more comprehensive understanding of the current landscape, knowledge framework, research focal points, and nascent breakthrough trends in the domain of immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma via bibliometric analysis.

Method

Our study involved conducting a comprehensive literature search spanning from 1999 through December 31, 2022, by utilizing the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-Expanded) database. Our aim was to amass all the papers and reviews related to immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Our search strategy yielded a total of 4,486 papers. After exclusion of self-citations, we focused our analysis on 68,925 references. These references were cited 119,523 times (excluding 97,941 self-citations), boasting an average citation frequency of 26.64 times per paper, and achieved an h-index of 135. We employed analytical software tools like Citespace and VOSviewer to perform an intricate analysis of the amassed literature, covering various aspects, including geographical location, research institutions, publishing journals, authors, references, and keywords. Our method incorporated timeline analysis, burst detection, and co-occurrence analysis. The application of these tools facilitated a thorough evaluation of research hotspots, knowledge structure, and emerging advancements within the sphere of immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Results

Our bibliometric analysis disclosed a noteworthy escalation in the number of publications in the realm of hepatocellular carcinoma immunotherapy during the years 2021-2022, surpassing the aggregate number of papers published in the preceding decade (2011-2020). This surge underscores a sharp upturn in research interest within this field. Additionally, the research hotspot in hepatocellular carcinoma immunotherapy has perceptibly deviated from the preceding decade's trends. In terms of geographical distribution, China emerged as the leading country, producing 50.08% of the total publications. This was followed by the United States, with 963 papers, and Japan, contributing 335 papers. Among research institutions, Sun Yat-sen University was the most prolific, while Tim F. Greten stood out as the most published author with 42 papers to his credit. A co-reference network examination uncovered a shift in research emphasis within the field of hepatocellular carcinoma immunotherapy, highlighting the evolving nature of this important area of study.

Conclusion

Our bibliometric study highlights the significant evolution and growth in HCC immunotherapy research over the past two decades. Looking ahead, research will focus on improving the microenvironment post-drug resistance from immune combination therapy, harnessing adoptive cellular immunity (as CAR-T), subclassify the population and developing new tumor markers. Incorporation of technologies such as nanotechnology, microbiology, and gene editing will further advance HCC treatments. This progressive trajectory in the field promises a brighter future for individuals suffering from HCC.

Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Products and Their Impacts on the Health of Humans, Livestock Animals and Pets

Cereal grains are the most important food staples for human beings and livestock animals. They can be processed into various types of food and feed products such as bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, cake, snacks, beer, complete feed, and pet foods. However, cereal grains are vulnerable to the contamination of soil microorganisms, particularly molds. The toxigenic fungi/molds not only cause quality deterioration and grain loss, but also produce toxic secondary metabolites, mycotoxins, which can cause acute toxicity, death, and chronic diseases such as cancer, immunity suppression, growth impairment, and neural tube defects in humans, livestock animals and pets. To protect human beings and animals from these health risks, many countries have established/adopted regulations to limit exposure to mycotoxins. The purpose of this review is to update the evidence regarding the occurrence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in cereal grains and cereal-derived food and feed products and their health impacts on human beings, livestock animals and pets. The effort for safe food and feed supplies including prevention technologies, detoxification technologies/methods and up-to-date regulation limits of frequently detected mycotoxins in cereal grains for food and feed in major cereal-producing countries are also provided. Some important areas worthy of further investigation are proposed.

Sampling locations and processing methods shape fungi microbiome on the surface of edible and medicinal Arecae semen

Introduction

Arecae semen, which is derived from the dried ripe seed of Areca catechu L., has been commonly used as one of the major traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). Three types of crude herbal preparations, namely, raw Arecae semen (AS), Arecae semen tostum (SAS), and Arecae semen carbonisata (FAS), are available for different clinical applications in TCMs. Although aflatoxin contamination in Arecae semen has been reported preliminarily, only a few studies have been conducted on fungal contamination.

Methods

In this study, the presence of fungi on the surface of three Arecae semen (AS, SAS, and FAS) that collected from four provinces were investigated using high-throughput sequencing and internal transcribed spacer 2.

Results

Results showed that the phyla Ascomycota (75.45%) and Basidiomycota (14.29%) and the genera Wallemia (7.56%), Botryosphaeria (6.91%), Davidiella (5.14%), and Symbiotaphrina (4.87%) were the dominant fungi, and they presented significant differences in four areas and three processed products (p < 0.05). The α-diversity and network complexity exhibited significant differences in the four sampling locations (p < 0.05), with higher in Yunnan (Chao 1, 213.45; Shannon, 4.61; average degree, 19.96) and Hainan (Chao 1, 198.27; Shannon, 4.21; average degree, 22.46) provinces. Significant differences were noted in the three processed samples; and SAS group had highest α-diversity (Chao 1, 167.80; Shannon, 4.54) and network complexity (average degree, 18.32).

Conclusions

In conclusion, the diversity and composition of microbiome on the surface of Arecae semen were shaped by sampling location and processing methods. This work provides details on the surface microbiome of Arecae semen samples and highlights the importance of roles of origin and processing methods in microbiomes, ensuring drug efficacy and food safety.

Foodborne Diseases Due to Underestimated Hazard of Joint Mycotoxin Exposure at Low Levels and Possible Risk Assessment

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions are made. The importance of low feed/food levels of some target mycotoxins co-contaminations in food and feedstuffs for induction of target foodborne mycotoxicoses is also studied in the available literature. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to possible hazards for animals and humans are also discussed, and appropriate suggestions are made. Some internationally recognized prophylactic measures, management of the risk, and the necessity of elaboration of new international regulations in regard to the maximum permitted levels are also carefully discussed and analysed in the cases of multiple mycotoxin contaminations. The necessity of harmonization of mycotoxin regulations and control measures at international levels is also discussed in order to facilitate food trade between the countries and to ensure global food safety.

Mycotoxins and consumers' awareness: Recent progress and future challenges

While food shortages have become an important challenge, providing safe food resources is a point of interest on a global scale. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are formed through various fungi species. They are mainly spread through diets such as food or beverages. About one quarter of the world's food is spoiled with mycotoxins. As this problem is not resolved, it represents a significant threat to global food security. Besides the current concerns regarding the contamination of food items by these metabolites, the lack of knowledge by consumers and their possible growth and toxin production attracted considerable attention. While globalization provides a favorite condition for some countries, food security still is challenging for most countries. There are various approaches to reducing the mycotoxigenic fungi growth and formation of mycotoxins in food, include as physical, chemical, and biological processes. The current article will focus on collecting data regarding consumers' awareness of mycotoxins. Furthermore, a critical overview and comparison among different preventative approaches to reduce risk by consumers will be discussed. Finally, the current effect of mycotoxins on global trade, besides future challenges faced by mycotoxin contamination on food security, will be discussed briefly.

Protective role of curcumin on broiler liver by modulating aflatoxin B1-induced DNA methylation and CYPs expression

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of epigenetic DNA methylation and CYPs expression in AFB1-exposed broiler liver and the protective effect of curcumin. Sixty-four one-day-old AA broilers were randomly divided into four groups, including control group, AFB1 group (1 mg/kg AFB1), curcumin + AFB1 group (1 mg/kg curcumin) and curcumin group (300 mg/kg curcumin). Histological observation, CYP450 enzyme activities, the expression levels of DNA methyltransferases and CYP450 enzymes, and the overall DNA methylation level in broiler liver were investigated. Dietary AFB1 was found to induce severe liver injury in broilers, upregulate the mRNA and protein expression of CYP450 enzymes (CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP3A4) and the enzyme activities of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4. According to HPLC, qPCR and western blot analyses, the overall DNA methylation level and the mRNA and protein expression of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3a and DNMT3b) in the liver were significantly increased after AFB1 exposure. Importantly, the Pearson test and correlation analysis data revealed that the overall DNA methylation level of broiler liver was positively correlated with DNMTs, while CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 were negatively correlated. Surprisingly, curcumin supplementation strongly ameliorated AFB1-induced hepatotoxicity by restoring the histological changes, decreasing the expression and enzymatic activity of liver CYP450 enzymes (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP3A4), and increasing the overall DNA methylation level and the expression of DNMTs. Taken together, we concluded that curcumin could protect against AFB1-induced liver injury by mediating the effects of DNA methylation and CYPs expression.

Current Insights in Fungal Importance-A Comprehensive Review

Besides plants and animals, the Fungi kingdom describes several species characterized by various forms and applications. They can be found in all habitats and play an essential role in the excellent functioning of the ecosystem, for example, as decomposers of plant material for the cycling of carbon and nutrients or as symbionts of plants. Furthermore, fungi have been used in many sectors for centuries, from producing food, beverages, and medications. Recently, they have gained significant recognition for protecting the environment, agriculture, and several industrial applications. The current article intends to review the beneficial roles of fungi used for a vast range of applications, such as the production of several enzymes and pigments, applications regarding food and pharmaceutical industries, the environment, and research domains, as well as the negative impacts of fungi (secondary metabolites production, etiological agents of diseases in plants, animals, and humans, as well as deteriogenic agents).

Humic acids alleviate aflatoxin B1-induced hepatic injury by reprogramming gut microbiota and absorbing toxin

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a hepatotoxic fungal metabolite that is widely present in food and can cause liver cancer. As a potential detoxifier, naturally occurring humic acids (HAs) may be able to reduce inflammation and restructure the gut microbiota composition; however, little is known about the mechanism of HAs detoxification as applied to liver cells. In this study, HAs treatment alleviated AFB1-induced liver cell swelling and the infiltration of inflammatory cells. HAs treatment also reinstated various enzyme levels in the liver disturbed by AFB1 and substantially alleviated AFB1-caused oxidative stress and inflammatory responses by enhancing immune functions in mice. Moreover, HAs increased the length of the small intestinal and villus height to restore intestinal permeability, which is impaired by AFB1. In addition, HAs reconstructed the gut microbiota, increasing the relative abundance of Desulfovibrio, Odoribacter, and Alistipes. In vitro and in vivo assays demonstrated that HAs could efficiently remove AFB1 by absorbing the toxin. Therefore, HAs treatment can ameliorate AFB1-induced hepatic injury by enhancing gut barrier function, regulating gut microbiota, and adsorbing toxin.

Chemical decontamination of foods using non-thermal plasma-activated water

The presence of chemical contaminants in foods and agricultural products is one of the major safety issues worldwide, posing a serious concern to human health. Nonthermal plasma (NTP) containing richly reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) has been trialed as a potential decontamination method. Yet, this technology comes with multiple downsides, including adverse effects on the quality of treated foods and limited exposure to entire surfaces on samples with hard-to-reach spots, further hindering real-life applications. Therefore, plasma-activated water (PAW) has been recently developed to facilitate the interactions between RONS and contaminant molecules in the liquid phase, allowing a whole surface treatment with efficient chemical degradation. Here, we review the recent advances in PAW utilized as a chemical decontamination agent in foods. The reaction mechanisms and the main RONS contributors involved in the PAW-assisted removal of chemical contaminants are briefly outlined. Also, the comprehensive effects of these treatments on food qualities (chemical and physical characteristics) and toxicological evaluation of PAW (in vitro and in vivo) are thoroughly discussed. Ultimately, we identified some current challenges and provided relevant suggestions, which can further promote PAW research for real-life applications in the future.

Fungi and cancer

The microbiome may impact cancer development, progression and treatment responsiveness, but its fungal components remain insufficiently studied in this context. In this review, we highlight accumulating evidence suggesting a possible involvement of commensal and pathogenic fungi in modulation of cancer-related processes. We discuss the mechanisms by which fungi can influence tumour biology, locally by activity exerted within the tumour microenvironment, or remotely through secretion of bioactive metabolites, modulation of host immunity and communications with neighbouring bacterial commensals. We examine prospects of utilising fungi-related molecular signatures in cancer diagnosis, patient stratification and assessment of treatment responsiveness, while highlighting challenges and limitations faced in performing such research. In all, we demonstrate that fungi likely constitute important members of mucosal and tumour-residing microbiomes. Exploration of fungal inter-kingdom interactions with the bacterial microbiome and the host and decoding of their causal impacts on tumour biology may enable their harnessing into cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Loss of the Novel Mitochondrial Membrane Protein FAM210B Is Associated with Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive and challenging disease to treat. Due to the lack of effective early diagnosis and therapy for the illness, it is crucial to identify novel biomarkers that can predict tumor behavior in HCC. In such cases, family with sequence similarity 210 member B (FAM210B) is abundant in various human tissues, but its regulatory mechanisms and role in various tissues remain unclear. In this study, we analyzed the expression pattern of FAM210B in HCC using public gene expression databases and clinical tissue samples. Our results confirmed that FAM210B was dysregulated in both HCC cell lines and HCC paraffin section samples. FAM210B depletion significantly increased the capacity of cells to grow, migrate, and invade in vitro, while overexpression of FAM210B suppressed tumor growth in a xenograft tumor model. Furthermore, we identified FAM210B's involvement in MAPK signaling and p-AKT signaling pathways, both of which are known oncogenic signaling pathways. In summary, our study provides a rational basis for the further investigation of FAM210B as a valuable biological marker for diagnosing and predicting the prognosis of HCC patients.

Occurrence of zearalenone in dairy farms - A study on the determinants of exposure and risk assessment

The Azorean dairy industry is based on a semi-intensive model. Due to the few storage facilities and the large climatic fluctuations that characterize the Azores, the complete feed mixture (total mixed ration - TMR) is susceptible to the proliferation of a variety of fungi and mycotoxin contamination. Thus, chronic ingestion of these xenobiotics may lead to increased susceptibility to disease, loss of reproductive performance and, in the case of dairy cattle, decreased productivity and quality of milk produced. Since it is impossible to eliminate completely the presence of mycotoxins, it is essential to ensure the implementation of strategies to reduce their concentration in products intended for food and feed, as well as to monitor and control the levels present in food. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence zearalenone (ZEA) in feed (TMR) in four dairy cattle farms on the Azorean Island of São Miguel and relate it to the occurrence of this mycotoxin in the milk produced, by associating several production and health indicators translated by the monthly milk contrast. To this end, the monthly milk contrast data, the determination of ZEA in the ingested feed and the (individual) milk samples from the four farms included in the study were used. Eighty-three (98.8%) of the milk samples under study had detectable ZEA levels (1.56 ± 1.36 μg/L), higher than reported in previous similar studies. Although ZEA concentration was not significantly associated with any production indicator analyzed (days in milk, age at calving, milk yield, protein content, butyrate content, somatic cell concentration and urea), it was found that the production regime and type of feed management is a major factor in the exposure of animals to high mycotoxin contents. Further studies are recommended to ensure continued monitoring and reduction of the risk associated with exposure of animals and humans to ZEA.

Prevalence and Concentration of Mycotoxins in Animal Feed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This study seeks a comprehensive meta-analysis of mycotoxin contaminants in animal feed consumed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The obtained articles were reviewed, and 49 articles that investigated the contamination of mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), T-2 toxin, fumonisins (FUM), and ochratoxin A (OTA), in feed samples or components of animal feed in the MENA region were selected. The titles of the final articles included in the study were meta-analyzed. Necessary information was extracted and categorized from the articles, and a meta-analysis was performed using Stata software. The highest contamination was in dry bread (80%), and Algeria was the most contaminated country (87% of animal feed), with the most mycotoxins contaminating AFs (47%) and FUM (47%). The highest concentration of mycotoxins in animal feed is related to FUM (1240.01 μg/kg). Climate change, economic situation, agricultural and processing methods, the nature of the animal feed, and improper use of food waste in animal feed are among the most critical factors that are effective in the occurrence of mycotoxin contamination in animal feed in MENA. Control of influential factors in the occurrence of contaminations and rapid screening with accurate identification methods to prevent the occurrence and spread of mycotoxin contamination of animal feed seem important.