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Sun Y, Liang M, Zhao F, Su L. Research Progress on Biological Accumulation, Detection and Inactivation Technologies of Norovirus in Oysters. Foods 2023; 12:3891. [PMID: 37959010 PMCID: PMC10649127 DOI: 10.3390/foods12213891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) are major foodborne pathogens that cause acute gastroenteritis. Oysters are significant carriers of this pathogen, and disease transmission from the consumption of NoVs-infected oysters occurs worldwide. The review discusses the mechanism of NoVs bioaccumulation in oysters, particularly the binding of histo-blood group antigen-like (HBGA-like) molecules to NoVs in oysters. The review explores the factors that influence NoVs bioaccumulation in oysters, including temperature, precipitation and water contamination. The review also discusses the detection methods of NoVs in live oysters and analyzes the inactivation effects of high hydrostatic pressure, irradiation treatment and plasma treatment on NoVs. These non-thermal processing treatments can remove NoVs efficiently while retaining the original flavor of oysters. However, further research is needed to reduce the cost of these technologies to achieve large-scale commercial applications. The review aims to provide novel insights to reduce the bioaccumulation of NoVs in oysters and serve as a reference for the development of new, rapid and effective methods for detecting and inactivating NoVs in live oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqiang Sun
- College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Y.S.); (M.L.)
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Meina Liang
- College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Y.S.); (M.L.)
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Feng Zhao
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Chongqing 404100, China;
| | - Laijin Su
- College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (Y.S.); (M.L.)
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
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2
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Desdouits M, Reynaud Y, Philippe C, Guyader FSL. A Comprehensive Review for the Surveillance of Human Pathogenic Microorganisms in Shellfish. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2218. [PMID: 37764063 PMCID: PMC10537662 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11092218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Bivalve molluscan shellfish have been consumed for centuries. Being filter feeders, they may bioaccumulate some microorganisms present in coastal water, either naturally or through the discharge of human or animal sewage. Despite regulations set up to avoid microbiological contamination in shellfish, human outbreaks still occur. After providing an overview showing their implication in disease, this review aims to highlight the diversity of the bacteria or enteric viruses detected in shellfish species, including emerging pathogens. After a critical discussion of the available methods and their limitations, we address the interest of technological developments using genomics to anticipate the emergence of pathogens. In the coming years, further research needs to be performed and methods need to be developed in order to design the future of surveillance and to help risk assessment studies, with the ultimate objective of protecting consumers and enhancing the microbial safety of bivalve molluscan shellfish as a healthy food.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Françoise S. Le Guyader
- Ifremer, Unité Microbiologie Aliment Santé et Environnement, RBE/LSEM, 44311 Nantes, France; (M.D.); (Y.R.); (C.P.)
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3
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Li Y, Xue L, Gao J, Cai W, Zhang Z, Meng L, Miao S, Hong X, Xu M, Wu Q, Zhang J. A systematic review and meta-analysis indicates a substantial burden of human noroviruses in shellfish worldwide, with GII.4 and GII.2 being the predominant genotypes. Food Microbiol 2023; 109:104140. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2022.104140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Abstract
Contamination of oysters with a variety of viruses is one key pathway to trigger outbreaks of massive oyster mortality as well as human illnesses, including gastroenteritis and hepatitis. Much effort has gone into examining the fate of viruses in contaminated oysters, yet the current state of knowledge of nonlinear virus-oyster interactions is not comprehensive because most studies have focused on a limited number of processes under a narrow range of experimental conditions. A framework is needed for describing the complex nonlinear virus-oyster interactions. Here, we introduce a mathematical model that includes key processes for viral dynamics in oysters, such as oyster filtration, viral replication, the antiviral immune response, apoptosis, autophagy, and selective accumulation. We evaluate the model performance for two groups of viruses, those that replicate in oysters (e.g., ostreid herpesvirus) and those that do not (e.g., norovirus), and show that this model simulates well the viral dynamics in oysters for both groups. The model analytically explains experimental findings and predicts how changes in different physiological processes and environmental conditions nonlinearly affect in-host viral dynamics, for example, that oysters at higher temperatures may be more resistant to infection by ostreid herpesvirus. It also provides new insight into food treatment for controlling outbreaks, for example, that depuration for reducing norovirus levels is more effective in environments where oyster filtration rates are higher. This study provides the foundation of a modeling framework to guide future experiments and numerical modeling for better prediction and management of outbreaks. IMPORTANCE The fate of viruses in contaminated oysters has received a significant amount of attention in the fields of oyster aquaculture, food quality control, and public health. However, intensive studies through laboratory experiments and in situ observations are often conducted under a narrow range of experimental conditions and for a specific purpose in their respective fields. Given the complex interactions of various processes and nonlinear viral responses to changes in physiological and environmental conditions, a theoretical framework fully describing the viral dynamics in oysters is warranted to guide future studies from a top-down design. Here, we developed a process-based, in-host modeling framework that builds a bridge for better communications between different disciplines studying virus-oyster interactions.
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Pouillot R, Smith M, Van Doren JM, Catford A, Holtzman J, Calci KR, Edwards R, Goblick G, Roberts C, Stobo J, White J, Woods J, DePaola A, Buenaventura E, Burkhardt W. Risk Assessment of Norovirus Illness from Consumption of Raw Oysters in the United States and in Canada. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2022; 42:344-369. [PMID: 34121216 PMCID: PMC9291475 DOI: 10.1111/risa.13755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Human norovirus (NoV) is the leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States and Canada. Bivalve molluscan shellfish is one commodity commonly identified as being a vector of NoV. Bivalve molluscan shellfish are grown in waters that may be affected by contamination events, tend to bioaccumulate viruses, and are frequently eaten raw. In an effort to better assess the elements that contribute to potential risk of NoV infection and illness from consumption of bivalve molluscan shellfish, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services/Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Health Canada (HC), the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), and Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) collaborated to conduct a quantitative risk assessment for NoV in bivalve molluscan shellfish, notably oysters. This study describes the model and scenarios developed and results obtained to assess the risk of NoV infection and illness from consumption of raw oysters harvested from a quasi-steady-state situation. Among the many factors that influence the risk of NoV illness for raw oyster consumers, the concentrations of NoV in the influent (raw, untreated) and effluent (treated) of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) were identified to be the most important. Thus, mitigation and control strategies that limit the influence from human waste (WWTP outfalls) in oyster growing areas have a major influence on the risk of illness from consumption of those oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Régis Pouillot
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration5001 Campus DriveCollege ParkMD20740USA
| | - Mark Smith
- Health Canada251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway Tunney's Pasture, Mail Stop 2204EOttawaONK1A 0K9Canada
| | - Jane M. Van Doren
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration5001 Campus DriveCollege ParkMD20740USA
| | - Angela Catford
- Health Canada251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway Tunney's Pasture, Mail Stop 2204EOttawaONK1A 0K9Canada
| | - Jennifer Holtzman
- Health Canada251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway Tunney's Pasture, Mail Stop 2204EOttawaONK1A 0K9Canada
| | - Kevin R. Calci
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationGulf Coast Seafood LaboratoryDauphin IslandAL36528USA
| | - Robyn Edwards
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency1400 Merivale RoadOttawaONK1A 0Y9Canada
| | - Gregory Goblick
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationGulf Coast Seafood LaboratoryDauphin IslandAL36528USA
| | - Christopher Roberts
- Environment and Climate Change Canada45 Alderney Dr, 7th FloorDartmouthNSB2Y 2N6Canada
| | - Jeffrey Stobo
- Environment and Climate Change Canada45 Alderney Dr, 7th FloorDartmouthNSB2Y 2N6Canada
| | - John White
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency57 Central St., Suite 204SummersidePEC1N 3K9Canada
| | - Jacquelina Woods
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationGulf Coast Seafood LaboratoryDauphin IslandAL36528USA
| | - Angelo DePaola
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationGulf Coast Seafood LaboratoryDauphin IslandAL36528USA
| | - Enrico Buenaventura
- Health Canada251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway Tunney's Pasture, Mail Stop 2204EOttawaONK1A 0K9Canada
| | - William Burkhardt
- U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationGulf Coast Seafood LaboratoryDauphin IslandAL36528USA
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Mancusi A, Capuano F, Girardi S, Di Maro O, Suffredini E, Di Concilio D, Vassallo L, Cuomo MC, Tafuro M, Signorelli D, Pierri A, Pizzolante A, Cerino P, La Rosa G, Proroga YTR, Pierri B. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Bivalve Mollusks by Droplet Digital RT-PCR (dd RT-PCR). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:943. [PMID: 35055765 PMCID: PMC8776039 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19020943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bivalve shellfish are readily contaminated by human pathogens present in waters impacted by municipal sewage, and the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in feces of infected patients and in wastewater has drawn attention to the possible presence of the virus in bivalves. The aim of this study was to collect data on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in bivalve mollusks from harvesting areas of Campania region. A total of 179 samples were collected between September 2019 and April 2021 and were tested using droplet digital RT-PCR (dd RT-PCR) and real-time RT-PCR. Combining results obtained with different assays, SARS-CoV-2 presence was detected in 27/179 (15.1%) of samples. A median viral concentration of 1.1 × 102 and 1.4 × 102 g.c./g was obtained using either Orf1b nsp14 or RdRp/gene E, respectively. Positive results were unevenly distributed among harvesting areas and over time, positive samples being more frequent after January 2021. Partial sequencing of the spike region was achieved for five samples, one of which displaying mutations characteristic of the Alpha variant (lineage B.1.1.7). This study confirms that bivalve mollusks may bioaccumulate SARS-CoV-2 to detectable levels and that they may represent a valuable approach to track SARS-CoV-2 in water bodies and to monitor outbreak trends and viral diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Mancusi
- Department of Food Security Coordination, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (A.M.); (F.C.); (S.G.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Federico Capuano
- Department of Food Security Coordination, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (A.M.); (F.C.); (S.G.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Santa Girardi
- Department of Food Security Coordination, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (A.M.); (F.C.); (S.G.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Orlandina Di Maro
- Department of Food Security Coordination, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (A.M.); (F.C.); (S.G.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Denise Di Concilio
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Lucia Vassallo
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Maria Concetta Cuomo
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Maria Tafuro
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Daniel Signorelli
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Andrea Pierri
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Antonio Pizzolante
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Pellegrino Cerino
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
| | - Giuseppina La Rosa
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Yolande Thérèse Rose Proroga
- Department of Food Security Coordination, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (A.M.); (F.C.); (S.G.); (O.D.M.)
| | - Biancamaria Pierri
- Centro di Referenza Nazionale per l’Analisi e Studio di Correlazione tra Ambiente, Animale e Uomo, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute No. 2, 80055 Portici, Italy; (D.D.C.); (L.V.); (M.C.C.); (M.T.); (D.S.); (A.P.); (A.P.); (P.C.); (B.P.)
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Battistini R, Masotti C, Listorti V, Suffredini E, Maurella C, Garcia-Vozmediano A, Costa E, Iacona F, Orlandi M, Ercolini C, Serracca L. Norovirus Persistence in Oysters to Prolonged Commercial Purification. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10080944. [PMID: 34451408 PMCID: PMC8401112 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10080944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Depuration is generally the main treatment employed for bivalve mollusks harvested from contaminated sites. Commercial depuration has demonstrated to be effective for removal of bacterial pathogens, although it probably provides only limited efficacy against human enteric viruses. We evaluated the quantitative reduction of norovirus (NoV) genogroups I and II in naturally contaminated oysters after 1, 4, and 9 days of depuration. The process was conducted in an authorized depuration plant, and NoV concentration was determined by RT-qPCR according to ISO 15216-1:2017 method. Regardless of the NoV genogroup, our results showed no significant reduction in NoV concentration after 1 day of depuration. Higher mean reduction (68%) was obtained after 4 days of treatment, while no further increase was observed after 9 days. Overall, reduction was highly variable, and none of the trials showed statistically significant reduction in NoV RNA concentration at the end of each depuration period. Indeed, NoV concentration remained high in 70% of samples even after 9 days of depuration, with values ranging between 4.0 × 102 and 2.3 × 104 g.c./g. These results indicate that an extension of commercial depuration time does not appear to be effective for reducing or eliminating NoV in oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Battistini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Chiara Masotti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
| | - Valeria Listorti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Cristiana Maurella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
| | - Aitor Garcia-Vozmediano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
| | - Erica Costa
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL 5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Foods and Animal Origin, 19122 La Spezia, Italy; (E.C.); (F.I.); (M.O.)
| | - Francesco Iacona
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL 5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Foods and Animal Origin, 19122 La Spezia, Italy; (E.C.); (F.I.); (M.O.)
| | - Mino Orlandi
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL 5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Foods and Animal Origin, 19122 La Spezia, Italy; (E.C.); (F.I.); (M.O.)
| | - Carlo Ercolini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
| | - Laura Serracca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d’Aosta, 10154 Turin, Italy; (C.M.); (V.L.); (C.M.); (A.G.-V.); (C.E.); (L.S.)
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8
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Rupnik A, Doré W, Devilly L, Fahy J, Fitzpatrick A, Schmidt W, Hunt K, Butler F, Keaveney S. Evaluation of Norovirus Reduction in Environmentally Contaminated Pacific Oysters During Laboratory Controlled and Commercial Depuration. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2021; 13:229-240. [PMID: 33649884 PMCID: PMC8116253 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-021-09464-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus contamination of oysters is the lead cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis and a significant food safety concern for the oyster industry. Here, norovirus reduction from Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas), contaminated in the marine environment, was studied in laboratory depuration trials and in two commercial settings. Norovirus concentrations were measured in oyster digestive tissue before, during and post-depuration using the ISO 15216-1 quantitative real-time RT-PCR method. Results of the laboratory-based studies demonstrate that statistically significant reductions of up to 74% of the initial norovirus GII concentration was achieved after 3 days at 17-21 °C and after 4 days at 11-15 °C, compared to 44% reduction at 7-9 °C. In many trials norovirus GII concentrations were reduced to levels below 100 genome copies per gram (gcg-1; limit of quantitation; LOQ). Virus reduction was also assessed in commercial depuration systems, routinely used by two Irish oyster producers. Up to 68% reduction was recorded for norovirus GI and up to 90% for norovirus GII reducing the geometric mean virus concentration close to or below the LOQ. In both commercial settings there was a significant difference between the levels of reduction of norovirus GI compared to GII (p < 0.05). Additionally, the ability to reduce the norovirus concentration in oysters to < LOQ differed when contaminated with concentrations below and above 1000 gcg-1. These results indicate that depuration, carried out at elevated (> 11 °C) water temperatures for at least 3 days, can reduce the concentration of norovirus in oysters and therefore consumer exposure providing a practical risk management tool for the shellfish industry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - James Fahy
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Ireland
| | | | | | - Kevin Hunt
- Centre for Food Safety, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Francis Butler
- Centre for Food Safety, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Battistini R, Listorti V, Squadrone S, Pederiva S, Abete MC, Mua R, Ciccotelli V, Suffredini E, Maurella C, Baioni E, Orlandi M, Ercolini C, Serracca L. Occurrence and persistence of enteric viruses, arsenic and biotoxins in Pacific oysters farmed in an Italian production site. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 162:111843. [PMID: 33223135 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The presence of Norovirus (NoV) and Hepatitis E virus (HEV) in non-depurated and depurated oysters raised in the north-west Italian coast was investigated by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Total and inorganic arsenic (As) and the presence of marine biotoxins (DSP, ASP, PSP) by LC-MS were also investigated. NoV was detected through all the sampling period in non depurated and depurated oysters with highest levels during wintertime (>104 genome copies per gram, gc/g) and minimum values in summer below the LOQ (<130/140 gc/g). HEV has never been found as well as biotoxins. Total As concentration was found in oysters in the range 0.45-3.0 mg/kg, while inorganic As was found in all samples in concentrations below the LOQ (<0.020 mg/kg). The study highlights how the 24 h depuration process didn't reduce significantly NoV levels and therefore the high concentration of NoV in oysters could represent a risk for consumers especially during winter and spring months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Battistini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy.
| | - Valeria Listorti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Stefania Squadrone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Sabina Pederiva
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Cesarina Abete
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Roberto Mua
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Valentina Ciccotelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristiana Maurella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Elisa Baioni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Mino Orlandi
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL 5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Foods and Animal Origin, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Carlo Ercolini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Laura Serracca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
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10
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Leduc A, Leclerc M, Challant J, Loutreul J, Robin M, Maul A, Majou D, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. F-Specific RNA Bacteriophages Model the Behavior of Human Noroviruses during Purification of Oysters: the Main Mechanism Is Probably Inactivation Rather than Release. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:e00526-20. [PMID: 32303551 PMCID: PMC7267196 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00526-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoV) are responsible for many shellfish outbreaks. Purification processes may be applied to oysters before marketing to decrease potential fecal pollution. This step is rapidly highly effective in reducing Escherichia coli; nevertheless, the elimination of virus genomes has been described to be much slower. It is therefore important to identify (i) the purification conditions that optimize virus removal and (ii) the mechanism involved. To this end, the effects of oyster stress, nutrients, and the presence of a potential competitor to NoV adhesion during purification were investigated using naturally contaminated oysters. Concentrations of NoV (genomes) and of the viral indicator F-specific RNA bacteriophage (FRNAPH; genomes and infectious particles) were regularly monitored. No significant differences were observed under the test conditions. The decrease kinetics of both virus genomes were similar, again showing the potential of FRNAPH as an indicator of NoV behavior during purification. The T90 (time to reduce 90% of the initial titer) values were 47.8 days for the genogroup I NoV genome, 26.7 days for the genogroup II NoV genome, and 43.9 days for the FRNAPH-II genome. Conversely, monitoring of the viral genomes could not be used to determine the behavior of infectious viruses because the T90 values were more than two times lower for infectious FRNAPH (20.6 days) compared to their genomes (43.9 days). Finally, this study highlighted that viruses are primarily inactivated in oysters rather than released in the water during purification processes.IMPORTANCE This study provides new data about the behavior of viruses in oysters under purification processes and about their elimination mechanism. First, a high correlation has been observed between F-specific RNA bacteriophages of subgroup II (FRNAPH-II) and norovirus (NoV) in oysters impacted by fecal contamination when both are detected using molecular approaches. Second, when using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and culture to detect FRNAPH-II genomes and infectious FRNAPH in oysters, respectively, it appears that genome detection provides limited information about the presence of infectious particles. The comparison of both genomes and infectious particles highlights that the main mechanism of virus elimination in oysters is inactivation. Finally, this study shows that none of the conditions tested modify virus removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Leduc
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, Nancy, France
- ACTALIA, Food Safety Department, Saint-Lô, France
| | | | | | | | - Maëlle Robin
- ACTALIA, Food Safety Department, Saint-Lô, France
| | - Armand Maul
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LIEC, Metz, France
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11
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Abstract
Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in marine environments, however, despite its potential ecological implications, little is known about virus removal by ambient non-host organisms. Here, we examined the effects of a variety of non-host organisms on the removal of viruses. The marine algal virus PgV-07T (infective to Phaeocystis globosa) can be discriminated from bacteriophages using flow cytometry, facilitating its use as a representative model system. Of all the non-host organisms tested, anemones, polychaete larvae, sea squirts, crabs, cockles, oysters and sponges significantly reduced viral abundance. The latter four species reduced viral abundance the most, by 90, 43, 12 and 98% over 24 h, respectively. Breadcrumb sponges instantly removed viruses at high rates (176 mL h−1 g tissue dry wt−1) which continued over an extended period of time. The variety of non-host organisms capable of reducing viral abundance highlights that viral loss by ambient organisms is an overlooked avenue of viral ecology. Moreover, our finding that temperate sponges have the huge potential for constant and effective removal of viruses from the water column demonstrates that natural viral loss has, thus far, been underestimated.
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12
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Amoroso MG, Langellotti AL, Russo V, Martello A, Monini M, Di Bartolo I, Ianiro G, Di Concilio D, Galiero G, Fusco G. Accumulation and Depuration Kinetics of Rotavirus in Mussels Experimentally Contaminated. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2020; 12:48-57. [PMID: 31691900 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-019-09413-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Bivalve mollusks as filter-feeders concentrate in their digestive tissue microorganisms likely present in the harvesting water, thus becoming risky food especially if consumed raw or poorly cooked. To eliminate bacteria and viruses eventually accumulated, they must undergo a depuration process which efficacy on viruses is on debate. To better clarify the worth of the depuration process on virus elimination from mussels, in this study we investigated rotavirus kinetics of accumulation and depuration in Mytilus galloprovincialis experimentally contaminated. Depuration process was monitored for 9 days and virus residual presence and infectivity were evaluated by real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, cell culture and electron microscopy at days 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 of depuration. Variables like presence of ozone and of microalgae feeding were also analyzed as possible depuration enhancers. Results showed a two-phase virus removal kinetic with a high decrease in the first 24 h of depuration and 5 days necessary to completely remove rotavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Grazia Amoroso
- Department of Animal Health, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy, Via Salute, 2, 80055, Portici, NA, Italy.
| | - Antonio Luca Langellotti
- Aquaculture Division, CAISIAL Center, University of Naples Federico II, Via Salute, Portici, NA, Italy
| | - Valeria Russo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples Federico II, Via Delpino 2, Naples, Italy
| | - Anna Martello
- Aquaculture Division, CAISIAL Center, University of Naples Federico II, Via Salute, Portici, NA, Italy
| | - Marina Monini
- Istituto Superiore Di Sanità Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria Di Bartolo
- Istituto Superiore Di Sanità Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Ianiro
- Istituto Superiore Di Sanità Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Denise Di Concilio
- Department of Animal Health, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy, Via Salute, 2, 80055, Portici, NA, Italy
| | - Giorgio Galiero
- Department of Animal Health, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy, Via Salute, 2, 80055, Portici, NA, Italy
| | - Giovanna Fusco
- Department of Animal Health, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy, Via Salute, 2, 80055, Portici, NA, Italy.
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13
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Gyawali P, Fletcher GC, McCoubrey DJ, Hewitt J. Norovirus in shellfish: An overview of post-harvest treatments and their challenges. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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14
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Park H, Jung S, Shin H, Ha SD, Park TJ, Park JP, Seo DJ, Choi C. Localization and persistence of hepatitis A virus in artificially contaminated oysters. Int J Food Microbiol 2019; 299:58-63. [PMID: 30954876 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Bivalve molluscan shellfish, such as oysters, clams, and cockles, are well-recognized as vectors that concentrate foodborne pathogens by filter feeding. The objective of this study was to investigate the distribution and persistence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in experimentally contaminated oysters that were either fed or not fed with algae. Oysters were experimentally contaminated with HAV and maintained in depuration conditions. qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and in situ hybridization (ISH) were performed on oyster samples collected at 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 days post-inoculation. When HAV-contaminated oysters were depurated for 7 days, HAV was detected in 91.1-97.8% of the digestive glands and gills. While the high viral load in the digestive glands in oysters did not change significantly regardless of algae-feeding, the viral load of the gills gradually decreased in both groups during the depuration. HAV antigen and RNA were detected in the digestive diverticula and connective tissues by both IHC and ISH. HAV was detected in the stomach, intestine, and gills by only ISH. The distribution of HAV in various oyster tissues may explain the persistence of contamination in oysters during the depuration process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunkyung Park
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Soontag Jung
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Hansaem Shin
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Do Ha
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Jung Park
- Department of Chemistry, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Pil Park
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 38610, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Joo Seo
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Gwangju University, Gwangju 61743, Republic of Korea
| | - Changsun Choi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea.
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15
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Schaeffer J, Treguier C, Piquet JC, Gachelin S, Cochennec-Laureau N, Le Saux JC, Garry P, Le Guyader FS. Improving the efficacy of sewage treatment decreases norovirus contamination in oysters. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 286:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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16
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Polo D, Schaeffer J, Teunis P, Buchet V, Le Guyader FS. Infectivity and RNA Persistence of a Norovirus Surrogate, the Tulane Virus, in Oysters. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:716. [PMID: 29706939 PMCID: PMC5906594 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Oysters, being filter feeders, can accumulate some human pathogens such as norovirus, a highly infectious calicivirus, most common cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Accumulated virus decays over a period of days to weeks, possibly rendering contaminated oysters safe again. Sensitive molecular methods have been set up for shellfish analysis but without answering the question of infectious virus detection. Using the Tulane virus (TV), a norovirus surrogate that recognizes the same ligand as human norovirus in oyster tissues, the genome and infectious virus decay rates were estimated using inverse linear regression in a Bayesian framework for genome copies. Infectivity decreased faster than genome copies but infectious viruses were detected for several days. Quantifying the decrease in viral infectivity and genome detection in oysters over such a long period may help local authorities to manage production areas implicated in shellfish-borne outbreaks, and thus protect consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Polo
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Laboratoire Santé, Environnement et Microbiologie-Santé, Génétique et Microbiologie des Mollusques, Institut Français de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER), Nantes, France
| | - Julien Schaeffer
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Laboratoire Santé, Environnement et Microbiologie-Santé, Génétique et Microbiologie des Mollusques, Institut Français de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER), Nantes, France
| | - Peter Teunis
- Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Vincent Buchet
- Laboratoire Sécurisation des Productions en Conchyliculture/Santé, Génétique et Microbiologie des Mollusques, Institut Français de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER), Bouin, France
| | - Françoise S Le Guyader
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Laboratoire Santé, Environnement et Microbiologie-Santé, Génétique et Microbiologie des Mollusques, Institut Français de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER), Nantes, France
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17
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Kim JH, Shim KB, Shin SB, Park K, Oh EG, Son KT, Yu H, Lee HJ, Mok JS. Comparison of bioaccumulation and elimination of Escherichia coli and male-specific bacteriophages by ascidians and bivalves. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:28268-28276. [PMID: 29159436 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0736-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Levels of Escherichia coli and male-specific bacteriophages (MSBs) were determined in the filter feeders obtained from retail markets, commercial farms, and wild beds in Korea. The accumulation and elimination of E. coli and MSBs were compared between ascidians and bivalves (oysters and mussels) during relaying and depuration. E. coli concentrations in ascidians from retail markets ranged between < 20 and 460 most probable number/100 g while MSBs were not detected. E. coli levels in bivalves from commercial farms and wild beds were not significantly different but bacterial levels in ascidians were consistently lower. Ascidians exhibited much lower ability than bivalves to accumulate E. coli and MSBs during relaying in a polluted coastal area. This study also shows that an equilibrium was developed between levels of microbes in water and ascidians and shellfish during relaying. E. coli and MSBs in ascidians decreased quickly during depuration in a clean seawater tank. However, after 1 day, E. coli in bivalves decreased by only 1.1-1.6 logs, and the elimination of MSBs was negligible. Therefore, depuration is an effective means to reduce the health risk of contaminated ascidians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hoe Kim
- Food Safety and Processing Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Kil Bo Shim
- Food Safety and Processing Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Soon Beum Shin
- South Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Yeosu, 59780, Republic of Korea
| | - Kunbawui Park
- Food Safety and Processing Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Gyoung Oh
- Food Safety and Processing Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang Tae Son
- West Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Incheon, 22383, Republic of Korea
| | - Hongsik Yu
- Southeast Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Tongyeong, 53085, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Jung Lee
- South Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Yeosu, 59780, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Soo Mok
- Food Safety and Processing Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea.
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18
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McLeod C, Polo D, Le Saux JC, Le Guyader FS. Depuration and Relaying: A Review on Potential Removal of Norovirus from Oysters. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2017; 16:692-706. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine McLeod
- Seafood Safety Assessment Ltd.; Hillcrest Isle of Skye IV44 8RG Scotland
| | - David Polo
- Ifremer, Laboratoire de Microbiologie; LSEM/SG2M; 44300 Nantes France
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19
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Goyal SM, Cannon JL. Human and Animal Viruses in Food (Including Taxonomy of Enteric Viruses). VIRUSES IN FOODS 2016. [PMCID: PMC7122939 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-30723-7_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increase in the incidence of foodborne diseases worldwide, with viruses now being recognized as a major cause of these illnesses. The most common viruses implicated in foodborne disease are enteric viruses, which are found in the human gastrointestinal tract, excreted in human feces and transmitted by the fecal-oral route. Many different viruses are found in the gastrointestinal tract but not all are recognized as foodborne pathogens. The diseases caused by enteric viruses fall into three main types: gastroenteritis, enterically transmitted hepatitis, and illnesses that can affect other parts of the body such as the eye, the respiratory system and the central nervous system leading to conjunctivitis, poliomyelitis, meningitis and encephalitis. Viral pathogens excreted in human feces include noroviruses, sapoviruses, enteroviruses, adenoviruses, hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E virus (HEV), rotaviruses, and astroviruses. Most of these viruses have been associated with foodborne disease outbreaks. Noroviruses and HAV are commonly identified as foodborne causes of gastroenteritis and acute hepatitis, respectively.
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20
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Cook N, Knight A, Richards GP. Persistence and Elimination of Human Norovirus in Food and on Food Contact Surfaces: A Critical Review. J Food Prot 2016; 79:1273-94. [PMID: 27357051 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-15-570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This critical review addresses the persistence of human norovirus (NoV) in water, shellfish, and processed meats; on berries, herbs, vegetables, fruits, and salads; and on food contact surfaces. The review focuses on studies using NoV; information from studies involving only surrogates is not included. It also addresses NoV elimination or inactivation by various chemical, physical, or processing treatments. In most studies, persistence or elimination was determined by detection and quantification of the viral genome, although improved methods for determining infectivity have been proposed. NoV persisted for 60 to 728 days in water, depending on water source. It also persisted on berries, vegetables, and fruit, often showing <1-log reduction within 1 to 2 weeks. NoV was resilient on carpets, Formica, stainless steel, polyvinyl chloride, and ceramic surfaces; during shellfish depuration; and to repeated freeze-thaw cycles. Copper alloy surfaces may inactivate NoV by damaging viral capsids. Disinfection was achieved for some foods or food contact surfaces using chlorine, calcium or sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, high hydrostatic pressure, high temperatures, pH values >8.0, freeze-drying, and UV radiation. Ineffective disinfectants included hydrogen peroxide, quaternary ammonium compounds, most ethanol-based disinfectants, and antiseptics at normally used concentrations. Thorough washing of herbs and produce was effective in reducing, but not eliminating, NoV in most products. Washing hands with soap generally reduced NoV by <2 log. Recommendations for future research needs are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Cook
- Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK
| | - Angus Knight
- Leatherhead Food Research, Leatherhead, Surrey, KT22 7RY, UK
| | - Gary P Richards
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Dover, Delaware 19901, USA.
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21
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Cormier J, Janes M. Concentration and detection of hepatitis A virus and its indicator from artificial seawater using zeolite. J Virol Methods 2016; 235:1-8. [PMID: 27150045 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection is the leading worldwide cause of acute viral hepatitis, and outbreaks caused by this virus often occur in fecal polluted waters. Rapid concentration and detection of viral contamination in water environments can prevent economic loss and can identify the source of contamination within a short time. However, conventional methods for virus concentration are often laborious, time consuming, and subject to clogging. Furthermore, most methods require a secondary concentration step to reduce the final volume of samples. We developed a method to concentrate HAV from seawater using zeolite in aid of rapid detection. In this method,artificial seawater was inoculated with HAV (7-8 log TCID50) and filtered with zeolite. The viruses were then eluted from zeolite with sodium dodecyl sulfate and detected via real-time PCR (qPCR). Zeolite was able to concentrate HAV from artificial seawater with ∼99% efficiency in less than 5min and was more efficient in seawater than in fresh water. The entire concentration and detection can be done in approximately 2h. Compared to existing methods, this method eliminated the need for a secondary concentration step as well as the necessity to modify the pH or salinity of the seawater during concentration, and was simple and inexpensive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiemin Cormier
- Department of Food Science, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Marlene Janes
- Department of Food Science, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
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22
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Drouaz N, Schaeffer J, Farkas T, Le Pendu J, Le Guyader FS. Tulane Virus as a Potential Surrogate To Mimic Norovirus Behavior in Oysters. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:5249-56. [PMID: 26025893 PMCID: PMC4495214 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01067-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Oyster contamination by noroviruses is an important health and economic problem. The present study aimed to compare the behaviors of Norwalk virus (the prototype genogroup I norovirus) and two culturable viruses: Tulane virus and mengovirus. After bioaccumulation, tissue distributions were quite similar for Norwalk virus and Tulane virus, with the majority of viral particles detected in digestive tissues, while mengovirus was detected in large amounts in the gills and mantle as well as in digestive tissues. The levels of persistence of all three viruses over 8 days were comparable, but clear differences were observed over longer periods, with Norwalk and Tulane viruses displaying rather similar half-lives, unlike mengovirus, which was cleared more rapidly. These results indicate that Tulane virus may be a good surrogate for studying norovirus behavior in oysters, and they confirm the prolonged persistence of Norwalk virus in oyster tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najoua Drouaz
- IFREMER, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, LSEM-SG2M, Nantes, France
| | - Julien Schaeffer
- IFREMER, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, LSEM-SG2M, Nantes, France
| | - Tibor Farkas
- Laboratory of Specialized Clinical Studies, Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Jacques Le Pendu
- INSERM, U892, CNRS, UMR6299, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
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23
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Polo D, Feal X, Varela MF, Monteagudo A, Romalde JL. Depuration kinetics of murine norovirus in shellfish. Food Res Int 2014; 64:182-187. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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24
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Polo D, Álvarez C, Díez J, Darriba S, Longa Á, Romalde JL. Viral elimination during commercial depuration of shellfish. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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25
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Suffredini E, Lanni L, Arcangeli G, Pepe T, Mazzette R, Ciccaglioni G, Croci L. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of viral contamination in bivalve molluscs harvested in Italy. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 184:21-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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26
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Effectiveness of depuration for hepatitis A virus removal from mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 180:24-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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27
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Willis JE, McClure J, McClure C, Spears J, Davidson J, Greenwood SJ. Bioaccumulation and elimination of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in experimentally exposed Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) held in static tank aquaria. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 173:72-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 11/16/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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28
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Concentration of enteric virus indicator from seawater using granular activated carbon. J Virol Methods 2014; 196:212-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Revised: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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29
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Qiu F, Zheng H, Yi Y, Jia Z, Cao J, Bi S. Comparative evaluation of a novel TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay for hepatitis A virus detection. J Int Med Res 2013; 41:427-34. [PMID: 23569019 DOI: 10.1177/0300060513476434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To develop and evaluate a novel system for detecting and quantifying hepatitis A virus (HAV) nucleic acid. METHODS Real-time TaqMan® reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedures were established, based on amplification of the highly conserved 5'-non-coding region. Synthetic single-stranded RNA transcripts synthesized in vitro were used as the quantification standard. Ten-fold dilutions were prepared from HAV strain stock suspension to determine precision, accuracy, sensitivity and specificity. In addition, serum specimens from patients with acute HAV underwent clinical evaluation. RESULTS The novel assay had a detection limit for HAV RNA of 10 TCID50/ml (where TCID50 is median tissue culture infective dose). It was more sensitive and specific than the commercial quantitative PCR kit manufactured by Shanghai Zhijiang Bio-Tech. However, the Artus HAV RT-PCR kit (Qiagen) had the best performance of the three assays and had a detection limit of 5 TCID50/ml. The new HAV real-time PCR detection system was also successfully applied in 90 serum specimens from patients with confirmed acute HAV infection. CONCLUSION Considering its high reproducibility, sensitivity, specificity and simplicity, this novel amplification system may be suitable for wide clinical application as a diagnostic tool, and for the surveillance and investigation of infectious diseases in developing countries where HAV is endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Qiu
- Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
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Crossan C, Baker PJ, Craft J, Takeuchi Y, Dalton HR, Scobie L. Hepatitis E virus genotype 3 in shellfish, United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18:2085-7. [PMID: 23171845 PMCID: PMC3557861 DOI: 10.3201/eid1812.120924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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Thebault A, Le Saux JC, Pommepuy M, Le Guyader S, Lailler R, Denis JB. Quantitative approach of risk management strategies for hepatitis a virus-contaminated oyster production areas. J Food Prot 2012; 75:1249-57. [PMID: 22980008 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-11-411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
It is not yet known whether using the new molecular tools to monitor hepatitis A virus (HAV) in shellfish production areas could be useful for improving food safety. HAV contamination can be acute in coastal areas, such as Brittany, France, where outbreaks of hepatitis A have already occurred and have been linked to the consumption of raw shellfish. A quantitative probabilistic approach was carried out to estimate the mean annual risk of hepatitis A in an adult population of raw oyster consumers. Two hypothetical scenarios of contamination were considered, the first for a rare and brief event and the second for regular and prolonged episodes of contamination. Fourteen monitoring and management strategies were simulated. Their effects were assessed by the relative risk reduction in mean annual risk. The duration of closure after abnormal detection in the shellfish area was also considered. Among the strategies tested, results show that monthly molecular reverse transcription PCR monitoring of HAV is more useful than bacterial surveys. In terms of management measures, early closure of the shellfish area without waiting for confirmatory analysis was shown to be the most efficient strategy. When contamination is very short-lived and homogeneous in the shellfish production area, waiting for three negative results before reopening the area for harvest is time wasting. When contamination is not well identified or if contamination is heterogeneous, it can be harmful not to wait for three negative results. In addition, any preventive measures, such as improving sewage treatment or producing shellfish in safer areas, that can reduce contamination by at least 2 log units are more efficient and less costly. Finally we show that controlling and managing transferred shellfish are useful and can play an important role in preventing cases. Qualitative results from HAV monitoring can advantageously supplement other measures that improve the safety of shellfish products in exposed areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Thebault
- ANSES, Unité Appui et Etudes en Microbiologie, Direction Evaluation des risques, Maisons-Alfort, France.
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Abstract
The goal of this study was to determine how enteric viruses persist within shellfish tissues. Several lines of novel evidence show that phagocytic blood cells (hemocytes) of Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) play an important role in the retention of virus particles. Our results demonstrated an association of virus contamination with hemocytes but not with hemolymph. Live oysters contaminated overnight with hepatitis A virus (HAV) and murine norovirus (MNV) had 56% and 80% of extractable virus associated with hemocytes, respectively. Transfer of HAV-contaminated hemocytes to naïve (virus-free) oysters resulted in naïve oyster meat testing HAV positive for up to 3 weeks. Acid tolerance of HAV, MNV, poliovirus (PV), and feline calicivirus (FCV) correlated with the ability of each virus to persist within oysters. Using reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) to evaluate persistence of these viruses in oysters, we showed that HAV persisted the longest (>21 days) and was most acid resistant, MNV and PV were less tolerant of acidic pH, persisting for up to 12 days and 1 day, respectively, and FCV did not persist (<1 day) within oysters and was not acid tolerant. This suggests that the ability of a virus to tolerate the acidic conditions typical of phagolysosomal vesicles within hemocytes plays a role in determining virus persistence in shellfish. Evaluating oyster and hemocyte homogenates and live contaminated oysters as a prelude to developing improved viral RNA extraction methods, we found that viruses were extracted more expediently from hemocytes than from whole shellfish tissues and gave similar RT-PCR detection sensitivities.
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Norovirus outbreak associated with undercooked oysters and secondary household transmission. Epidemiol Infect 2011; 140:276-82. [PMID: 21524343 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268811000665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
During December 2009, over 200 individuals reported gastrointestinal symptoms after dining at a North Carolina restaurant. An outbreak investigation included a case-control study of restaurant patrons, a secondary household transmission study, environmental assessment of the restaurant facilities and operations, and laboratory analysis of stool and food samples. Illness was primarily associated with consumption of steamed oysters (odds ratio 12, 95% confidence interval 4·8-28) and 20% (8/41 households) reported secondary cases, with a secondary attack rate of 14% among the 70 susceptible household contacts. Norovirus RNA was detected in 3/5 stool specimens from ill patrons; sequencing of RT-PCR products from two of these specimens identified identical genogroup II genotype 12 sequences. Final cooked temperatures of the steamed oysters were generally inadequate to inactivate norovirus, ranging from 21°C to 74°C. Undercooked contaminated oysters pose a similar risk for norovirus illness as raw oysters and household contacts are at risk for secondary infection.
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[Norovirus outbreak in Majorca (Spain) associated with oyster consumption]. GACETA SANITARIA 2011; 25:173-5. [PMID: 21339028 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaceta.2010.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2010] [Revised: 10/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We describe investigation into an outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with oyster consumption. A survey was conducted in 346 exposed persons, 266 of whom were cases. Only 14 feces samples from patients were sent to the National Microbiology Laboratory. Oysters collected at the production site were sent to the National Food Center. The oysters met the microbiological quality standard required before sale, which did not include virus investigation. Epidemiological analysis showed an association between gastroenteritis and consumption of oysters (OR = 60.4; 95% CI: 26.2-139.3) and razor shells (OR = 3.13; 95% CI: 1.4-6.9). Microbiological analysis confirmed norovirus in affected individuals but not in the oysters that had been tested after a longer purification period than those consumed. Food with a special risk of norovirus transmission should be strictly monitored. Investigators should dispose of the necessary laboratory resources to study food-borne norovirus outbreaks.
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