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Quintana DS, Glaser BD, Kang H, Kildal ESM, Audunsdottir K, Sartorius AM, Barth C. The interplay of oxytocin and sex hormones. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105765. [PMID: 38885888 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
The neuropeptide oxytocin has historically been associated with reproduction and maternal behavior. However, more recent research has uncovered that oxytocin has a much wider range of roles in physiology and behavior. Despite the excitement surrounding potential therapeutical applications of intranasally administered oxytocin, the results of these intervention studies have been inconsistent. Various reasons for these mixed results have been proposed, which tend to focus on methodological issues, such as study design. While methodological issues are certainly important, emerging evidence suggests that the interaction between oxytocin and sex hormones may also account for these varied findings. To better understand the purpose and function of the interaction of oxytocin with sex hormones, with a focus on estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone, we conducted a comprehensive thematic review via four perspectives: evolutionary, developmental, mechanistic, and survival. Altogether, this synergistic approach highlights the critical function of sex hormone activity for accomplishing the diverse roles of oxytocin via the modulation of oxytocin release and oxytocin receptor activity, which is also likely to contribute to the heterogeneity of outcomes after oxytocin administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Quintana
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; NevSom, Department of Rare Disorders, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Bernt D Glaser
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Heemin Kang
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Emilie S M Kildal
- KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Psychiatry, Lovisenberg Diakonale Sykehus, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristin Audunsdottir
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Claudia Barth
- Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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2
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Kosidou K, Karlsson H, Arver S, Bhasin S, Dalman C, Gardner RM. Maternal Steroid Hormone Levels in Early Pregnancy and Autism in the Offspring: A Population-Based, Nested Case-Control Study. Biol Psychiatry 2024; 96:147-158. [PMID: 38752911 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.02.1014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A role for prenatal steroid hormones in the etiology of autism has been proposed, but evidence is conflicting. METHODS Here, we examined serum levels of maternal estradiol, testosterone, 17-hydroxyprogesterone (OHP), and cortisol from the first trimester of gestation (mean = 10.1 weeks) in relation to the odds of diagnosed autism with and without co-occurring intellectual disability (ID) in the offspring (n = 118 autism with ID, n = 249 autism without ID, n = 477 control). Levels of maternal hormones were measured using highly sensitive liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, standardized according to gestational timing of sample collection, and analyzed with restricted cubic spline logistic regression models adjusting for child's sex and maternal health, demographic, and socioeconomic factors. RESULTS We observed significant nonlinear associations between maternal estradiol, 17-OHP, and cortisol with autism, which varied with the presence of co-occurring ID. Compared to mean levels, lower levels of estradiol were associated with higher odds of autism with ID (odds ratio for concentrations 1 SD below the mean = 1.66; 95% CI, 1.24-2.11), while higher cortisol levels were associated with lower odds (odds ratio for 1 SD above the mean = 0.55; 95% CI, 0.36-0.88). In contrast, higher 17-OHP was associated with increased odds of autism without ID (odds ratio for 1 SD above the mean = 1.49; 95% CI, 1.11-1.99). We observed no evidence for interaction with sex of the child. CONCLUSIONS These findings support the notion that the maternal steroid hormonal environment in early pregnancy may contribute to autism, but also emphasize the complex relationship between early-life steroid exposure and autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyriaki Kosidou
- Department of Global Public Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Centre for Epidemiology and Community Medicine, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Håkan Karlsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stefan Arver
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Shalender Bhasin
- Research Program in Men's Health: Aging and Metabolism, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Christina Dalman
- Department of Global Public Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Centre for Epidemiology and Community Medicine, Region Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Renée M Gardner
- Department of Global Public Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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3
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Anger JT, Case LK, Baranowski AP, Berger A, Craft RM, Damitz LA, Gabriel R, Harrison T, Kaptein K, Lee S, Murphy AZ, Said E, Smith SA, Thomas DA, Valdés Hernández MDC, Trasvina V, Wesselmann U, Yaksh TL. Pain mechanisms in the transgender individual: a review. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2024; 5:1241015. [PMID: 38601924 PMCID: PMC11004280 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2024.1241015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Specific Aim Provide an overview of the literature addressing major areas pertinent to pain in transgender persons and to identify areas of primary relevance for future research. Methods A team of scholars that have previously published on different areas of related research met periodically though zoom conferencing between April 2021 and February 2023 to discuss relevant literature with the goal of providing an overview on the incidence, phenotype, and mechanisms of pain in transgender patients. Review sections were written after gathering information from systematic literature searches of published or publicly available electronic literature to be compiled for publication as part of a topical series on gender and pain in the Frontiers in Pain Research. Results While transgender individuals represent a significant and increasingly visible component of the population, many researchers and clinicians are not well informed about the diversity in gender identity, physiology, hormonal status, and gender-affirming medical procedures utilized by transgender and other gender diverse patients. Transgender and cisgender people present with many of the same medical concerns, but research and treatment of these medical needs must reflect an appreciation of how differences in sex, gender, gender-affirming medical procedures, and minoritized status impact pain. Conclusions While significant advances have occurred in our appreciation of pain, the review indicates the need to support more targeted research on treatment and prevention of pain in transgender individuals. This is particularly relevant both for gender-affirming medical interventions and related medical care. Of particular importance is the need for large long-term follow-up studies to ascertain best practices for such procedures. A multi-disciplinary approach with personalized interventions is of particular importance to move forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer T. Anger
- Department of Urology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Laura K. Case
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Andrew P. Baranowski
- Pelvic Pain Medicine and Neuromodulation, University College Hospital Foundation Trust, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ardin Berger
- Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Rebecca M. Craft
- Department of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Lyn Ann Damitz
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Rodney Gabriel
- Division of Regional Anesthesia, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Tracy Harrison
- Department of OB/GYN & Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Kirsten Kaptein
- Division of Plastic Surgery, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Sanghee Lee
- Department of Urology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Anne Z. Murphy
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Engy Said
- Division of Regional Anesthesia, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Stacey Abigail Smith
- Division of Infection Disease, The Hope Clinic of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - David A. Thomas
- Office of Research on Women's Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Maria del C. Valdés Hernández
- Department of Neuroimaging Sciences, Center for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Victor Trasvina
- Department of Urology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Ursula Wesselmann
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine/Division of Pain Medicine, Neurology and Psychology, and Consortium for Neuroengineering and Brain-Computer Interfaces, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Tony L. Yaksh
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
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Torres-Martínez A, Hattori RS, Fernandino JI, Somoza GM, Hung SD, Masuda Y, Yamamoto Y, Strüssmann CA. Temperature- and genotype-dependent stress response and activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal axis during temperature-induced sex reversal in pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis, a species with genotypic and environmental sex determination. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2024; 582:112114. [PMID: 38008372 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2023.112114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
In the pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis (Atheriniformes, Atherinopsidae), exposure to high and low temperatures during the critical period of sex determination (CPSD) induce testicular and ovarian differentiation, respectively, regardless of the presence or not of the sex determining gene amhy, which is crucial for testis formation only at intermediate, sexually neutral temperatures. In this study we explored the existence of genotype-specific signaling of Crh (Corticotropin Releasing Hormone) family genes and their associated carrier protein, receptors, and other stress-related genes in response to temperature during the CPSD and the potential involvement of the central nervous system via the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis in the sex determination of this species. The Crh family genes crhb, uts1, ucn3, the receptor crhr1 and the stress-related genes gr1, gr2, nr3c2 were transiently upregulated in the heads of pejerrey larvae during the CPSD by high temperature alone or in combination with other factors. Only crhr2 transcript abundance was not influenced by temperature but independently by time and genotype. In most cases, mRNA abundance was higher in the XX heads compared to that of XY individuals. The mRNAs of some of these genes were localized in the hypothalamus of pejerrey larvae during the CPSD. XX larvae also showed higher whole-body cortisol titers than the XY, downregulation of cyp19a1a and upregulation of the testis-related genes amhy/amha in trunks (gonads) and were 100% masculinized at the high temperature. In contrast, at the low temperature, crhbp and avt were upregulated in the heads, particularly the former in XY larvae. cyp19a1a and amhy/amha were up- and downregulated, respectively, in the gonads, and fish were 100% feminized. Signaling via the HPI axis was observed simultaneously with the first molecular signs of ongoing sex determination/differentiation in the gonads. Overall, the results strongly suggest a temperature-dependent, genotype-specific regulatory action of the brain involving the Crh family of stress-related genes on the process of environmental sex determination of pejerrey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarón Torres-Martínez
- Department of Marine Biosciences. Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ricardo Shohei Hattori
- Department of Marine Biosciences. Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Juan Ignacio Fernandino
- Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (CONICET-UNSAM), 7130, Chascomús, Argentina; Escuela de Bio y Nanotecnologías (UNSAM), Argentina
| | - Gustavo Manuel Somoza
- Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (CONICET-UNSAM), 7130, Chascomús, Argentina; Escuela de Bio y Nanotecnologías (UNSAM), Argentina
| | - Song Dong Hung
- Department of Marine Biosciences. Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Masuda
- Department of Marine Biosciences. Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoji Yamamoto
- Department of Marine Biosciences. Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Carlos Augusto Strüssmann
- Department of Marine Biosciences. Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
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Goikolea-Vives A, Fernandes C, Thomas MSC, Thornton C, Stolp HB. Sex-specific behavioural deficits in adulthood following acute activation of the GABAA receptor in the neonatal mouse. Dev Neurosci 2024:000536641. [PMID: 38325353 DOI: 10.1159/000536641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sex differences exist in the prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Part of the aetiology of NDDs has been proposed to be alterations in the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, leading to the question of whether males and females respond differently to altered neurotransmitter balance. We investigated whether pharmacological alteration of GABAA signalling in early development results in sex-dependent changes in adult behaviours associated with NDDs. METHODS Male and female C57BL/6J mice received intraperitoneal injections of 0.5mg/kg muscimol or saline on postnatal days (P) 3-5 and were subjected to behavioural testing, specifically open field, light dark box, marble burying, sucralose preference, social interaction and olfactory habituation/dishabituation tests between P60-90. RESULTS Early postnatal administration of muscimol resulted in reduced anxiety in the light dark box test in both male and female adult mice. Muscimol reduced sucralose preference in males, but not females, whereas female mice showed reduced social behaviours. Regional alterations in cortical thickness were observed in the weeks following GABAA receptor activation, pointing to an evolving structural difference in the brain underlying adult behaviour. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that activation of the GABAA receptor in the first week of life resulted in long-lasting changes in a range of behaviours in adulthood following altered neurodevelopment. Sex of the individual affected the nature and severity of these abnormalities, explaining part of the varied pathophysiology and neurodevelopmental diagnosis that derive from excitatory/inhibitory imbalance.
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Bordt EA, Moya HA, Jo YC, Ravichandran CT, Bankowski IM, Ceasrine AM, McDougle CJ, Carlezon WA, Bilbo SD. Gonadal hormones impart male-biased behavioral vulnerabilities to immune activation via microglial mitochondrial function. Brain Behav Immun 2024; 115:680-695. [PMID: 37972878 PMCID: PMC10996880 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a strong male bias in the prevalence of many neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder. However, the mechanisms underlying this sex bias remain elusive. Infection during the perinatal period is associated with an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorder development. Here, we used a mouse model of early-life immune activation that reliably induces deficits in social behaviors only in males. We demonstrate that male-biased alterations in social behavior are dependent upon microglial immune signaling and are coupled to alterations in mitochondrial morphology, gene expression, and function specifically within microglia, the innate immune cells of the brain. Additionally, we show that this behavioral and microglial mitochondrial vulnerability to early-life immune activation is programmed by the male-typical perinatal gonadal hormone surge. These findings demonstrate that social behavior in males over the lifespan are regulated by microglia-specific mechanisms that are shaped by events that occur in early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan A Bordt
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Haley A Moya
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Young Chan Jo
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Caitlin T Ravichandran
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA; McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA 02478, USA
| | - Izabella M Bankowski
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Alexis M Ceasrine
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Christopher J McDougle
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Staci D Bilbo
- Department of Pediatrics, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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7
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Barth C, Crestol A, de Lange AMG, Galea LAM. Sex steroids and the female brain across the lifespan: insights into risk of depression and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2023; 11:926-941. [PMID: 37865102 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-8587(23)00224-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Despite widespread sex differences in prevalence and presentation of numerous illnesses affecting the human brain, there has been little focus on the effect of endocrine ageing. Most preclinical studies have focused on males only, and clinical studies often analyse data by covarying for sex, ignoring relevant differences between the sexes. This sex- (and gender)-neutral approach is biased and contributes to the absence of targeted treatments and services for all sexes (and genders). Female health has been historically understudied, with grave consequences for their wellbeing and health equity. In this Review, we spotlight female brain health across the lifespan by informing on the role of sex steroids, particularly oestradiol, on the female brain and on risk for diseases more prevalent in females, such as depression and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Barth
- Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway; NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Arielle Crestol
- Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway; NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ann-Marie G de Lange
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Liisa A M Galea
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Kovacs-Balint ZA, Raper J, Richardson R, Gopakumar A, Kettimuthu KP, Higgins M, Feczko E, Earl E, Ethun KF, Li L, Styner M, Fair D, Bachevalier J, Sanchez MM. The role of puberty on physical and brain development: A longitudinal study in male Rhesus Macaques. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2023; 60:101237. [PMID: 37031512 PMCID: PMC10114189 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This study examined the role of male pubertal maturation on physical growth and development of neurocircuits that regulate stress, emotional and cognitive control using a translational nonhuman primate model. We collected longitudinal data from male macaques between pre- and peri-puberty, including measures of physical growth, pubertal maturation (testicular volume, blood testosterone -T- concentrations) and brain structural and resting-state functional MRI scans to examine developmental changes in amygdala (AMY), hippocampus (HIPPO), prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as functional connectivity (FC) between those regions. Physical growth and pubertal measures increased from pre- to peri-puberty. The indexes of pubertal maturation -testicular size and T- were correlated at peri-puberty, but not at pre-puberty (23 months). Our findings also showed ICV, AMY, HIPPO and total PFC volumetric growth, but with region-specific changes in PFC. Surprisingly, FC in these neural circuits only showed developmental changes from pre- to peri-puberty for HIPPO-orbitofrontal FC. Finally, testicular size was a better predictor of brain structural maturation than T levels -suggesting gonadal hormones-independent mechanisms-, whereas T was a strong predictor of functional connectivity development. We expect that these neural circuits will show more drastic pubertal-dependent maturation, including stronger associations with pubertal measures later, during and after male puberty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z A Kovacs-Balint
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
| | - J Raper
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Dept. of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - R Richardson
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - A Gopakumar
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - K P Kettimuthu
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - M Higgins
- Office of Nursing Research, Nell Hodgson Woodruff School of Nursing, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - E Feczko
- Dept. of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA; Masonic Institute for the Developing Brain, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA
| | - E Earl
- Dept. of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Sciences University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - K F Ethun
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - L Li
- Dept. of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Marcus Autism Center; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - M Styner
- Dept. of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - D Fair
- Dept. of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA; Masonic Institute for the Developing Brain, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA
| | - J Bachevalier
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - M M Sanchez
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Liang SL, Liao WL, Chen RS. Perinatal blockade of neuronal glutamine transport sex-differentially alters glutamatergic synaptic transmission and organization of neurons in the ventrolateral ventral media hypothalamus of adult rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2023; 35:e13253. [PMID: 36949648 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Compared to male pups, perinatal female rats rely heavily on neuronal glutamine (Gln) transport for sustaining glutamatergic synaptic release in neurons of the ventrolateral ventral media nucleus of the hypothalamus (vlVMH). VMH mainly regulates female sexual behavior and increases glutamate release of perinatal hypothalamic neurons, permanently enhances dendrite spine numbers and is associated with brain and behavioral defeminization. We hypothesized that perinatal interruption of neuronal Gln transport may alter the glutamatergic synaptic transmission during adulthood. Perinatal rats of both sexes received an intracerebroventricular injection of a neuronal Gln uptake blocker, alpha-(methylamino) isobutyric acid (MeAIB, 5 mM), and were raised until adulthood. Whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) and evoked EPSCs (eEPSCs) of vlVMH neurons in adult rats with the perinatal pretreatment were conducted and neuron morphology was subjected to post hoc examination. Perinatal MeAIB treatment sex-differentially increased mEPSC frequency in males, but decreased mEPSC amplitude and synaptic Glu release in females. The pretreatment sex-differentially decreased eEPSC amplitude in males but increased AMPA/NMDA current ratio in females, and changed the morphology of vlVMH neurons of adult rats to that of the opposite sex. Most alterations in the glutamatergic synaptic transmission resembled the changes occurring during MeAIB acute exposure in perinatal rats of both sexes. We conclude that perinatal blockade of neuronal Gln transport mediates changes via different presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms to induce sex-differential alterations of the glutamatergic synaptic transmission and organization of vlVMH neurons in adult rats. These changes may be permanent and associated with brain and behavior feminization and/or defeminization in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Ling Liang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Neuroscience Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Lin Liao
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Rou-Shayn Chen
- Neuroscience Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Division of Movement Disorders, Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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10
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Valencia-Olvera AC, Maldonado Weng J, Christensen A, LaDu MJ, Pike CJ. Role of estrogen in women's Alzheimer's disease risk as modified by APOE. J Neuroendocrinol 2023; 35:e13209. [PMID: 36420620 PMCID: PMC10049970 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by numerous sexual dimorphisms that impact the development, progression, and probably the strategies to prevent and treat the most common form of dementia. In this review, we consider this topic from a female perspective with a specific focus on how women's vulnerability to the disease is affected by the individual and interactive effects of estrogens and apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype. Importantly, APOE appears to modulate systemic and neural outcomes of both menopause and estrogen-based hormone therapy. In the brain, dementia risk is greater in APOE4 carriers, and the impacts of hormone therapy on cognitive decline and dementia risk vary according to both outcome measure and APOE genotype. Beyond the CNS, estrogen and APOE genotype affect vulnerability to menopause-associated bone loss, dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease risk. An emerging concept that may link these relationships is the possibility that the effects of APOE in women interact with estrogen status by mechanisms that may include modulation of estrogen responsiveness. This review highlights the need to consider the key AD risk factors of advancing age in a sex-specific manner to optimize development of therapeutic approaches for AD, a view aligned with the principle of personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- AC Valencia-Olvera
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - J Maldonado Weng
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - A Christensen
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA
| | - MJ LaDu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - CJ Pike
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA
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11
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Kohtz AS, Frye CA. It is all About the Chase: Neurosteroidogenesis in Male Rats is Driven by Control of Mating Pace. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:1606-1616. [PMID: 36278466 PMCID: PMC10472806 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666221019114535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Masculine sexual behaviors are dependent on androstane-derived steroids; however, the modulatory effects of mating, and of mating control, on androstane neurosteroidogenesis remain largely unknown. OBJECTIVE Herein, we investigated the effects of mating control, prior sexual experience, and age on brain region specific neurosteroidogenic responses in male rats. METHODS Effects of acute sexual experience were tested in naïve male rats that either remained sexually- naïve, were exposed to a standard mating chamber, or were either given control of the mating pace in a standard mating chamber (male control) or mated wherein the female stimulus rat controlled the mating pace in a paced-mating chamber (female control). Aged (10-12 months) sexually responsive male rats were similarly euthanized from the homecage or engaged in male controlled or female controlled mating. All rats were euthanized immediately following exposure conditions for radioimmunoassay of steroids in midbrain, hypothalamus, hippocampus and cortex. RESULTS Consummatory sexual behavior in male vs. female-controlled mating paradigms was altered by age and prior sexual experience. Male-controlled mating increased androstane neurosteroid metabolism, such that complementary increases in the testosterone (T) metabolite 5α-androstane-3α-17β- diol (3α-diol) in the midbrain and hypothalamus of male rats corresponded to decreases in the prohormone, T. 3α-diol were increased in the hippocampus in response to the context alone, and to a lesser degree in response to mating. Mating diminished neurosteroidogenesis in the cortex. Neurosteroidogenesis was overall reduced in aged male rats compared to naïve controls, however, these effects were more prominent in sexually non-responsive aged male rats. CONCLUSION Extending previous findings, these results indicate differential production of androstane neurosteroids in a mating exposure, age and brain region dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S. Kohtz
- Department of Psychiatry & Human Behavior, Division of Neurobiology & Behavior Research, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 N State Street, Jackson, MS 39216, USA
| | - Cheryl A. Frye
- Comprehensive Neuropsychological Services, PLLC, 490 Western Avenue, Albany, NY 12203, USA
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12
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Sullivan O, Ciernia AV. Work hard, play hard: how sexually differentiated microglia work to shape social play and reproductive behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:989011. [PMID: 36172465 PMCID: PMC9510374 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.989011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are brain-resident immune cells that play a critical role in synaptic pruning and circuit fine-tuning during development. In the adult brain, microglia actively survey their local environment and mobilize inflammatory responses to signs of damage or infection. Sex differences in microglial gene expression and function across the lifespan have been identified, which play a key role in shaping brain function and behavior. The levels of sex hormones such as androgens, estrogens, and progesterone vary in an age-dependent and sex-dependent manner. Microglia respond both directly and indirectly to changes in hormone levels, altering transcriptional gene expression, morphology, and function. Of particular interest is the microglial function in brain regions that are highly sexually differentiated in development such as the amygdala as well as the pre-optic and ventromedial hypothalamic regions. With a focus on hormone-sensitive developmental windows, this review compares male and female microglia in the embryonic, developing, and adult brain with a particular interest in the influence of sex hormones on microglial wiring of social, reproductive, and disordered behavior circuits in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Sullivan
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Annie Vogel Ciernia
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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13
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Williams CT, Chmura HE, Deal CK, Wilsterman K. Sex-differences in Phenology: A Tinbergian Perspective. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:980-997. [PMID: 35587379 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Shifts in the timing of cyclic seasonal life-history events are among the most commonly reported responses to climate change, with differences in response rates among interacting species leading to phenological mismatches. Within a species, however, males and females can also exhibit differential sensitivity to environmental cues and may therefore differ in their responsiveness to climate change, potentially leading to phenological mismatches between the sexes. This occurs because males differ from females in when and how energy is allocated to reproduction, resulting in marked sex-differences in life-history timing across the annual cycle. In this review, we take a Tinbergian perspective and examine sex differences in timing of vertebrates from adaptive, ontogenetic, mechanistic, and phylogenetic viewpoints with the goal of informing and motivating more integrative research on sexually dimorphic phenologies. We argue that sexual and natural selection lead to sex-differences in life-history-timing and that understanding the ecological and evolutionary drivers of these differences is critical for connecting climate-driven phenological shifts to population resilience. Ontogeny may influence how and when sex differences in life-history timing arise because the early-life environment can profoundly affect developmental trajectory, rates of reproductive maturation, and seasonal timing. The molecular mechanisms underlying these organismal traits are relevant to identifying the diversity and genetic basis of population- and species-level responses to climate change, and promisingly, the molecular basis of phenology is becoming increasingly well-understood. However, because most studies focus on a single sex, the causes of sex-differences in phenology critical to population resilience often remain unclear. New sequencing tools and analyses informed by phylogeny may help generate hypotheses about mechanism as well as insight into the general "evolvability" of sex differences across phylogenetic scales, especially as trait and genome resources grow. We recommend that greater attention be placed on determining sex-differences in timing mechanisms and monitoring climate change responses in both sexes, and we discuss how new tools may provide key insights into sex-differences in phenology from all four Tinbergian domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory T Williams
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, 1878 Campus Delivery Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Helen E Chmura
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2140 Koyukuk Drive, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA.,Rocky Mountain Research Station, United States Forest Service, 800 E. Beckwith Ave, Missoula, MT 59801, USA
| | - Cole K Deal
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, 1878 Campus Delivery Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Kathryn Wilsterman
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, 1878 Campus Delivery Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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14
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Napolitano A, Schiavi S, La Rosa P, Rossi-Espagnet MC, Petrillo S, Bottino F, Tagliente E, Longo D, Lupi E, Casula L, Valeri G, Piemonte F, Trezza V, Vicari S. Sex Differences in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnostic, Neurobiological, and Behavioral Features. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:889636. [PMID: 35633791 PMCID: PMC9136002 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.889636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder with a worldwide prevalence of about 1%, characterized by impairments in social interaction, communication, repetitive patterns of behaviors, and can be associated with hyper- or hypo-reactivity of sensory stimulation and cognitive disability. ASD comorbid features include internalizing and externalizing symptoms such as anxiety, depression, hyperactivity, and attention problems. The precise etiology of ASD is still unknown and it is undoubted that the disorder is linked to some extent to both genetic and environmental factors. It is also well-documented and known that one of the most striking and consistent finding in ASD is the higher prevalence in males compared to females, with around 70% of ASD cases described being males. The present review looked into the most significant studies that attempted to investigate differences in ASD males and females thus trying to shade some light on the peculiar characteristics of this prevalence in terms of diagnosis, imaging, major autistic-like behavior and sex-dependent uniqueness. The study also discussed sex differences found in animal models of ASD, to provide a possible explanation of the neurological mechanisms underpinning the different presentation of autistic symptoms in males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Napolitano
- Medical Physics Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Schiavi
- Section of Biomedical Sciences and Technologies, Science Department, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
| | - Piergiorgio La Rosa
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Camilla Rossi-Espagnet
- Neuroradiology Unit, Imaging Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
- NESMOS, Neuroradiology Department, S. Andrea Hospital Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Petrillo
- Head Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Bottino
- Medical Physics Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuela Tagliente
- Medical Physics Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Longo
- Neuroradiology Unit, Imaging Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Lupi
- Head Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Casula
- Head Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Valeri
- Head Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Fiorella Piemonte
- Neuromuscular and Neurodegenerative Diseases Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Viviana Trezza
- Section of Biomedical Sciences and Technologies, Science Department, Roma Tre University, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Vicari
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
- Life Sciences and Public Health Department, Catholic University, Rome, Italy
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15
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Silva MSB, Campbell RE. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome and the Neuroendocrine Consequences of Androgen Excess. Compr Physiol 2022; 12:3347-3369. [PMID: 35578968 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c210025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a major endocrine disorder strongly associated with androgen excess and frequently leading to female infertility. Although classically considered an ovarian disease, altered neuroendocrine control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons in the brain and abnormal gonadotropin secretion may underpin PCOS presentation. Defective regulation of GnRH pulse generation in PCOS promotes high luteinizing hormone (LH) pulsatile secretion, which in turn overstimulates ovarian androgen production. Early and emerging evidence from preclinical models suggests that maternal androgen excess programs abnormalities in developing neuroendocrine circuits that are associated with PCOS pathology, and that these abnormalities are sustained by postpubertal elevation of endogenous androgen levels. This article will discuss experimental evidence, from the clinic and in preclinical animal models, that has significantly contributed to our understanding of how androgen excess influences the assembly and maintenance of neuroendocrine impairments in the female brain. Abnormal central gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) signaling has been identified in both patients and preclinical models as a possible link between androgen excess and elevated GnRH/LH secretion. Enhanced GABAergic innervation and drive to GnRH neurons is suspected to contribute to the pathogenesis and early manifestation of neuroendocrine derangement in PCOS. Accordingly, this article also provides an overview of GABA regulation of GnRH neuron function from prenatal development to adulthood to discuss possible avenues for future discovery research and therapeutic interventions. © 2022 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 12:3347-3369, 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro S B Silva
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rebecca E Campbell
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Physiology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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16
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Stockman SL, Kight KE, Bowers JM, McCarthy MM. Neurogenesis in the neonatal rat hippocampus is regulated by sexually dimorphic epigenetic modifiers. Biol Sex Differ 2022; 13:9. [PMID: 35255959 PMCID: PMC8900308 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-022-00418-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Neurogenesis in the hippocampus endures across the lifespan but is particularly prolific during the first postnatal week in the developing rodent brain. The majority of new born neurons are in the dentate gyrus (DG). The number of new neurons born during the first postnatal week in the DG of male rat pups is about double the number in females. In other systems, the rate of cell proliferation is controlled by epigenetic modifications in stem cells. We, therefore, explored the potential impact of DNA methylation and histone acetylation on cell genesis in the developing DG of male and female rats.
Methods Cell genesis was assessed by quantification of BrdU + cells in the DG of neonatal rats following injections on multiple days. Methylation and acetylation were manipulated pharmacologically by injection of well vetted drugs. DNA methylation, histone acetylation and associated enzyme activity were measured using commercially available colorimetric assays. mRNA was quantified by PCR. Multiple group comparisons were made by one- or two-way ANOVA followed by post-hoc tests controlling for multiple comparisons. Two groups were compared by t test. Results We found higher levels of DNA methylation in male DG and treatment with the DNA methylating enzyme inhibitor zebularine reduced the methylation and correspondingly reduced cell genesis. The same treatment had no impact on either measure in females. By contrast, treatment with a histone deacetylase inhibitor, trichostatin-A, increased histone acetylation in the DG of both sexes but increased cell genesis only in females. Females had higher baseline histone deacetylase activity and greater inhibition in response to trichostatin-A treatment. The mRNA levels of the proproliferative gene brain-derived neurotrophic factor were greater in males and reduced by inhibiting both DNA methylation and histone deacetylation only in males.
Conclusions These data reveal a sexually dimorphic epigenetically based regulation of neurogenesis in the DG but the mechanisms establishing the distinct regulation involving DNA methylation in males and histone acetylation in females is unknown. Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus peaks in the early postnatal period and in the laboratory rat is significantly greater in males than females. Here we report divergent regulation of cell genesis in the neonatal dentate gyrus. DNA methylation is a critical regulator of the higher rates of proliferation in males. Conversely, histone acetylation is essential for cell genesis in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Stockman
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - K E Kight
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 W. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - J M Bowers
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - M M McCarthy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 W. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,University of Maryland Baltimore, Program in Neuroscience, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
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17
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Sex Differences in Anxiety and Depression: What Can (and Cannot) Preclinical Studies Tell Us? SEXES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/sexes3010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the gender perspective in scientific research and sex differences in biological studies on emotional disorders have become increasingly important. However, sex bias in basic research on anxiety and depression is still far from being covered. This review addresses the study of sex differences in the field of anxiety and depression using animal models that consider this issue so far. What can preclinical studies tell us and what are their main limitations? First, we describe the behavioral tests most frequently used in preclinical research to assess depressive-like and anxiety-like behaviors in rodents. Then, we analyze the main findings, strengths, and weaknesses of rodent models of anxiety and depression, dividing them into three main categories: sex chromosome complement-biased sex differences; gonadal hormone-biased sex differences; environmental-biased sex differences. Regardless of the animal model used, none can reproduce all the characteristics of such complex and multifactorial pathologies as anxiety and depressive disorders; however, each animal model contributes to elucidating the bases that underlie these disorders. The importance is highlighted of considering sex differences in the responses that emerge from each model.
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18
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Pillerová M, Borbélyová V, Pastorek M, Riljak V, Hodosy J, Frick KM, Tóthová L. Molecular actions of sex hormones in the brain and their potential treatment use in anxiety disorders. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:972158. [PMID: 36159923 PMCID: PMC9492942 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.972158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are one of the most prevalent mood disorders that can lead to impaired quality of life. Current treatment of anxiety disorders has various adverse effects, safety concerns, or restricted efficacy; therefore, novel therapeutic targets need to be studied. Sex steroid hormones (SSHs) play a crucial role in the formation of brain structures, including regions of the limbic system and prefrontal cortex during perinatal development. In the brain, SSHs have activational and organizational effects mediated by either intracellular or transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors. During perinatal developmental periods, the physiological concentrations of SSHs lead to the normal development of the brain; however, the early hormonal dysregulation could result in various anxiety diorders later in life. Sex differences in the prevalence of anxiety disorders suggest that SSHs might be implicated in their development. In this review, we discuss preclinical and clinical studies regarding the role of dysregulated SSHs signaling during early brain development that modifies the risk for anxiety disorders in a sex-specific manner in adulthood. Moreover, our aim is to summarize potential molecular mechanisms by which the SSHs may affect anxiety disorders in preclinical research. Finally, the potential effects of SSHs in the treatment of anxiety disorders are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Pillerová
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Veronika Borbélyová
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Michal Pastorek
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Vladimír Riljak
- First Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Physiology, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Július Hodosy
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Karyn M Frick
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - L'ubomíra Tóthová
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Molecular Biomedicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
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19
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Hyperandrogenism? Increased 17, 20-Lyase Activity? A Metanalysis and Systematic Review of Altered Androgens in Boys and Girls with Autism. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212324. [PMID: 34830216 PMCID: PMC8620117 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: There is increasing evidence that steroid hormone levels and, especially, androgen levels are elevated in autism. An overactivity of 17, 20-lyase with a higher production of the testosterone precursors dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione/androstenediol seems especially present in autism. Methods: An encompassing literature analysis was performed, searching for altered androgens in children with autism and using preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Included were all studies published before 31 March 2021 found using the following electronic databases: PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and TRIP. Eight studies with boys and three studies with girls where steroid hormone measurements were performed from either plasma, urine, or saliva were found and analyzed. Analyses were performed for DHEA(-S/-C), androstenedione/androstenediol, and testosterone. Effect sizes were calculated for each parameter between mean concentrations for children with autism versus healthy controls. Results: Higher levels of androgens in autism were detected, with the majority of calculated effect sizes being larger than one. Conclusions: We found higher levels of the main testosterone precursors DHEA, androstenedione, and androstenediol, likely causing an additionally higher level of testosterone, and an increased 17, 20-lyase activity is therefore implied. Medications already used in PCOS such as metformin might be considered to treat hyperandrogenism in autism following further research.
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20
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Association of prenatal sex steroid exposure estimated by the digit ratio (2D:4D) with birth weight, BMI and muscle strength in 6- to 13-year-old Polish children. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258179. [PMID: 34606496 PMCID: PMC8489707 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The aim of this paper was to provide evidence for the impact of prenatal sex steroid exposure on prenatal and postnatal body size parameters, and muscle strength in children. Methods The following anthropometric data were studied in a group of 1148 children (536 boys and 612 girls) aged 6–13 years: the 2D:4D digit ratio, birth weight and length, and birth head and chest circumference. Postnatal parameters (6–13 years) included body weight and height, BMI, waist and hip circumference, WHR, as well as grip strength in both hands. All parameters that required it were adjusted for sex and gestational or chronological age. A general linear model, Pearson’s correlation, t-statistics and Cohen’s Δ were used in statistical analysis. Results Among birth size parameters, only birth weight was significantly negatively correlated with the 2D:4D digit ratio in children. Higher (feminized) digit ratios were significantly correlated with postnatal parameters such as body weight, BMI, and waist and hip circumference (positively), as well as hand grip strength–a proxy for muscular strength (negatively). Conclusion Problems with maintaining adequate body size parameters and muscle strength may be programmed in fetal life and predicted on the basis of the 2D:4D digit ratio. Body weight at birth and in early ontogenesis are additive correlates of the 2D:4D ratio. The present findings suggest that the 2D:4D digit ratio is related to postnatal phenotypes such as birth weight, overweight, and obesity as well as muscle strength in 6–13-year-old children of both sexes.
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21
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Ciccarelli A, Weijers D, Kwan W, Warner C, Bourne J, Gross CT. Sexually dimorphic perineuronal nets in the rodent and primate reproductive circuit. J Comp Neurol 2021; 529:3274-3291. [PMID: 33950531 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Perineuronal nets are extracellular glycoprotein structures that have been found on some neurons in the central nervous system and that have been shown to regulate their structural plasticity. Until now work on perineuronal nets has been focused on their role in cortical structures where they are selectively expressed on parvalbumin-positive neurons and are reported to restrict the experience-dependent plasticity of inhibitory afferents. Here, we examined the expression of perineuronal nets subcortically, showing that they are expressed in several discrete structures, including nuclei that comprise the brain network controlling reproductive behaviors (e.g., mounting, lordosis, aggression, and social defense). In particular, perineuronal nets were found in the posterior dorsal division of the medial amygdala, the medial preoptic nucleus, the posterior medial bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the ventrolateral ventromedial hypothalamus and adjacent tuberal nucleus, and the ventral premammillary nucleus in both the mouse and primate brain. Comparison of perineuronal nets in male and female mice revealed a significant sexually dimorphic expression, with expression found prominently on estrogen receptor expressing neurons in the medial amygdala. These findings suggest that perineuronal nets may be involved in regulating neural plasticity in the mammalian reproductive system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Ciccarelli
- Epigenetics & Neurobiology Unit, EMBL Rome, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Rome
| | - Dilys Weijers
- Epigenetics & Neurobiology Unit, EMBL Rome, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Rome
| | - William Kwan
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Claire Warner
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - James Bourne
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Cornelius T Gross
- Epigenetics & Neurobiology Unit, EMBL Rome, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Rome
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22
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Stadtler H, Shaw G, Neigh GN. Mini-review: Elucidating the psychological, physical, and sex-based interactions between HIV infection and stress. Neurosci Lett 2021; 747:135698. [PMID: 33540057 PMCID: PMC9258904 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Stress is generally classified as any mental or emotional strain resulting from difficult circumstances, and can manifest in the form of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or other neurocognitive disorders. Neurocognitive disorders such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD are large contributors to disability worldwide, and continue to affect individuals and communities. Although these disorders affect men and women, women are disproportionately represented among those diagnosed with affective disorders, a result of both societal gender roles and physical differences. Furthermore, the incidence of these neurocognitive disorders is augmented among People Living with HIV (PLWH); the physical ramifications of stress increase the likelihood of HIV acquisition, pathogenesis, and treatment, as both stress and HIV infection are characterized by chronic inflammation, which creates a more opportunistic environment for HIV. Although the stress response is facilitated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, when the response involves a psychological component, additional brain regions are engaged. The impact of chronic stress exposure and the origin of individual variation in stress responses and resilience are at least in part attributable to regions outside the primary stress circuity, including the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus. This review aims to elucidate the relationship between stress and HIV, how these interact with sex, and to understand the physical ramifications of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Stadtler
- Department of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Gladys Shaw
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Gretchen N Neigh
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
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23
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Furue M, Ishii Y, Tsukimori K, Tsuji G. Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and Dioxin-Related Health Hazards-Lessons from Yusho. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22020708. [PMID: 33445793 PMCID: PMC7828254 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Poisoning by high concentrations of dioxin and its related compounds manifests variable toxic symptoms such as general malaise, chloracne, hyperpigmentation, sputum and cough, paresthesia or numbness of the extremities, hypertriglyceridemia, perinatal abnormalities, and elevated risks of cancer-related mortality. Such health hazards are observed in patients with Yusho (oil disease in Japanese) who had consumed rice bran oil highly contaminated with 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polychlorinated quaterphenyls in 1968. The blood concentrations of these congeners in patients with Yusho remain extremely elevated 50 years after onset. Dioxins exert their toxicity via aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this review article, we discuss the pathogenic implication of AHR in dioxin-induced health hazards. We also mention the potential therapeutic use of herbal drugs targeting AHR and ROS in patients with Yusho.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masutaka Furue
- Research and Clinical Center for Yusho and Dioxin, Kyushu University Hospital, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan;
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-92-642-5581; Fax: +81-92-642-5600
| | - Yuji Ishii
- Division of Pharmaceutical Cell Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan;
| | - Kiyomi Tsukimori
- Department of Obstetrics, Perinatal Center, Fukuoka Children’s Hospital, Fukuoka 813-0017, Japan;
| | - Gaku Tsuji
- Research and Clinical Center for Yusho and Dioxin, Kyushu University Hospital, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan;
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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24
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Skakkebæk A, Wallentin M, Gravholt CH. Klinefelter syndrome or testicular dysgenesis: Genetics, endocrinology, and neuropsychology. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 181:445-462. [PMID: 34238477 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-820683-6.00032-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY) is a frequent chromosomal disorder among males, often presenting with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, small firm testicles, metabolic disorders, neurocognitive challenges, and increased height. Neurologic disorders such as epilepsy, seizures, and tremor as well as psychiatric disorders are also seen more frequently. The neurocognitive deficits seen are present in many areas of cognition, typically affecting general cognitive abilities, language, and executive functioning. Also, social dysfunction is frequent. Dyslexia is present in more than half of all males. Brain imaging studies generally show a typical pattern, with many nuclei and brain areas being smaller than among controls. However, it has not been possible to link the brain alterations found in imaging studies with the neurocognitive profile. The genetics underlying the phenotypic traits found among males with Klinefelter syndrome still remains to be elucidated; however, recent studies have described pervasive changes in the methylome and transcriptome and new and interesting candidate genes have been pinpointed, but their involvement in the phenotype of Klinefelter syndrome has not been proven.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Skakkebæk
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Clinical Genetics, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Mikkel Wallentin
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; Center for Semiotics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Claus Højbjerg Gravholt
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine and Medical Research Laboratories, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark.
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25
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Delage CI, Cornil CA. Estrogen‐dependent sex difference in microglia in the developing brain of Japanese quail (
Coturnix japonica
). Dev Neurobiol 2020; 80:239-262. [DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Charlotte Anne Cornil
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology GIGA Neurosciences University of Liège Liège Belgium
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26
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Jiang J, Young K, Pike CJ. Second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is associated with dementia in women. Early Hum Dev 2020; 149:105152. [PMID: 32781308 PMCID: PMC7484057 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is characterized by sex differences that may involve sex hormone exposure during development. Finger length ratios, an indirect measure of prenatal androgen exposure, were found to significantly differ in women with and without dementia. This finding links a relatively feminine in utero development with vulnerability to dementia in women.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christian J. Pike
- Corresponding Author: Christian J. Pike, Ph.D., Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, 3715 McClintock Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0191 USA, Tel: 213-740-4205,
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27
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Harp SJ, Martini M, Lynch WJ, Rissman EF. Sexual Differentiation and Substance Use: A Mini-Review. Endocrinology 2020; 161:bqaa129. [PMID: 32761086 PMCID: PMC7438703 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqaa129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The organizational/activational hypothesis suggests that gonadal steroid hormones like testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2) are important at 2 different times during the lifespan when they perform 2 different functions. First steroids "organize" brain structures early in life and during puberty, and in adults these same hormones "activate" sexually dimorphic behaviors. This hypothesis has been tested and proven valid for a large number of behaviors (learning, memory, social, and sexual behaviors). Sex differences in drug addiction are well established both for humans and animal models. Previous research in this field has focused primarily on cocaine self-administration by rats. Traditionally, observed sex differences have been explained by the sex-specific concentrations of gonadal hormones present at the time of the drug-related behavior. Studies with gonadectomized rodents establishes an activational role for E2 that facilitates vulnerability in females, and when E2 is combined with progesterone, addiction is attenuated. Literature on organizational actions of steroids is sparse but predicts that T, after it is aromatized to E2, changes aspects of the neural reward system. Here we summarize these data and propose that sex chromosome complement also plays a role in determining sex-specific drug-taking behavior. Future research is needed to disentangle the effects of hormones and sex chromosome complement, and we propose the four core genotype mouse model as an effective tool for answering these questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J Harp
- Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Mariangela Martini
- Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Wendy J Lynch
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Emilie F Rissman
- Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
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28
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New insights into anti-Müllerian hormone role in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and neuroendocrine development. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 78:1-16. [PMID: 32564094 PMCID: PMC7867527 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03576-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Research into the physiological actions of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) has rapidly expanded from its classical role in male sexual differentiation to the regulation of ovarian function, routine clinical use in reproductive health and potential use as a biomarker in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). During the past 10 years, the notion that AMH could act exclusively at gonadal levels has undergone another paradigm shift as several exciting studies reported unforeseen AMH actions throughout the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Gonadal (HPG) axis. In this review, we will focus on these findings reporting novel AMH actions across the HPG axis and we will discuss their potential impact and significance to better understand human reproductive disorders characterized by either developmental alterations of neuroendocrine circuits regulating fertility and/or alterations of their function in adult life. Finally, we will summarize recent preclinical studies suggesting that elevated levels of AMH may potentially be a contributing factor to the central pathophysiology of PCOS and other reproductive diseases.
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29
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Shirazi TN, Self H, Cantor J, Dawood K, Cárdenas R, Rosenfield K, Ortiz T, Carré J, McDaniel MA, Blanchard R, Balasubramanian R, Delaney A, Crowley W, Breedlove SM, Puts D. Timing of peripubertal steroid exposure predicts visuospatial cognition in men: Evidence from three samples. Horm Behav 2020; 121:104712. [PMID: 32059854 PMCID: PMC8817672 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Experiments in male rodents demonstrate that sensitivity to the organizational effects of steroid hormones decreases across the pubertal window, with earlier androgen exposure leading to greater masculinization of the brain and behavior. Similarly, some research suggests the timing of peripubertal exposure to sex steroids influences aspects of human psychology, including visuospatial cognition. However, prior studies have been limited by small samples and/or imprecise measures of pubertal timing. We conducted 4 studies to clarify whether the timing of peripubertal hormone exposure predicts performance on male-typed tests of spatial cognition in adulthood. In Studies 1 (n = 1095) and 2 (n = 173), we investigated associations between recalled pubertal age and spatial cognition in typically developing men, controlling for current testosterone levels in Study 2. In Study 3 (n = 51), we examined the relationship between spatial performance and the age at which peripubertal hormone replacement therapy was initiated in a sample of men with Isolated GnRH Deficiency. Across Studies 1-3, effect size estimates for the relationship between spatial performance and pubertal timing ranged from. -0.04 and -0.27, and spatial performance was unrelated to salivary testosterone in Study 2. In Study 4, we conducted two meta-analyses of Studies 1-3 and four previously published studies. The first meta-analysis was conducted on correlations between spatial performance and measures of the absolute age of pubertal timing, and the second replaced those correlations with correlations between spatial performance and measures of relative pubertal timing where available. Point estimates for correlations between pubertal timing and spatial cognition were -0.15 and -0.12 (both p < 0.001) in the first and second meta-analyses, respectively. These associations were robust to the exclusion of any individual study. Our results suggest that, for some aspects of neural development, sensitivity to gonadal hormones declines across puberty, with earlier pubertal hormone exposure predicting greater sex-typicality in psychological phenotypes in adulthood. These results shed light on the processes of behavioral and brain organization and have implications for the treatment of IGD and other conditions wherein pubertal timing is pharmacologically manipulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia N Shirazi
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, Carpenter Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Heather Self
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, Carpenter Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - James Cantor
- Centre for Addition and Mental Health, 2 Carlton Street, suite 1820, Toronto, Ontario M5B 1J3, Canada
| | - Khytam Dawood
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Rodrigo Cárdenas
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Kevin Rosenfield
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, Carpenter Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Triana Ortiz
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, 100 College Drive, North Bay, Ontario P1B 8L7, Canada
| | - Justin Carré
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, 100 College Drive, North Bay, Ontario P1B 8L7, Canada
| | - Michael A McDaniel
- Department of Management, Virginia Commonwealth University, Arlington, VA 22209, USA
| | - Ray Blanchard
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College, Toronto, Ontario M5T 1L8, Canada
| | | | - Angela Delaney
- Reproductive Physiology and Pathophysiology Group, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - William Crowley
- Reproductive Endocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - S Marc Breedlove
- Department of Neuroscience, Michigan State University. 240 Giltner Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - David Puts
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, Carpenter Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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30
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VanRyzin JW, Marquardt AE, McCarthy MM. Developmental origins of sex differences in the neural circuitry of play. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 2020; 9:58-75. [PMID: 33717644 PMCID: PMC7954123 DOI: 10.1080/21594937.2020.1723370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Social play consists of reciprocal physical interactions between conspecifics with many features conserved across species, including the propensity for males to engage in play more frequently and with higher physical intensity. Animal models, such as the laboratory rat, reveal that the underlying neural circuitry of play is subject to sexual differentiation during a critical period early in life. In this review, we discuss the developmental processes that produce distinct neural nodes which modulate both shared and sex-specific aspects of play with a focus on the medial amygdala, lateral septum, and prefrontal cortex. While the cellular mechanisms determining sex differences in play are beginning to be uncovered, the ultimate advantages of play continue to be debated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W. VanRyzin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Ashley E Marquardt
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Margaret M McCarthy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
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31
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Partecke J, Hegyi G, Fitze PS, Gasparini J, Schwabl H. Maternal effects and urbanization: Variation of yolk androgens and immunoglobulin in city and forest blackbirds. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:2213-2224. [PMID: 32128150 PMCID: PMC7042752 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Wildlife inhabiting urban environments exhibit drastic changes in morphology, physiology, and behavior. It has often been argued that these phenotypic responses could be the result of micro-evolutionary changes following the urbanization process. However, other mechanisms such as phenotypic plasticity, maternal effects, and developmental plasticity could be involved as well. To address maternal effects as potential mechanisms, we compared maternal hormone and antibody concentrations in eggs between city and forest populations of European blackbirds (Turdus merula), a widely distributed species for which previous research demonstrated differences in behavioral and physiological traits. We measured egg and yolk mass, yolk concentrations of androgens (androstenedione [A4], testosterone [T], 5α-dihydrotestosterone [5α-DHT], and immunoglobulins [IgY]) and related them to population, clutch size, laying order, embryo sex, and progress of breeding season. We show (a) earlier onset of laying in the city than forest population, but similar egg and clutch size; (b) higher overall yolk androgen concentrations in the forest than the city population (sex-dependent for T); (c) greater among-female variation of yolk T and 5α-DHT concentrations in the forest than city population, but similar within-clutch variation; (d) similar IgY concentrations with a seasonal decline in both populations; and (e) population-specific positive (city) or negative (forest) association of yolk A4 and T with IgY concentrations. Our results are consistent with the hypotheses that hormone-mediated maternal effects contribute to differences in behavioral and physiological traits between city and forest individuals and that yolk androgen and immunoglobulin levels can exhibit population-specific relationships rather than trade-off against each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesko Partecke
- Department of MigrationMax Planck Institute of Animal BehaviorRadolfzellGermany
- Department of BiologyUniversity of KonstanzKonstanzGermany
- School of Biological Sciences and Center for Reproductive BiologyWashington State University PullmanPullmanWAUSA
| | - Gergely Hegyi
- School of Biological Sciences and Center for Reproductive BiologyWashington State University PullmanPullmanWAUSA
- Department of Systematic Zoology and EcologyEötvös Loránd UniversityBudapestHungary
| | | | - Julien Gasparini
- Sorbonne UniversitéUPECCNRSINRAIRDInstitut d'Ecologie et des Sciences de l'Environnement de ParisParisFrance
| | - Hubert Schwabl
- School of Biological Sciences and Center for Reproductive BiologyWashington State University PullmanPullmanWAUSA
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32
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Ikeda Y, Kato-Inui T, Tagami A, Maekawa M. Expression of progesterone receptor, estrogen receptors α and β, and kisspeptin in the hypothalamus during perinatal development of gonad-lacking steroidogenic factor-1 knockout mice. Brain Res 2019; 1712:167-179. [PMID: 30776325 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Gonadal hormones contribute to brain sexual differentiation. We analyzed expression of progesterone receptor (PR), estrogen receptor-α (ERα), ERβ, and kisspeptin, in the preoptic area (POA) and/or the arcuate nucleus (ARC), in gonad-lacking steroidogenic factor-1 knockout (KO) mice during perinatal development. At postnatal-day (P) 0-P7, POA PR levels were higher in wild-type (WT) males compared with WT females, while those in KO males were lower than in WT males and similar to those in WT and KO females. At P14-P21, PR levels in all groups increased similarly. POA ERα levels were similar in all groups at embryonic-day (E) 15.5-P14. Those in WT but not KO males reduced during postnatal development to be significantly lower compared with females at P21. POA ERβ levels were higher in WT males than in WT females, while those in KO males were lower than in WT males and similar to those in WT and KO females at P0-P21. POA kisspeptin expression was female-biased in WT mice, while levels in KO females were lower compared with WT females and similar to those in WT and KO males. ARC kisspeptin levels were equivalent among groups at E15.5-P0. At P7-P21, ARC levels in WT but not KO males became lower compared with WT females. Diethylstilbestrol exposure during P0-P6 and P7-P13 increased POA PR and ERβ, and decreased POA ERα and ARC kisspeptin levels at P7 and/or P14 in both sexes of KO mice. These data further understanding of gonadal hormone action on neuronal marker expression during brain sexual development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayoi Ikeda
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi-Gakuin University School of Dentistry, Nagoya, Japan.
| | - Tomoko Kato-Inui
- Koeki Zaidan Hojin Tokyo-to Igaku Sogo Kenkyujo, Regenerative Medicine Project 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ayako Tagami
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi-Gakuin University School of Dentistry, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Mamiko Maekawa
- Department of Anatomy, Aichi-Gakuin University School of Dentistry, Nagoya, Japan
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33
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Krentzel AA, Meitzen J. Biological Sex, Estradiol and Striatal Medium Spiny Neuron Physiology: A Mini-Review. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:492. [PMID: 30618639 PMCID: PMC6299026 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The caudate-putamen, nucleus accumbens core and shell are important striatal brain regions for premotor, limbic, habit formation, reward, and other critical cognitive functions. Striatal-relevant behaviors such as anxiety, motor coordination, locomotion, and sensitivity to reward, all change with fluctuations of the menstrual cycle in humans and the estrous cycle in rodents. These fluctuations implicate sex steroid hormones, such as 17β-estradiol, as potent neuromodulatory signals for striatal neuron activity. The medium spiny neuron (MSN), the primary neuron subtype of the striatal regions, expresses membrane estrogen receptors and exhibits sex differences both in intrinsic and synaptic electrophysiological properties. In this mini-review, we first describe sex differences in the electrophysiological properties of the MSNs in prepubertal rats. We then discuss specific examples of how the human menstrual and rat estrous cycles induce differences in striatal-relevant behaviors and neural substrate, including how female rat MSN electrophysiology is influenced by the estrous cycle. We then conclude the mini-review by discussing avenues for future investigation, including possible roles of striatal-localized membrane estrogen receptors and estradiol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda A Krentzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.,W. M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - John Meitzen
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.,W. M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.,Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.,Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
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34
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Kopec AM, Smith CJ, Ayre NR, Sweat SC, Bilbo SD. Microglial dopamine receptor elimination defines sex-specific nucleus accumbens development and social behavior in adolescent rats. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3769. [PMID: 30254300 PMCID: PMC6156594 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06118-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is a developmental period in which the mesolimbic dopaminergic "reward" circuitry of the brain, including the nucleus accumbens (NAc), undergoes significant plasticity. Dopamine D1 receptors (D1rs) in the NAc are critical for social behavior, but how these receptors are regulated during adolescence is not well understood. In this report, we demonstrate that microglia and complement-mediated phagocytic activity shapes NAc development by eliminating D1rs in male, but not female rats, during adolescence. Moreover, immune-mediated elimination of D1rs is required for natural developmental changes in male social play behavior. These data demonstrate for the first time that microglia and complement-mediated immune signaling (i) participate in adolescent brain development in a sex-specific manner, and (ii) are causally implicated in developmental changes in behavior. These data have broad implications for understanding the adolescent critical period of development, the molecular mechanisms underlying social behavior, and sex differences in brain structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Kopec
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02129, MA, USA.
- Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Lexington, 02129, MA, USA.
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, 27708, NC, USA.
| | - Caroline J Smith
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02129, MA, USA
- Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Lexington, 02129, MA, USA
| | - Nathan R Ayre
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02129, MA, USA
- Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Lexington, 02129, MA, USA
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, 27708, NC, USA
| | - Sean C Sweat
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, 27708, NC, USA
- National Institutes of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, USA
| | - Staci D Bilbo
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02129, MA, USA
- Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Lexington, 02129, MA, USA
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, 27708, NC, USA
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35
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Gravholt CH, Chang S, Wallentin M, Fedder J, Moore P, Skakkebæk A. Klinefelter Syndrome: Integrating Genetics, Neuropsychology, and Endocrinology. Endocr Rev 2018; 39:389-423. [PMID: 29438472 DOI: 10.1210/er.2017-00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Although first identified over 70 years ago, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) continues to pose substantial diagnostic challenges, as many patients are still misdiagnosed, or remain undiagnosed. In fact, as few as 25% of patients with KS are accurately diagnosed and most of these diagnoses are not made until adulthood. Classic characteristics of KS include small testes, infertility, hypergonadothropic hypogonadism, and cognitive impairment. However, the pathophysiology behind KS is not well understood, although genetic effects are also thought to play a role. For example, recent developments in genetics and genomics point to a fundamental change in our understanding of KS, with global epigenetic and RNA expression changes playing a central role for the phenotype. KS is also associated with more general health markers, including higher morbidity and mortality rates and lower socioeconomic status (which likely affect both morbidity and mortality). In addition, hypogonadism is associated with greater risk of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, and extragonadal germ cell tumors. Medical treatment typically focuses on testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), although the effects of this therapy have not been studied rigorously, and future studies need to evaluate the effects of TRT on metabolic risk and neurocognitive outcomes. This review presents a comprehensive interdisciplinary examination of recent developments in genetic, endocrine, and neurocognitive science, including the study of animal models. It provides a number of recommendations for improving the effectiveness of research and clinical practice, including neonatal KS screening programs, and a multidisciplinary approach to KS treatment from childhood until senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claus H Gravholt
- Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine (MEA), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Simon Chang
- Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine (MEA), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Esbjerg Sygehus, Esbjerg, Denmark
| | - Mikkel Wallentin
- Department of Linguistics, Cognitive Science, and Semiotics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Jens Fedder
- Centre of Andrology and Fertility Clinic, Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Philip Moore
- Department of Psychology, The George Washington University, Washington DC
| | - Anne Skakkebæk
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Genetics, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus N, Denmark
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Girls' pubertal development is associated with white matter microstructure in late adolescence. Neuroimage 2018; 181:659-669. [PMID: 30056197 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Patterns of pubertal maturation have been linked to vulnerability for emotion dysregulation disorders in girls, as well as white matter (WM) development, suggestive of a potential mechanism between pubertal maturation and emotional health. Because pubertal processes begin at varying ages (i.e., status, timing) and proceed at varying rates (i.e., tempo), identifying individual differences in the pubertal course associated with subsequent WM microstructure development may reveal clues about neurobiological mechanisms of girls' emotional well-being. In a prospective cohort study of 107 girls, we examined associations between pubertal status at age 9, pubertal timing and tempo from ages 9-15, and WM microstructure at age 19. Tract-based spatial statistics revealed that girls with more advanced pubertal status at age 9, specific to gonadal-related physical changes, had higher fractional anisotropy, and lower mean diffusivity (MD) and radial diffusivity in tracts relevant to cognitive control and emotion regulation (e.g., the superior longitudinal fasciculus, external capsule, and uncinate fasciculus). Additionally, girls with earlier pubertal timing showed lower MD in the left anterior cingulum bundle. Tempo was unrelated to WM measures. These findings implicate specific aspects of pubertal maturation in subsequent neural signatures, suggesting possible neuroendocrine mechanisms relevant to emotional development. Future work incorporating longitudinal neuroimaging in parallel with pubertal measures may contribute to the understanding of individual variation in pubertal course and WM development.
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Baldy C, Fournier S, Boisjoly-Villeneuve S, Tremblay MÈ, Kinkead R. The influence of sex and neonatal stress on medullary microglia in rat pups. Exp Physiol 2018; 103:1192-1199. [PMID: 29920821 DOI: 10.1113/ep087088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the central question of the study? Does neonatal stress, in the form of neonatal maternal separation, influence the maturation of microglial density, morphology and neuronal signalling in medullary regions regulating cardiorespiratory function in rat pups? What is the main finding and its importance? Using Iba-1 immunohistochemistry, we show that neonatal maternal separation augments microglial density and the proportion of cells with an amoeboid morphology in the medulla. Although the current understanding of the effect of early life stress on medullary development is relatively limited, these data show that within this area, microglia are affected by neonatal stress. Microglia could therefore be important effectors in cardiorespiratory disorders resulting from maternal separation. ABSTRACT Neonatal stress has wide-ranging consequences for the developing brain, including the medullary cardiorespiratory network. In rat pups, the reflexive cardiorespiratory inhibition triggered by the presence of liquids near the larynx is augmented by neonatal maternal separation (NMS), especially in males. Sex-specific enhancement of synaptic connectivity by NMS might explain this cardiorespiratory dysfunction. Microglia influence the formation, maturation, activity and elimination of developing synapses, but their role in the wiring of medullary networks is unknown. Owing to their sensitivity to sex hormones and stress hormones, microglial dysfunction could contribute to the abnormal cardiorespiratory phenotype observed in NMS pups. Here, we first used ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 (Iba-1) immunolabelling to compare the density and morphology of microglia in the medulla of male versus female rat pups (14-15 days old) that were either undisturbed or subjected to NMS (3 h day-1 ; postnatal days 3-12). Neonatal maternal separation augmented the density of Iba-1+ cells (caudal region of the NTS), increased the size of the soma and reduced the arborization area (especially in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus). Sex-based differences were not observed. Given that the actions of microglia are regulated by neuronal fractalkine (CX3 CL1 ), we then used western blot analysis to compare the expression of CX3 CL1 and its microglial receptor (CX3 CR1 ) in medullary homogenates from control and NMS pups. Although CX3 CR1 expression was 59% greater in males versus females, NMS had no effect on CX3 CL1 /CX3 CR1 signalling. Given that an amoeboid morphology reflects an immature phenotype in developing microglia, NMS could interfere with synaptic pruning via a different mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Baldy
- Département de Pédiatrie, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Stéphanie Fournier
- Département de Pédiatrie, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Samuel Boisjoly-Villeneuve
- Département de Pédiatrie, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada.,Département de Médecine Moléculaire, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Richard Kinkead
- Département de Pédiatrie, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et Pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
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Leishman E, Murphy M, Mackie K, Bradshaw HB. Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol changes the brain lipidome and transcriptome differentially in the adolescent and the adult. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2018; 1863:479-492. [PMID: 29408467 PMCID: PMC5987162 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Exposing the adolescent brain to drugs of abuse is associated with increased risk for adult onset psychopathologies. Cannabis use peaks during adolescence, with largely unknown effects on the developing brain. Cannabis' major psychoactive component, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) alters neuronal, astrocytic, and microglial signaling. Therefore, multiple cellular and signaling pathways are affected with a single dose of THC. The endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs), N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) are members of an interconnected lipidome that includes an emerging class of AEA structural analogs, the lipoamines, additional 2-acyl glycerols, free fatty acids, and prostaglandins (PGs). Lipids in this lipidome share many biosynthetic and metabolic pathways, yet have diverse signaling properties. Here, we show that acute THC drives age-dependent changes in this lipidome across 8 regions of the female mouse brain. Interestingly, most changes are observed in the adult, with eCBs and related lipids predominately decreasing. Analysis of THC and metabolites reveals an unequal distribution across these brain areas; however, the highest levels of THC were measured in the hippocampus (HIPP) in all age groups. Transcriptomic analysis of the HIPP after acute THC showed that like the lipidome, the adult transcriptome demonstrated significantly more changes than the adolescent. Importantly, the regulation of 31 genes overlapped between the adolescent and the adult, suggesting a conserved transcriptomic response in the HIPP to THC exposure independent of age. Taken together these data illustrate that the first exposure to a single dose of THC has profound effects on signaling in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Leishman
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, United States
| | - Michelle Murphy
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, United States; Gill Center for Biomolecular Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States; Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States
| | - Ken Mackie
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States; Gill Center for Biomolecular Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States
| | - Heather B Bradshaw
- Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 47405, United States; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States.
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Silva MS, Prescott M, Campbell RE. Ontogeny and reversal of brain circuit abnormalities in a preclinical model of PCOS. JCI Insight 2018; 3:99405. [PMID: 29618656 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.99405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen excess is a hallmark of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a prevalent yet poorly understood endocrine disorder. Evidence from women and preclinical animal models suggests that elevated perinatal androgens can elicit PCOS onset in adulthood, implying androgen actions in both PCOS ontogeny and adult pathophysiology. Prenatally androgenized (PNA) mice exhibit a robust increase of progesterone-sensitive GABAergic inputs to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons implicated in the pathogenesis of PCOS. It is unclear when altered GABAergic wiring develops in the brain, and whether these central abnormalities are dependent upon adult androgen excess. Using GnRH-GFP-transgenic mice, we determined that increased GABA input to GnRH neurons occurs prior to androgen excess and the manifestation of reproductive impairments in PNA mice. These data suggest that brain circuit abnormalities precede the postpubertal development of PCOS traits. Despite the apparent developmental programming of circuit abnormalities, long-term blockade of androgen receptor signaling from early adulthood rescued normal GABAergic wiring onto GnRH neurons, improved ovarian morphology, and restored reproductive cycles in PNA mice. Therefore, androgen excess maintains changes in female brain wiring linked to PCOS features and the blockade of androgen receptor signaling reverses both the central and peripheral PNA-induced PCOS phenotype.
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Kopec AM, Fiorentino MR, Bilbo SD. Gut-immune-brain dysfunction in Autism: Importance of sex. Brain Res 2018; 1693:214-217. [PMID: 29360468 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by social behavior deficits, stereotypies, cognitive rigidity, and in some cases severe intellectual impairment and developmental delay. Although ASD is most widely identified by its neurological deficits, gastrointestinal issues are common in ASD. An intimate and complex relationship exists between the gut, the immune system, and the brain, leading to the hypothesis that ASD may be a systems-level disease affecting the gut and immune systems, in addition to the brain. Despite significant advances in understanding the contribution of the gut and immune systems to the etiology of ASD, there is an intriguing commonality among patients that is not well understood: they are predominantly male. Virtually no attention has been given to the potential role of sex-specific regulation of gut, peripheral, and central immune function in ASD, despite the 4:1 male-to-female bias in this disorder. In this review, we discuss recent revelations regarding the impact of gut-immune-brain relationships on social behavior in rodent models and in ASD patients, placing them in the context of known or putative sex specific mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Kopec
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maria R Fiorentino
- Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Staci D Bilbo
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, MA, USA.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Neurodevelopmental disorders disproportionately affect males. The mechanisms underlying male vulnerability or female protection are not known and remain understudied. Determining the processes involved is crucial to understanding the etiology and advancing treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we review current findings and theories that contribute to male preponderance of neurodevelopmental disorders, with a focus on autism. RECENT FINDINGS Recent work on the biological basis of the male preponderance of autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders includes discussion of a higher genetic burden in females and sex-specific gene mutations or epigenetic changes that differentially confer risk to males or protection to females. Other mechanisms discussed are sex chromosome and sex hormone involvement. Specifically, fetal testosterone is involved in many aspects of development and may interact with neurotransmitter, neuropeptide, or immune pathways to contribute to male vulnerability. Finally, the possibilities of female underdiagnosis and a multi-hit hypothesis are discussed. This review highlights current theories of male bias in developmental disorders. Topics include environmental, genetic, and epigenetic mechanisms; theories of sex chromosomes, hormones, neuroendocrine, and immune function; underdiagnosis of females; and a multi-hit hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L. Ferri
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Pappajohn Biomedical Discovery Building, 169 Newton Road, Iowa City, IA 52242 USA
| | - Ted Abel
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Pappajohn Biomedical Discovery Building, 169 Newton Road, Iowa City, IA 52242 USA
| | - Edward S. Brodkin
- Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Translational Research Laboratory, 125 South 31 Street, Room 2202, Philadelphia, PA 19104-3403 USA
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Krentzel AA, Macedo-Lima M, Ikeda MZ, Remage-Healey L. A Membrane G-Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor Is Necessary but Not Sufficient for Sex Differences in Zebra Finch Auditory Coding. Endocrinology 2018; 159:1360-1376. [PMID: 29351614 PMCID: PMC5839738 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-03102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Estradiol acts as a neuromodulator in brain regions important for cognition and sensory processing. Estradiol also shapes brain sex differences but rarely have these concepts been considered simultaneously. In male and female songbirds, estradiol rapidly increases within the auditory forebrain during song exposure and enhances local auditory processing. We tested whether G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER1), a membrane-bound estrogen receptor, is necessary and sufficient for neuroestrogen regulation of forebrain auditory processing in male and female zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). At baseline, we observed that females had elevated single-neuron responses to songs vs males. In males, narrow-spiking (NS) neurons were more responsive to conspecific songs than broad-spiking (BS) neurons, yet cell types were similarly auditory responsive in females. Following acute inactivation of GPER1, auditory responsiveness and coding were suppressed in male NS yet unchanged in female NS and in BS of both sexes. By contrast, GPER1 activation did not mimic previously established estradiol actions in either sex. Lastly, the expression of GPER1 and its coexpression with an inhibitory neuron marker were similarly abundant in males and females, confirming anatomical similarity in the auditory forebrain. In this study, we found: (1) a role for GPER1 in regulating sensory processing and (2) a sex difference in auditory processing of complex vocalizations in a cell type-specific manner. These results reveal sex specificity of a rapid estrogen signaling mechanism in which neuromodulation accounts and/or compensates for brain sex differences, dependent on cell type, in brain regions that are anatomically similar in both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda A. Krentzel
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
- Correspondence: Amanda A. Krentzel, PhD, David Clark Laboratories, North Carolina State University, 100 Eugene Brooks Avenue, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607. E-mail:
| | - Matheus Macedo-Lima
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
- Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, DF 70040-020 Brasília, Brazil
| | - Maaya Z. Ikeda
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
| | - Luke Remage-Healey
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
- Center for Neuroendocrine Studies, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
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43
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Abstract
Importance of the neuroendocrine brain for health and happiness has become clear since the 1960s. Foundations laid 100 years ago culminated in Geoffrey W Harris's model of control by the brain of secretion of anterior and posterior pituitary gland hormones through, respectively, releasing factors secreted into the hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system, and directly from axon terminals into the systemic circulation. Confirmation, expansion and deepening of knowledge and understanding have followed increasingly sophisticated technology. This allowed chemical characterisation of the posterior pituitary hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin, the releasing factors, their receptors and genes, location of the neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus, and how their activity is controlled, including by neural and hormonal feedback, and how hormone rhythms are generated. Wider roles of these neurons and their peptides in the brain are now recognised: in reproductive and social behaviours, emotions and appetite. Plasticity and epigenetic programming of neuroendocrine systems have emerged as important features.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A. Russell
- Professor Emeritus, Edinburgh Medical School: Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK
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44
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Horrell ND, Hickmott PW, Saltzman W. Neural Regulation of Paternal Behavior in Mammals: Sensory, Neuroendocrine, and Experiential Influences on the Paternal Brain. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2018; 43:111-160. [PMID: 30206901 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2018_55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Across the animal kingdom, parents in many species devote extraordinary effort toward caring for offspring, often risking their lives and exhausting limited resources. Understanding how the brain orchestrates parental care, biasing effort over the many competing demands, is an important topic in social neuroscience. In mammals, maternal care is necessary for offspring survival and is largely mediated by changes in hormones and neuropeptides that fluctuate massively during pregnancy, parturition, and lactation (e.g., progesterone, estradiol, oxytocin, and prolactin). In the relatively small number of mammalian species in which parental care by fathers enhances offspring survival and development, males also undergo endocrine changes concurrent with birth of their offspring, but on a smaller scale than females. Thus, fathers additionally rely on sensory signals from their mates, environment, and/or offspring to orchestrate paternal behavior. Males can engage in a variety of infant-directed behaviors that range from infanticide to avoidance to care; in many species, males can display all three behaviors in their lifetime. The neural plasticity that underlies such stark changes in behavior is not well understood. In this chapter we summarize current data on the neural circuitry that has been proposed to underlie paternal care in mammals, as well as sensory, neuroendocrine, and experiential influences on paternal behavior and on the underlying circuitry. We highlight some of the gaps in our current knowledge of this system and propose future directions that will enable the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the proximate control of parenting by fathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan D Horrell
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Peter W Hickmott
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Wendy Saltzman
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
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Rosenfeld CS. Brain Sexual Differentiation and Requirement of SRY: Why or Why Not? Front Neurosci 2017; 11:632. [PMID: 29200993 PMCID: PMC5696354 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain sexual differentiation is orchestrated by precise coordination of sex steroid hormones. In some species, programming of select male brain regions is dependent upon aromatization of testosterone to estrogen. In mammals, these hormones surge during the organizational and activational periods that occur during perinatal development and adulthood, respectively. In various fish and reptiles, incubation temperature during a critical embryonic period results in male or female sexual differentiation, but this can be overridden in males by early exposure to estrogenic chemicals. Testes development in mammals requires a Y chromosome and testis determining gene SRY (in humans)/Sry (all other therian mammals), although there are notable exceptions. Two species of spiny rats: Amami spiny rat (Tokudaia osimensis) and Tokunoshima spiny rat (Tokudaia tokunoshimensis) and two species of mole voles (Ellobius lutescens and Ellobius tancrei), lack a Y chromosome/Sry and possess an XO chromosome system in both sexes. Such rodent species, prototherians (monotremes, who also lack Sry), and fish and reptile species that demonstrate temperature sex determination (TSD) seemingly call into question the requirement of Sry for brain sexual differentiation. This review will consider brain regions expressing SRY/Sry in humans and rodents, respectively, and potential roles of SRY/Sry in the brain will be discussed. The evidence from various taxa disputing the requirement of Sry for brain sexual differentiation in mammals (therians and prototherians) and certain fish and reptilian species will be examined. A comparative approach to address this question may elucidate other genes, pathways, and epigenetic modifications stimulating brain sexual differentiation in vertebrate species, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl S Rosenfeld
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Thompson Center for Autism and Neurobehavioral Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Genetics Area Program, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
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Bramble MS, Lipson A, Vashist N, Vilain E. Effects of chromosomal sex and hormonal influences on shaping sex differences in brain and behavior: Lessons from cases of disorders of sex development. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:65-74. [PMID: 27841933 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in brain development and postnatal behavior are determined largely by genetic sex and in utero gonadal hormone secretions. In humans however, determining the weight that each of these factors contributes remains a challenge because social influences should also be considered. Cases of disorders of sex development (DSD) provide unique insight into how mutations in genes responsible for gonadal formation can perturb the subsequent developmental hormonal milieu and elicit changes in normal human brain maturation. Specific forms of DSDs such as complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), and 5α-reductase deficiency syndrome have variable effects between males and females, and the developmental outcomes of such conditions are largely dependent on sex chromosome composition. Medical and psychological works focused on CAH, CAIS, and 5α-reductase deficiency have helped form the foundation for understanding the roles of genetic and hormonal factors necessary for guiding human brain development. Here we highlight how the three aforementioned DSDs contribute to brain and behavioral phenotypes that can uniquely affect 46,XY and 46,XX individuals in dramatically different fashions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Bramble
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Allen Lipson
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Neerja Vashist
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Eric Vilain
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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Sanchis-Segura C, Becker JB. Why we should consider sex (and study sex differences) in addiction research. Addict Biol 2016; 21:995-1006. [PMID: 27029841 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Among mammals, every cell has a biological sex, and the sex of an individual pervades its body and brain. In this review, we describe the processes through which mammals become phenotypically male or female by organizational and activational influences of genes and hormones throughout development. We emphasized that the molecular and cellular changes triggered by sex chromosomes and steroid hormones may generate sex differences in overt physiological functions and behavior, but they may alternatively promote end-point convergences between males and females. Clinical and pre-clinical evidences suggest that sex and gender differences modulate drug consumption as well as of the transition towards drug-promoted pathological states such as dependence and addiction. Additionally, sex differences in drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics will also influence dependence and addiction as well as side effects of drugs. These effects will further interact with socially gendered factors to result in sex differences in the access to, engagement in and efficacy of any therapeutic attempt. Finally, we maintain that 'sex sameness' is as important as 'sex differences' when building a complete understanding of biology for both males and females and provide a framework with which to classify and guide investigation into the mechanisms mediating sex differences and sex sameness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Sanchis-Segura
- Departament de Psicologia básica, clínica i psicobiologia. Área de Psicobiología; Universitat Jaume I; Castellón de la Plana Spain
| | - Jill B. Becker
- Department of Psychology and Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor MI USA
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Leff-Gelman P, Mancilla-Herrera I, Flores-Ramos M, Cruz-Fuentes C, Reyes-Grajeda JP, García-Cuétara MDP, Bugnot-Pérez MD, Pulido-Ascencio DE. The Immune System and the Role of Inflammation in Perinatal Depression. Neurosci Bull 2016; 32:398-420. [PMID: 27432060 PMCID: PMC5563787 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-016-0048-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depression during pregnancy is a common psychiatric disorder that arises from a complex and multifactorial etiology. Psychosocial stress, sex, hormones, and genetic vulnerability increase the risk for triggering mood disorders. Microglia and toll-like receptor 4 play a crucial role in triggering wide and varied stress-induced responses mediated through activation of the inflammasome; this leads to the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, increased serotonin metabolism, and reduction of neurotransmitter availability along with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hyperactivity. Dysregulation of this intricate neuroimmune communication network during pregnancy modifies the maternal milieu, enhancing the emergence of depressive symptoms and negative obstetric and neuropsychiatric outcomes. Although several studies have clearly demonstrated the role of the innate immune system in major depression, it is still unclear how the placenta, the brain, and the monoaminergic and neuroendocrine systems interact during perinatal depression. Thus, in the present review we describe the cellular and molecular interactions between these systems in major depression during pregnancy, proposing that the same stress-related mechanisms involved in the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in microglia and peripheral myeloid cells in depressed patients operate in a similar fashion in the neuroimmune placenta during perinatal depression. Thus, activation of Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 signaling and the NLRP3 inflammasome in placental immune cells may promote a shift of the Th1/Th2 bias towards a predominant Th1/Th17 inflammatory response, associated with increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, among other secreted autocrine and paracrine mediators, which play a crucial role in triggering and/or exacerbating depressive symptoms during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mónica Flores-Ramos
- National Institute of Psychiatry, Mexico City, Mexico
- National Council of Science and Technology, Mexico City, Mexico
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Muscimol microinjected in the arcuate nucleus affects metabolism, body temperature & ventilation. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2016; 227:34-40. [PMID: 26934718 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2016.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Effects of microinjection of 2 doses of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor agonist, muscimol (M), into the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus on oxygen consumption and control of ventilation over time and body temperature (BT) at the end of the experiment were compared in adult male and female rats. Relative to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF, 0 nmol), BT was decreased only in male rats with both doses of M, while in female rats, the 5 nmol dose depressed oxygen consumption. Ventilation was depressed by 5 nmol M in male and 10 nmol M in female rats by decreasing tidal volume. M did not affect the ventilatory response of male or female rats to hypoxia, whereas in females 5 and 10 nmol M and in males 10 nmol M depressed the ventilatory response to hypercapnia. Thus, in rats GABAA receptors in the arcuate nucleus modulate BT, oxygen consumption, and ventilation in air and in response to hypercapnia in a sexually dimorphic manner.
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Hamson DK, Roes MM, Galea LAM. Sex Hormones and Cognition: Neuroendocrine Influences on Memory and Learning. Compr Physiol 2016; 6:1295-337. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c150031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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