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Schwarzer E, Skorokhod O. Post-Translational Modifications of Proteins of Malaria Parasites during the Life Cycle. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6145. [PMID: 38892332 PMCID: PMC11173270 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are essential for regulating protein functions, influencing various fundamental processes in eukaryotes. These include, but are not limited to, cell signaling, protein trafficking, the epigenetic control of gene expression, and control of the cell cycle, as well as cell proliferation, differentiation, and interactions between cells. In this review, we discuss protein PTMs that play a key role in the malaria parasite biology and its pathogenesis. Phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, lipidation and lipoxidation, glycosylation, ubiquitination and sumoylation, nitrosylation and glutathionylation, all of which occur in malarial parasites, are reviewed. We provide information regarding the biological significance of these modifications along all phases of the complex life cycle of Plasmodium spp. Importantly, not only the parasite, but also the host and vector protein PTMs are often crucial for parasite growth and development. In addition to metabolic regulations, protein PTMs can result in epitopes that are able to elicit both innate and adaptive immune responses of the host or vector. We discuss some existing and prospective results from antimalarial drug discovery trials that target various PTM-related processes in the parasite or host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelin Schwarzer
- Department of Oncology, University of Turin, Via Santena 5 bis, 10126 Turin, Italy;
| | - Oleksii Skorokhod
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Via Accademia Albertina, 13, 10123 Turin, Italy
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2
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Tripathi H, Bhalerao P, Singh S, Arya H, Alotaibi BS, Rashid S, Hasan MR, Bhatt TK. Malaria therapeutics: are we close enough? Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:130. [PMID: 37060004 PMCID: PMC10103679 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05755-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a vector-borne parasitic disease caused by the apicomplexan protozoan parasite Plasmodium. Malaria is a significant health problem and the leading cause of socioeconomic losses in developing countries. WHO approved several antimalarials in the last 2 decades, but the growing resistance against the available drugs has worsened the scenario. Drug resistance and diversity among Plasmodium strains hinder the path of eradicating malaria leading to the use of new technologies and strategies to develop effective vaccines and drugs. A timely and accurate diagnosis is crucial for any disease, including malaria. The available diagnostic methods for malaria include microscopy, RDT, PCR, and non-invasive diagnosis. Recently, there have been several developments in detecting malaria, with improvements leading to achieving an accurate, quick, cost-effective, and non-invasive diagnostic tool for malaria. Several vaccine candidates with new methods and antigens are under investigation and moving forward to be considered for clinical trials. This article concisely reviews basic malaria biology, the parasite's life cycle, approved drugs, vaccine candidates, and available diagnostic approaches. It emphasizes new avenues of therapeutics for malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himani Tripathi
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Preshita Bhalerao
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Sujeet Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Hemant Arya
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Bader Saud Alotaibi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Alquwayiyah, Shaqra University, Riyadh, 11971, Saudi Arabia
| | - Summya Rashid
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 173, Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Raghibul Hasan
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Alquwayiyah, Shaqra University, Riyadh, 11971, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India.
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O’Shaughnessy WJ, Dewangan PS, Paiz EA, Reese ML. Not your Mother's MAPKs: Apicomplexan MAPK function in daughter cell budding. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010849. [PMID: 36227859 PMCID: PMC9560070 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Reversible phosphorylation by protein kinases is one of the core mechanisms by which biological signals are propagated and processed. Mitogen-activated protein kinases, or MAPKs, are conserved throughout eukaryotes where they regulate cell cycle, development, and stress response. Here, we review advances in our understanding of the function and biochemistry of MAPK signaling in apicomplexan parasites. As expected for well-conserved signaling modules, MAPKs have been found to have multiple essential roles regulating both Toxoplasma tachyzoite replication and sexual differentiation in Plasmodium. However, apicomplexan MAPK signaling is notable for the lack of the canonical kinase cascade that normally regulates the networks, and therefore must be regulated by a distinct mechanism. We highlight what few regulatory relationships have been established to date, and discuss the challenges to the field in elucidating the complete MAPK signaling networks in these parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J. O’Shaughnessy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Pravin S. Dewangan
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - E. Ariana Paiz
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Reese
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America,Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America,* E-mail:
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4
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Reverse genetics in virology: A double edged sword. BIOSAFETY AND HEALTH 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2022.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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5
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Adderley J, Doerig C. Comparative analysis of the kinomes of Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax and their host Homo sapiens. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:237. [PMID: 35346035 PMCID: PMC8960227 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-08457-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Novel antimalarials should be effective across all species of malaria parasites that infect humans, especially the two species that bear the most impact, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. Protein kinases encoded by pathogens, as well as host kinases required for survival of intracellular pathogens, carry considerable potential as targets for antimalarial intervention (Adderley et al. Trends Parasitol 37:508–524, 2021; Wei et al. Cell Rep Med 2:100423, 2021). To date, no comprehensive P. vivax kinome assembly has been conducted; and the P. falciparum kinome, first assembled in 2004, requires an update. The present study, aimed to fill these gaps, utilises a recently published structurally-validated multiple sequence alignment (MSA) of the human kinome (Modi et al. Sci Rep 9:19790, 2019). This MSA is used as a scaffold to assist the alignment of all protein kinase sequences from P. falciparum and P. vivax, and (where possible) their assignment to specific kinase groups/families. Results We were able to assign six P. falciparum previously classified as OPK or ‘orphans’ (i.e. with no clear phylogenetic relation to any of the established ePK groups) to one of the aforementioned ePK groups. Direct phylogenetic comparison established that despite an overall high level of similarity between the P. falciparum and P. vivax kinomes, which will help in selecting targets for intervention, there are differences that may underlie the biological specificities of these species. Furthermore, we highlight a number of Plasmodium kinases that have a surprisingly high level of similarity with their human counterparts and therefore not well suited as targets for drug discovery. Conclusions Direct comparison of the kinomes of Homo sapiens, P. falciparum and P. vivax sheds additional light on the previously documented divergence of many P. falciparum and P. vivax kinases from those of their human host. We provide the first direct kinome comparison between the phylogenetically distinct species of P. falciparum and P. vivax, illustrating the key similarities and differences which must be considered in the context of kinase-directed antimalarial drug discovery, and discuss the divergences and similarities between the human and Plasmodium kinomes to inform future searches for selective antimalarial intervention. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08457-0.
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Parreira KS, Scarpelli P, Rezende Lima W, Garcia RS. Contribution of Transcriptome to Elucidate the Biology of Plasmodium spp. Curr Top Med Chem 2022; 22:169-187. [PMID: 35021974 DOI: 10.2174/1568026622666220111140803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the present review, we discuss some of the new technologies that have been applied to elucidate how Plasmodium spp escape from the immune system and subvert the host physiology to orchestrate the regulation of its biological pathways. Our manuscript describes how techniques such as microarray approaches, RNA-Seq and single-cell RNA sequencing have contributed to the discovery of transcripts and changed the concept of gene expression regulation in closely related malaria parasite species. Moreover, the text highlights the contributions of high-throughput RNA sequencing for the current knowledge of malaria parasite biology, physiology, vaccine target and the revelation of new players in parasite signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pedro Scarpelli
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wânia Rezende Lima
- Departamento de Medicina, Instituto de Biotecnologia-Universidade Federal de Catalão
| | - R S Garcia
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, Brazil
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Dos Santos Pacheco N, Tosetti N, Krishnan A, Haase R, Maco B, Suarez C, Ren B, Soldati-Favre D. Revisiting the Role of Toxoplasma gondii ERK7 in the Maintenance and Stability of the Apical Complex. mBio 2021; 12:e0205721. [PMID: 34607461 PMCID: PMC8546650 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02057-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii extracellular signal-regulated kinase 7 (ERK7) is known to contribute to the integrity of the apical complex and to participate in the final step of conoid biogenesis. In the absence of ERK7, mature parasites lose their conoid complex and are unable to glide, invade, or egress from host cells. In contrast to a previous report, we show here that the depletion of ERK7 phenocopies the depletion of the apical cap protein AC9 or AC10. The absence of ERK7 leads to the loss of the apical polar ring (APR), the disorganization of the basket of subpellicular microtubules (SPMTs), and a severe impairment in microneme secretion. Ultrastructure expansion microscopy (U-ExM), coupled to N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (NHS-ester) staining on intracellular parasites, offers an unprecedented level of resolution and highlights the disorganization of the rhoptries as well as the dilated plasma membrane at the apical pole in the absence of ERK7. Comparative proteomics analysis of wild-type and ERK7-depleted parasites confirmed the disappearance of known apical complex proteins, including markers of the apical polar ring and a new apical cap named AC11. Concomitantly, the absence of ERK7 led to an accumulation of microneme proteins, resulting from the defect in the exocytosis of the organelles. AC9-depleted parasites were included as controls and exhibited an increase in inner membrane complex proteins, with two new proteins assigned to this compartment, namely, IMC33 and IMC34. IMPORTANCE The conoid is an enigmatic, dynamic organelle positioned at the apical tip of the coccidian subgroup of the Apicomplexa, close to the apical polar ring (APR) from which the subpellicular microtubules (SPMTs) emerge and through which the secretory organelles (micronemes and rhoptries) reach the plasma membrane for exocytosis. In Toxoplasma gondii, the conoid protrudes concomitantly with microneme secretion, during egress, motility, and invasion. The conditional depletion of the apical cap structural protein AC9 or AC10 leads to a disorganization of SPMTs as well as the loss of the APR and conoid, resulting in a microneme secretion defect and a block in motility, invasion, and egress. We show here that the depletion of the kinase ERK7 phenocopies AC9 and AC10 mutants. The combination of ultrastructure expansion microscopy and NHS-ester staining revealed that ERK7-depleted parasites exhibit a dilated apical plasma membrane and an altered positioning of the rhoptries, while electron microscopy images unambiguously highlight the loss of the APR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dos Santos Pacheco
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nicolò Tosetti
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aarti Krishnan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Haase
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bohumil Maco
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Catherine Suarez
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bingjian Ren
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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8
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Kaur P, Goyal N. Pathogenic role of mitogen activated protein kinases in protozoan parasites. Biochimie 2021; 193:78-89. [PMID: 34706251 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2021.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites with complex life cycles have high mortality rates affecting billions of human lives. Available anti-parasitic drugs are inadequate due to variable efficacy, toxicity, poor patient compliance and drug-resistance. Hence, there is an urgent need for the development of safer and better chemotherapeutics. Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) have drawn much attention as potential drug targets. This review summarizes unique structural and functional features of MAP kinases and their possible role in pathogenesis of obligate intracellular protozoan parasites namely, Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Plasmodium and Toxoplasma. It also provides an overview of available knowledge concerning the target proteins of parasite MAPKs and the need to understand and unravel unknown interaction network(s) of MAPK(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavneet Kaur
- Division of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, 226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Neena Goyal
- Division of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, 226031, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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9
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Sharma M, Choudhury H, Roy R, Michaels SA, Ojo KK, Bansal A. CDPKs: The critical decoders of calcium signal at various stages of malaria parasite development. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2021; 19:5092-5107. [PMID: 34589185 PMCID: PMC8453137 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2021.08.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium ions are used as important signals during various physiological processes. In malaria parasites, Plasmodium spp., calcium dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) have acquired the unique ability to sense and transduce calcium signals at various critical steps during the lifecycle, either through phosphorylation of downstream substrates or mediating formation of high molecular weight protein complexes. Calcium signaling cascades establish important crosstalk events with signaling pathways mediated by other secondary messengers such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). CDPKs play critical roles at various important physiological steps during parasite development in vertebrates and mosquitoes. They are also important for transmission of the parasite between the two hosts. Combined with the fact that CDPKs are not present in humans, they continue to be pursued as important targets for development of anti-malarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Sharma
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Himashree Choudhury
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Rajarshi Roy
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Samantha A. Michaels
- Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109 USA
| | - Kayode K. Ojo
- Center for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109 USA
| | - Abhisheka Bansal
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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Adderley J, Williamson T, Doerig C. Parasite and Host Erythrocyte Kinomics of Plasmodium Infection. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:508-524. [PMID: 33593681 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Malaria remains a heavy public health and socioeconomic burden in tropical and subtropical regions. Increasing resistance against front-line treatments implies that novel targets for antimalarial intervention are urgently required. Protein kinases of both the parasites and their host cells possess strong potential in this respect. We present an overview of the updated kinome of Plasmodium falciparum, the species that is the largest contributor to malaria mortality, and of current knowledge pertaining to the function of parasite-encoded protein kinases during the parasite's life cycle. Furthermore, we detail recent advances in drug initiatives targeting Plasmodium kinases and outline the potential of protein kinases in the context of the growing field of host-directed therapies, which is currently being explored as a novel way to combat parasite drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Adderley
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Tayla Williamson
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Christian Doerig
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia.
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11
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Morahan BJ, Abrie C, Al-Hasani K, Batty MB, Corey V, Cowell AN, Niemand J, Winzeler EA, Birkholtz LM, Doerig C, Garcia-Bustos JF. Human Aurora kinase inhibitor Hesperadin reveals epistatic interaction between Plasmodium falciparum PfArk1 and PfNek1 kinases. Commun Biol 2020; 3:701. [PMID: 33219324 PMCID: PMC7679417 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-01424-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitosis has been validated by numerous anti-cancer drugs as being a druggable process, and selective inhibition of parasite proliferation provides an obvious opportunity for therapeutic intervention against malaria. Mitosis is controlled through the interplay between several protein kinases and phosphatases. We show here that inhibitors of human mitotic kinases belonging to the Aurora family inhibit P. falciparum proliferation in vitro with various potencies, and that a genetic selection for mutant parasites resistant to one of the drugs, Hesperadin, identifies a resistance mechanism mediated by a member of a different kinase family, PfNek1 (PF3D7_1228300). Intriguingly, loss of PfNek1 catalytic activity provides protection against drug action. This points to an undescribed functional interaction between Ark and Nek kinases and shows that existing inhibitors can be used to validate additional essential and druggable kinase functions in the parasite. Morahan et al. investigate inhibitors of human mitotic kinases in P. falciparum and show a resistance mechanism to the drug Hesperadin through an epistatic interaction between the PfArk1 and PfNek1 kinases. This study demonstrates that existing inhibitors can be used to validate additional essential and druggable kinase functions in the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda J Morahan
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Clarissa Abrie
- Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa
| | - Keith Al-Hasani
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia.,Department of Diabetes, Monash University Central Clinical School, Alfred Centre, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Mitchell B Batty
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia.,Department of Diabetes, Monash University Central Clinical School, Alfred Centre, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Victoria Corey
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0760, USA.,Illumina, 5200 Illumina Way, San Diego, CA, 92122, USA
| | - Anne N Cowell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0760, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9444 Medical Center Drive, MC 0879, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0879, USA
| | - Jandeli Niemand
- Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa
| | - Elizabeth A Winzeler
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0760, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0760, USA
| | - Lyn-Marie Birkholtz
- Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Institute for Sustainable Malaria Control, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa
| | - Christian Doerig
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia. .,School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, PO Box 71, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia.
| | - Jose F Garcia-Bustos
- Infection and Immunity Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia.
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12
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Moolman C, van der Sluis R, Beteck RM, Legoabe LJ. An Update on Development of Small-Molecule Plasmodial Kinase Inhibitors. Molecules 2020; 25:E5182. [PMID: 33171706 PMCID: PMC7664427 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria control relies heavily on the small number of existing antimalarial drugs. However, recurring antimalarial drug resistance necessitates the continual generation of new antimalarial drugs with novel modes of action. In order to shift the focus from only controlling this disease towards elimination and eradication, next-generation antimalarial agents need to address the gaps in the malaria drug arsenal. This includes developing drugs for chemoprotection, treating severe malaria and blocking transmission. Plasmodial kinases are promising targets for next-generation antimalarial drug development as they mediate critical cellular processes and some are active across multiple stages of the parasite's life cycle. This review gives an update on the progress made thus far with regards to plasmodial kinase small-molecule inhibitor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantalle Moolman
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.M.); (R.M.B.)
| | - Rencia van der Sluis
- Focus Area for Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa;
| | - Richard M. Beteck
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.M.); (R.M.B.)
| | - Lesetja J. Legoabe
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa; (C.M.); (R.M.B.)
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Abstract
Malaria is one of the most impacting public health problems in tropical and subtropical areas of the globe, with approximately 200 million cases worldwide annually. In the absence of an effective vaccine, rapid treatment is vital for effective malaria control. However, parasite resistance to currently available drugs underscores the urgent need for identifying new antimalarial therapies with new mechanisms of action. Among potential drug targets for developing new antimalarial candidates, protein kinases are attractive. These enzymes catalyze the phosphorylation of several proteins, thereby regulating a variety of cellular processes and playing crucial roles in the development of all stages of the malaria parasite life cycle. Moreover, the large phylogenetic distance between Plasmodium species and its human host is reflected in marked differences in structure and function of malaria protein kinases between the homologs of both species, indicating that selectivity can be attained. In this review, we describe the functions of the different types of Plasmodium kinases and highlight the main recent advances in the discovery of kinase inhibitors as potential new antimalarial drug candidates.
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14
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Protein Kinase Inhibitors Arrested the In-Vitro Growth of Theileria equi. Acta Parasitol 2020; 65:644-651. [PMID: 32240490 DOI: 10.2478/s11686-020-00202-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Theileria equi is an intra-erythrocytic apicomplexean protozoa that infect equines. Protein kinases (PK), key molecules of the apicomplexean life cycle, have been implicated as significant drug targets. The growth inhibitory efficacy of PK inhibitors against Theileria/Babesia animal parasites have not been documented so far. METHODS The present study aimed to carry out in-vitro growth inhibitory efficacy studies of four novel drug molecules-SB239063, PD0332991 isethionate, FR180204 and apigenin, targeting different protein kinases of T. equi. A continuous microaerophilic stationary-phase culture (MASP) system was established for propagation of T. equi parasites. This in-vitro culture technique was used to assess the growth inhibitory effect of protein kinase targeted drug molecules, whereas diminazene aceturate was taken as control drug against T. equi. The inhibitory concentration (IC50) was determined for comparative analysis. The potential cytotoxicity of the drug molecule was also assessed on horse's peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) cell line. RESULTS SB239063 and diminazene aceturate drugs significantly inhibited (p < 0.05) the in-vitro growth of T. equi parasite at 0.1 µM, 1 µM, 10 µM, 50 µM and 100 µM concentration at ≥ 48 h of incubation period and respective IC50 values were 4.25 µM and 1.23 µM. Furthermore, SB239063 was not cytotoxic to the horse PBMCs and found safer than diminazine aceturate drug. PD0332991 isethionate and FR180204 are extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitors and significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited T. equi in-vitro growth at higher concentrations (≥ 48 h of incubation period) with respective IC50 value of 10.41 µM and 21.0 µM. Lower concentrations of these two drugs were not effective (p > 0.05) even after 96 h of treatment period. Apigenin (protein kinase-C inhibitor) drug molecule was unsuccessful in inhibiting the T. equi parasite growth completely. After 96 h of in-vitro treatment period, a parasite viability study was performed on drug-treated T. equi parasitized RBCs. These drugs-treated parasitized RBCs were collected and transferred to wells containing fresh culture media (without drug) and naïve host RBCs. Drug-treated RBCs collected from SB239063, PD0332991, diminazene aceturate treatment (1 µM to 100 µM concentration) were unsuccessful in growing/multiplying further. Apigenin drug-treated T. equi parasites were live after 96 h of treatment. CONCLUSION It may be concluded that SB239063 was the most effective drug molecule (being lowest in IC50 value) out of the four different protein kinase inhibitors tested in this study. This drug molecule has insignificant cytotoxic activity against horse's PBMCs.
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Cellular Identification and In Silico Characterization of Protein Phosphatase 2C (PP2C) of Cryptosporidium parvum. Acta Parasitol 2020; 65:704-715. [PMID: 32347536 DOI: 10.2478/s11686-020-00209-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cryptosporidium parvum is an Apicomplexa parasite that causes watery diarrhea (cryptosporidiosis), especially in children and immunocompromised adults (the latter in a very severe form). No effective treatment exists against infection by this parasite. Phosphatases participate in the regulation of various cellular functions and are thus considered potential therapeutic targets in many diseases. The aim of the present study was to indirectly identify and in silico characterize a protein phosphatase 2C of C. parvum. METHODS Western blot and indirect immunofluorescence microscopy were performed with a polyclonal antibody against Leishmania major PP2C. Possible cross-reactivity with LmPP2C was assessed by in silico sequence homology to analyze phylogenetic relationships between distinct C. parvum PP2Cs. In addition, another bioinformatics approach was used to predict the possible relationship and function of C. parvum PP2C in the regulation of several cellular processes. RESULTS Western blotting showed a protein of approximately 72 kDa. With immunofluorescence, PP2C was localized in the nucleus of oocysts (with some additional labeling in the cytoplasm) and at the apical region of sporozoites. By aligning C. parvum PP2C with known ortholog sequences and carrying out PPI analysis, a determination could be made of the degree of conservation of these enzymes, their possible relationship, and their function in the regulation of several cellular processes associated with a likely nuclear location. CONCLUSION Microscopic localization by immunofluorescence identified CpPP2C at the nucleus in oocysts and at the apical end of the sporozoite body. Hence, this enzyme could be associated with proteins that have an important role in the regulation of transcription and other processes orchestrated by MAPK kinases, according to in silico analysis.
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Adderley JD, John von Freyend S, Jackson SA, Bird MJ, Burns AL, Anar B, Metcalf T, Semblat JP, Billker O, Wilson DW, Doerig C. Analysis of erythrocyte signalling pathways during Plasmodium falciparum infection identifies targets for host-directed antimalarial intervention. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4015. [PMID: 32782246 PMCID: PMC7419518 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17829-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular pathogens mobilize host signaling pathways of their host cell to promote their own survival. Evidence is emerging that signal transduction elements are activated in a-nucleated erythrocytes in response to infection with malaria parasites, but the extent of this phenomenon remains unknown. Here, we fill this knowledge gap through a comprehensive and dynamic assessment of host erythrocyte signaling during infection with Plasmodium falciparum. We used arrays of 878 antibodies directed against human signaling proteins to interrogate the activation status of host erythrocyte phospho-signaling pathways at three blood stages of parasite asexual development. This analysis reveals a dynamic modulation of many host signalling proteins across parasite development. Here we focus on the hepatocyte growth factor receptor (c-MET) and the MAP kinase pathway component B-Raf, providing a proof of concept that human signaling kinases identified as activated by malaria infection represent attractive targets for antimalarial intervention. Plasmodium infection activates signaling pathways in a-nucleated erythrocytes. Here, Adderley et al. use a comprehensive antibody microarray to show that infection extensively modulates host cell signalling and that the host receptor tyrosine kinase c-MET supports Plasmodium falciparum proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack D Adderley
- Centre for Chronic Inflammatory and Infectious and Diseases, Biomedical Sciences Cluster, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Simona John von Freyend
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Sarah A Jackson
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Megan J Bird
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Amy L Burns
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Burcu Anar
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Tom Metcalf
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Jean-Philippe Semblat
- Institut National de la Transfusion Sanguine, Inserm UMR S1134, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Oliver Billker
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, CB10 1SA, UK.,Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, SE-901 87, Sweden
| | - Danny W Wilson
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.,Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Christian Doerig
- Centre for Chronic Inflammatory and Infectious and Diseases, Biomedical Sciences Cluster, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia.
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PfMAP-2 is essential for male gametogenesis in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11930. [PMID: 32681115 PMCID: PMC7368081 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68717-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In malaria parasites, male gametogenesis is a proliferative stage essential for parasite transmission to the mosquito vector. It is a rapid process involving three rounds of genome replication alternating with closed endomitoses, and assembly of axonemes to produce eight flagellated motile microgametes. Studies in Plasmodium berghei have highlighted tight regulation of gametogenesis by a network of kinases. The P. berghei MAPK homologue PbMAP-2 is dispensable for asexual development but important at the induction of axoneme motility. However, in P. falciparum, causing the most severe form of human malaria, PfMAP-2 was suggested to be essential for asexual proliferation indicating distinct functions for MAP-2 in these two Plasmodium species. We here show that PfMAP-2 is dispensable for asexual growth but important for male gametogenesis in vitro. Similar to PbMAP-2, PfMAP-2 is required for initiating axonemal beating but not for prior DNA replication or axoneme formation. In addition, single and double null mutants of PfMAP-2 and the second P. falciparum MAPK homologue PfMAP-1 show no defect in asexual proliferation, sexual commitment or gametocytogenesis. Our results suggest that MAPK activity plays no major role in the biology of both asexual and sexual blood stage parasites up until the point of male gametogenesis.
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Flammersfeld A, Panyot A, Yamaryo-Botté Y, Aurass P, Przyborski JM, Flieger A, Botté C, Pradel G. A patatin-like phospholipase functions during gametocyte induction in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cell Microbiol 2019; 22:e13146. [PMID: 31734953 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Patatin-like phospholipases (PNPLAs) are highly conserved enzymes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms with major roles in lipid homeostasis. The genome of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum encodes four putative PNPLAs with predicted functions during phospholipid degradation. We here investigated the role of one of the plasmodial PNPLAs, a putative PLA2 termed PNPLA1, during blood stage replication and gametocyte development. PNPLA1 is present in the asexual and sexual blood stages and here localizes to the cytoplasm. PNPLA1-deficiency due to gene disruption or conditional gene-knockdown had no effect on intraerythrocytic growth, gametocyte development and gametogenesis. However, parasites lacking PNPLA1 were impaired in gametocyte induction, while PNPLA1 overexpression promotes gametocyte formation. The loss of PNPLA1 further leads to transcriptional down-regulation of genes related to gametocytogenesis, including the gene encoding the sexual commitment regulator AP2-G. Additionally, lipidomics of PNPLA1-deficient asexual blood stage parasites revealed overall increased levels of major phospholipids, including phosphatidylcholine (PC), which is a substrate of PLA2 . PC synthesis is known to be pivotal for erythrocytic replication, while the reduced availability of PC precursors drives the parasite into gametocytogenesis; we thus hypothesize that the higher PC levels due to PNPLA1-deficiency prevent the blood stage parasites from entering the sexual pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansgar Flammersfeld
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Atscharah Panyot
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Yoshiki Yamaryo-Botté
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Université Grenoble Alpes, La Tronche, France
| | - Philipp Aurass
- Centre for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jude M Przyborski
- Division of Enteropathogenic Bacteria and Legionella, Robert Koch-Institute, Wernigerode, Germany
| | - Antje Flieger
- Centre for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Cyrille Botté
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Université Grenoble Alpes, La Tronche, France
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute of Zoology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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Abstract
Alternative splicing is a widespread, essential, and complex component of gene regulation. Apicomplexan parasites have long been recognized to produce alternatively spliced transcripts for some genes and can produce multiple protein products that are essential for parasite growth. Alternative splicing is a widespread, essential, and complex component of gene regulation. Apicomplexan parasites have long been recognized to produce alternatively spliced transcripts for some genes and can produce multiple protein products that are essential for parasite growth. Recent approaches are now providing more wide-ranging surveys of the extent of alternative splicing; some indicate that alternative splicing is less widespread than in other model eukaryotes, whereas others suggest levels comparable to those of previously studied groups. In many cases, apicomplexan alternative splicing events appear not to generate multiple alternative proteins but instead produce aberrant or noncoding transcripts. Nonetheless, appropriate regulation of alternative splicing is clearly essential in Plasmodium and Toxoplasma parasites, suggesting a biological role for at least some of the alternative splicing observed. Several studies have now disrupted conserved regulators of alternative splicing and demonstrated lethal effects in apicomplexans. This minireview discusses methods to accurately determine the extent of alternative splicing in Apicomplexa and discuss potential biological roles for this conserved process in a phylum of parasites with compact genomes.
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20
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Eubanks AL, Perkins MM, Sylvester K, Ganley JG, Posfai D, Sanschargrin PC, Hong J, Sliz P, Derbyshire ER. In silico Screening and Evaluation of Plasmodium falciparum Protein Kinase 5 (PK5) Inhibitors. ChemMedChem 2018; 13:2479-2483. [PMID: 30328274 PMCID: PMC6436633 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201800625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
An in silico screen of 350 000 commercially available compounds was conducted with an unbiased approach to identify potential malaria inhibitors that bind to the Plasmodium falciparum protein kinase 5 (PfPK5) ATP-binding site. PfPK5 is a cyclin-dependent kinase-like protein with high sequence similarity to human cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (HsCDK2), but its precise role in cell-cycle regulation remains unclear. After two-dimensional fingerprinting of the top scoring compounds, 182 candidates were prioritized for biochemical testing based on their structural diversity. Evaluation of these compounds demonstrated that 135 bound to PfPK5 to a similar degree or better than known PfPK5 inhibitors, confirming that the library was enriched with PfPK5-binding compounds. A previously reported triazolodiamine HsCDK2 inhibitor and the screening hit 4-methylumbelliferone were each selected for an analogue study. The results of this study highlight the difficult balance between optimization of PfPK5 affinity and binding selectivity for PfPK5 over its closest human homologue HsCDK2. Our approach enabled the discovery of several new PfPK5-binding compounds from a modest screening campaign and revealed the first scaffold to have improved PfPK5/HsCDK2 selectivity. These steps are critical for the development of PfPK5-targeting probes for functional studies and antimalarials with decreased risks of host toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber L. Eubanks
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, 124 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708 (USA),
| | - Marisha M. Perkins
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, 124 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708 (USA),
| | - Kayla Sylvester
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, 213 Research Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27710 (USA)
| | - Jack G. Ganley
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, 124 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708 (USA),
| | - Dora Posfai
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, 213 Research Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27710 (USA)
| | - Paul C. Sanschargrin
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, 45 Shattuck Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02115 (USA)
| | - Jiyong Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, 124 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708 (USA),
| | - Piotr Sliz
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, 45 Shattuck Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02115 (USA)
| | - Emily R. Derbyshire
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, 124 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708 (USA),
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, 213 Research Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27710 (USA)
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21
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Epistasis studies reveal redundancy among calcium-dependent protein kinases in motility and invasion of malaria parasites. Nat Commun 2018; 9:4248. [PMID: 30315162 PMCID: PMC6185908 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06733-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In malaria parasites, evolution of parasitism has been linked to functional optimisation. Despite this optimisation, most members of a calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) family show genetic redundancy during erythrocytic proliferation. To identify relationships between phospho-signalling pathways, we here screen 294 genetic interactions among protein kinases in Plasmodium berghei. This reveals a synthetic negative interaction between a hypomorphic allele of the protein kinase G (PKG) and CDPK4 to control erythrocyte invasion which is conserved in P. falciparum. CDPK4 becomes critical when PKG-dependent calcium signals are attenuated to phosphorylate proteins important for the stability of the inner membrane complex, which serves as an anchor for the acto-myosin motor required for motility and invasion. Finally, we show that multiple kinases functionally complement CDPK4 during erythrocytic proliferation and transmission to the mosquito. This study reveals how CDPKs are wired within a stage-transcending signalling network to control motility and host cell invasion in malaria parasites. Despite functional optimisation during evolution of parasitism, most members of a calcium dependent protein kinase (CDPK) family show genetic redundancy in Plasmodium. Here, the authors screen 294 genetic interactions among protein kinases in Plasmodium and show how some CDPKs functionally interact to control motility and host cell invasion.
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22
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Bennink S, von Bohl A, Ngwa CJ, Henschel L, Kuehn A, Pilch N, Weißbach T, Rosinski AN, Scheuermayer M, Repnik U, Przyborski JM, Minns AM, Orchard LM, Griffiths G, Lindner SE, Llinás M, Pradel G. A seven-helix protein constitutes stress granules crucial for regulating translation during human-to-mosquito transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007249. [PMID: 30133543 PMCID: PMC6122839 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The complex life-cycle of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum requires a high degree of tight coordination allowing the parasite to adapt to changing environments. One of the major challenges for the parasite is the human-to-mosquito transmission, which starts with the differentiation of blood stage parasites into the transmissible gametocytes, followed by the rapid conversion of the gametocytes into gametes, once they are taken up by the blood-feeding Anopheles vector. In order to pre-adapt to this change of host, the gametocytes store transcripts in stress granules that encode proteins needed for parasite development in the mosquito. Here we report on a novel stress granule component, the seven-helix protein 7-Helix-1. The protein, a homolog of the human stress response regulator LanC-like 2, accumulates in stress granules of female gametocytes and interacts with ribonucleoproteins, such as CITH, DOZI, and PABP1. Malaria parasites lacking 7-Helix-1 are significantly impaired in female gametogenesis and thus transmission to the mosquito. Lack of 7-Helix-1 further leads to a deregulation of components required for protein synthesis. Consistently, inhibitors of translation could mimic the 7-Helix-1 loss-of-function phenotype. 7-Helix-1 forms a complex with the RNA-binding protein Puf2, a translational regulator of the female-specific antigen Pfs25, as well as with pfs25-coding mRNA. In accord, gametocytes deficient of 7-Helix-1 exhibit impaired Pfs25 synthesis. Our data demonstrate that 7-Helix-1 constitutes stress granules crucial for regulating the synthesis of proteins needed for life-cycle progression of Plasmodium in the mosquito vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Bennink
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andreas von Bohl
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Che J. Ngwa
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Leonie Henschel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andrea Kuehn
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Pilch
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tim Weißbach
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Alina N. Rosinski
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Urska Repnik
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Allen M. Minns
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Lindsey M. Orchard
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | | | - Scott E. Lindner
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Manuel Llinás
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry & Huck Center for Malaria Research, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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The protein kinase CK2 catalytic domain from Plasmodium falciparum: crystal structure, tyrosine kinase activity and inhibition. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7365. [PMID: 29743645 PMCID: PMC5943518 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25738-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria causes every year over half-a-million deaths. The emergence of parasites resistant to available treatments makes the identification of new targets and their inhibitors an urgent task for the development of novel anti-malaria drugs. Protein kinase CK2 is an evolutionary-conserved eukaryotic serine/threonine protein kinase that in Plasmodium falciparum (PfCK2) has been characterized as a promising target for chemotherapeutic intervention against malaria. Here we report a crystallographic structure of the catalytic domain of PfCK2α (D179S inactive single mutant) in complex with ATP at a resolution of 3.0 Å. Compared to the human enzyme, the structure reveals a subtly altered ATP binding pocket comprising five substitutions in the vicinity of the adenine base, that together with potential allosteric sites, could be exploited to design novel inhibitors specifically targeting the Plasmodium enzyme. We provide evidence for the dual autophosphorylation of residues Thr63 and Tyr30 of PfCK2. We also show that CX4945, a human CK2 inhibitor in clinical trials against solid tumor cancers, is effective against PfCK2 with an IC50 of 13.2 nM.
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Pease BN, Huttlin EL, Jedrychowski MP, Dorin-Semblat D, Sebastiani D, Segarra DT, Roberts BF, Chakrabarti R, Doerig C, Gygi SP, Chakrabarti D. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum Atypical Kinase PfPK7 - Dependent Phosphoproteome. J Proteome Res 2018; 17:2112-2123. [PMID: 29678115 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.8b00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
PfPK7 is an "orphan" kinase displaying regions of homology to multiple protein kinase families. PfPK7 functions in regulating parasite proliferation/development as evident from the phenotype analysis of knockout parasites. Despite this regulatory role, the functions of PfPK7 in signaling pathways are not known. To better understand PfPK7-regulated phosphorylation events, we performed isobaric tag-based quantitative comparative phosphoproteomics of the schizont and segmenter stages from wild-type and pfpk7 - parasite lines. This analysis identified 3,875 phosphorylation sites on 1,047 proteins. Among these phosphorylation events, 146 proteins with 239 phosphorylation sites displayed reduction in phosphorylation in the absence of PfPK7. Further analysis of the phosphopeptides revealed three motifs whose phosphorylation was down regulated in the pfpk7 - cell line in both schizonts and segmenters. Decreased phosphorylation following loss of PfPK7 indicates that these proteins may function as direct substrates of PfPK7. We demonstrated that PfPK7 is active toward three of these potential novel substrates; however, PfPK7 did not phosphorylate many of the other proteins, suggesting that decreased phosphorylation in these proteins is an indirect effect. Our phosphoproteomics analysis is the first study to identify direct substrates of PfPK7 and reveals potential downstream or compensatory signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany N Pease
- Division of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences , University of Central Florida , Orlando , Florida 32826 , United States
| | - Edward L Huttlin
- Department of Cell Biology , Harvard Medical School , Boston , Massachusetts 02115 , United States
| | - Mark P Jedrychowski
- Department of Cell Biology , Harvard Medical School , Boston , Massachusetts 02115 , United States
| | - Dominique Dorin-Semblat
- Inserm U665, Institut National de Transfusion Sanguine , 6, rue Alexandre Cabanel , 75739 Paris Cedex 5, France
| | - Daniela Sebastiani
- Division of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences , University of Central Florida , Orlando , Florida 32826 , United States
| | - Daniel T Segarra
- Division of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences , University of Central Florida , Orlando , Florida 32826 , United States
| | - Bracken F Roberts
- Division of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences , University of Central Florida , Orlando , Florida 32826 , United States
| | - Ratna Chakrabarti
- Division of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences , University of Central Florida , Orlando , Florida 32826 , United States
| | - Christian Doerig
- Infection and Immunity Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology , Monash University , Clayton , Victoria 3800 , Australia
| | - Steven P Gygi
- Department of Cell Biology , Harvard Medical School , Boston , Massachusetts 02115 , United States
| | - Debopam Chakrabarti
- Division of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences , University of Central Florida , Orlando , Florida 32826 , United States
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Soni R, Sharma D, Rai P, Sharma B, Bhatt TK. Signaling Strategies of Malaria Parasite for Its Survival, Proliferation, and Infection during Erythrocytic Stage. Front Immunol 2017; 8:349. [PMID: 28400771 PMCID: PMC5368685 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Irrespective of various efforts, malaria persist the most debilitating effect in terms of morbidity and mortality. Moreover, the existing drugs are also vulnerable to the emergence of drug resistance. To explore the potential targets for designing the most effective antimalarial therapies, it is required to focus on the facts of biochemical mechanism underlying the process of parasite survival and disease pathogenesis. This review is intended to bring out the existing knowledge about the functions and components of the major signaling pathways such as kinase signaling, calcium signaling, and cyclic nucleotide-based signaling, serving the various aspects of the parasitic asexual stage and highlighted the Toll-like receptors, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-mediated signaling, and molecular events in cytoadhesion, which elicit the host immune response. This discussion will facilitate a look over essential components for parasite survival and disease progression to be implemented in discovery of novel antimalarial drugs and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life sciences, Central University of Rajasthan , Ajmer , India
| | - Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life sciences, Central University of Rajasthan , Ajmer , India
| | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life sciences, Central University of Rajasthan , Ajmer , India
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life sciences, Central University of Rajasthan , Ajmer , India
| | - Tarun K Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life sciences, Central University of Rajasthan , Ajmer , India
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Reduced Activity of Mutant Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinase 1 Is Compensated in Plasmodium falciparum through the Action of Protein Kinase G. mBio 2016; 7:mBio.02011-16. [PMID: 27923926 PMCID: PMC5142624 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02011-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We used a sensitization approach that involves replacement of the gatekeeper residue in a protein kinase with one with a different side chain. The activity of the enzyme with a bulky gatekeeper residue, such as methionine, cannot be inhibited using bumped kinase inhibitors (BKIs). Here, we have used this approach to study Plasmodium falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (PfCDPK1). The methionine gatekeeper substitution, T145M, although it led to a 47% reduction in transphosphorylation, was successfully introduced into the CDPK1 locus using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas9. As methionine is a bulky residue, BKI 1294 had a 10-fold-greater effect in vitro on the wild-type enzyme than on the methionine mutant. However, in contrast to in vitro data with recombinant enzymes, BKI 1294 had a slightly greater inhibition of the growth of CDPK1 T145M parasites than the wild type. Moreover, the CDPK1 T145M parasites were more sensitive to the action of compound 2 (C2), a specific inhibitor of protein kinase G (PKG). These results suggest that a reduction in the activity of CDPK1 due to methionine substitution at the gatekeeper position is compensated through the direct action of PKG or of another kinase under the regulation of PKG. The transcript levels of CDPK5 and CDPK6 were significantly upregulated in the CDPK1 T145M parasites. The increase in CDPK6 or some other kinase may compensate for decrease in CDPK1 activity during invasion. This study suggests that targeting two kinases may be more effective in chemotherapy to treat malaria so as not to select for mutations in one of the enzymes. Protein kinases of Plasmodium falciparum are being actively pursued as drug targets to treat malaria. However, compensatory mechanisms may reverse the drug activity against a kinase. In this study, we show that replacement of the wild-type threonine gatekeeper residue with methionine reduces the transphosphorylation activity of CDPK1. Mutant parasites with methionine gatekeeper residue compensate the reduced activity of CDPK1 through the action of PKG possibly by upregulation of CDPK6 or some other kinase. This study highlights that targeting one enzyme may lead to changes in transcript expression of other kinases that compensate for its function and may select for mutants that are less dependent on the target enzyme activity. Thus, inhibiting two kinases is a better strategy to protect the antimalarial activity of each, similar to artemisinin combination therapy or malarone (atovaquone and proguanil).
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Hierarchical phosphorylation of apical membrane antigen 1 is required for efficient red blood cell invasion by malaria parasites. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34479. [PMID: 27698395 PMCID: PMC5048298 DOI: 10.1038/srep34479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Central to the pathogenesis of malaria is the proliferation of Plasmodium falciparum parasites within human erythrocytes. Parasites invade erythrocytes via a coordinated sequence of receptor-ligand interactions between the parasite and host cell. One key ligand, Apical Membrane Antigen 1 (AMA1), is a leading blood-stage vaccine and previous work indicates that phosphorylation of its cytoplasmic domain (CPD) is important to its function during invasion. Here we investigate the significance of each of the six available phospho-sites in the CPD. We confirm that the cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signalling pathway elicits a phospho-priming step upon serine 610 (S610), which enables subsequent phosphorylation in vitro of a conserved, downstream threonine residue (T613) by glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). Both phosphorylation steps are required for AMA1 to function efficiently during invasion. This provides the first evidence that the functions of key invasion ligands of the malaria parasite are regulated by sequential phosphorylation steps.
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Phosphorylated and Nonphosphorylated PfMAP2 Are Localized in the Nucleus, Dependent on the Stage of Plasmodium falciparum Asexual Maturation. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:1645097. [PMID: 27525262 PMCID: PMC4976173 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1645097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, a family of enzymes central to signal transduction processes including inflammatory responses, are a promising target for antimalarial drug development. Our study shows for the first time that the P. falciparum specific MAP kinase 2 (PfMAP2) is colocalized in the nucleus of all of the asexual erythrocytic stages of P. falciparum and is particularly elevated in its phosphorylated form. It was also discovered that PfMAP2 is expressed in its highest quantity during the early trophozoite (ring form) stage and significantly reduced in the mature trophozoite and schizont stages. Although the phosphorylated form of the kinase is always more prevalent, its ratio relative to the nonphosphorylated form remained constant irrespective of the parasites' developmental stage. We have also shown that the TSH motif specifically renders PfMAP2 genetically divergent from the other plasmodial MAP kinase activation sites using Neighbour Joining analysis. Furthermore, TSH motif-specific designed antibody is crucial in determining the location of the expression of the PfMAP2 protein. However, by using immunoelectron microscopy, PPfMAP2 were detected ubiquitously in the parasitized erythrocytes. In summary, PfMAP2 may play a far more important role than previously thought and is a worthy candidate for research as an antimalarial.
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Chakraborty A. Emerging drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum: A review of well-characterized drug targets for novel antimalarial chemotherapy. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(16)61090-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Crowther GJ, Hillesland HK, Keyloun KR, Reid MC, Lafuente-Monasterio MJ, Ghidelli-Disse S, Leonard SE, He P, Jones JC, Krahn MM, Mo JS, Dasari KS, Fox AMW, Boesche M, El Bakkouri M, Rivas KL, Leroy D, Hui R, Drewes G, Maly DJ, Van Voorhis WC, Ojo KK. Biochemical Screening of Five Protein Kinases from Plasmodium falciparum against 14,000 Cell-Active Compounds. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149996. [PMID: 26934697 PMCID: PMC4774911 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2010 the identities of thousands of anti-Plasmodium compounds were released publicly to facilitate malaria drug development. Understanding these compounds' mechanisms of action--i.e., the specific molecular targets by which they kill the parasite--would further facilitate the drug development process. Given that kinases are promising anti-malaria targets, we screened ~14,000 cell-active compounds for activity against five different protein kinases. Collections of cell-active compounds from GlaxoSmithKline (the ~13,000-compound Tres Cantos Antimalarial Set, or TCAMS), St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (260 compounds), and the Medicines for Malaria Venture (the 400-compound Malaria Box) were screened in biochemical assays of Plasmodium falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinases 1 and 4 (CDPK1 and CDPK4), mitogen-associated protein kinase 2 (MAPK2/MAP2), protein kinase 6 (PK6), and protein kinase 7 (PK7). Novel potent inhibitors (IC50 < 1 μM) were discovered for three of the kinases: CDPK1, CDPK4, and PK6. The PK6 inhibitors are the most potent yet discovered for this enzyme and deserve further scrutiny. Additionally, kinome-wide competition assays revealed a compound that inhibits CDPK4 with few effects on ~150 human kinases, and several related compounds that inhibit CDPK1 and CDPK4 yet have limited cytotoxicity to human (HepG2) cells. Our data suggest that inhibiting multiple Plasmodium kinase targets without harming human cells is challenging but feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J. Crowther
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Heidi K. Hillesland
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Katelyn R. Keyloun
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Molly C. Reid
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | | | - Sonja Ghidelli-Disse
- Cellzome GmbH, Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephen E. Leonard
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Panqing He
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jackson C. Jones
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Mallory M. Krahn
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jack S. Mo
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Kartheek S. Dasari
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Anna M. W. Fox
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Markus Boesche
- Cellzome GmbH, Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Majida El Bakkouri
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kasey L. Rivas
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Didier Leroy
- Drug Discovery, Medicines for Malaria Venture, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Raymond Hui
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gerard Drewes
- Cellzome GmbH, Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dustin J. Maly
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Wesley C. Van Voorhis
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Kayode K. Ojo
- Division of Allergy & Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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von Bohl A, Kuehn A, Simon N, Ngongang VN, Spehr M, Baumeister S, Przyborski JM, Fischer R, Pradel G. A WD40-repeat protein unique to malaria parasites associates with adhesion protein complexes and is crucial for blood stage progeny. Malar J 2015; 14:435. [PMID: 26537493 PMCID: PMC4634918 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-015-0967-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During development in human erythrocytes, Plasmodium falciparum parasites display a remarkable number of adhesive proteins on their plasma membrane. In the invasive merozoites, these include members of the PfMSP1 and PfAMA1/RON complexes, which facilitate contact between merozoites and red blood cells. In gametocytes, sexual precursor cells mediating parasite transmission to the mosquito vector, plasma membrane-associated proteins primarily belong to the PfCCp and 6-cys families with roles in fertilization. This study describes a newly identified WD40-repeat protein unique to Plasmodium species that associates with adhesion protein complexes of both merozoites and gametocytes. Methods The WD40-repeat protein-like protein PfWLP1 was identified via co-immunoprecipitation assays followed by mass spectrometry and characterized using biochemical and immunohistochemistry methods. Reverse genetics were employed for functional analysis. Results PfWLP1 is expressed both in schizonts and gametocytes. In mature schizonts, the protein localizes underneath the merozoite micronemes and interacts with PfAMA1, while in gametocytes PfWLP1 primarily accumulates underneath the plasma membrane and associates with PfCCp1 and Pfs230. Reverse genetics failed to disrupt the pfwlp1 gene, while haemagglutinin-tagging was feasible, suggesting a crucial function for PfWLP1 during blood stage replication. Conclusions This is the first report on a plasmodial WD40-repeat protein associating with cell adhesion proteins. Since WD40 domains are known to mediate protein–protein contact by serving as a rigid scaffold for protein interactions, the presented data suggest that PfWLP1 supports the stability of adhesion protein complexes of the plasmodial blood stages. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-015-0967-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas von Bohl
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute for Biology II, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany. .,Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Andrea Kuehn
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2/D15, 97080, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Nina Simon
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2/D15, 97080, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Vanesa Nkwouano Ngongang
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2/D15, 97080, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Marc Spehr
- Department of Chemosensation, Institute for Biology II, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Stefan Baumeister
- Parasitology Section, Faculty of Biology, Philipps University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Straße 8, 35043, Marburg, Germany.
| | - Jude M Przyborski
- Parasitology Section, Faculty of Biology, Philipps University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Straße 8, 35043, Marburg, Germany.
| | - Rainer Fischer
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, Institute for Biology II, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
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Guttery DS, Roques M, Holder AA, Tewari R. Commit and Transmit: Molecular Players in Plasmodium Sexual Development and Zygote Differentiation. Trends Parasitol 2015; 31:676-685. [PMID: 26440790 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
During each cycle of asexual endomitotic division in erythrocytes, the malaria parasite makes a fundamental and crucial decision: to continue to invade and proliferate or to differentiate into gametocytes ready for continuation of sexual development. The proteins and regulatory pathways involved in Plasmodium sexual development have been of great interest in recent years as targets for blocking malaria transmission. However, the 'Holy Grail', the master switch orchestrating asexual-to-sexual commitment and further differentiation, has remained elusive - until now. Here we highlight the recent studies identifying the epigenetic and transcriptional master regulators of sexual commitment and discuss the key players in reversible phosphorylation pathways involved in sexual and zygote differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Guttery
- Cell and Developmental Biology Group, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG2 7UH, UK; Department of Cancer Studies and Cancer Research UK Leicester Centre, University of Leicester, Robert Kilpatrick Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester LE2 7LX, UK
| | - Magali Roques
- Cell and Developmental Biology Group, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG2 7UH, UK
| | - Anthony A Holder
- Mill Hill Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Rita Tewari
- Cell and Developmental Biology Group, School of Life Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG2 7UH, UK.
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Wang B, Pakpour N, Napoli E, Drexler A, Glennon EKK, Surachetpong W, Cheung K, Aguirre A, Klyver JM, Lewis EE, Eigenheer R, Phinney BS, Giulivi C, Luckhart S. Anopheles stephensi p38 MAPK signaling regulates innate immunity and bioenergetics during Plasmodium falciparum infection. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:424. [PMID: 26283222 PMCID: PMC4539710 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1016-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Fruit flies and mammals protect themselves against infection by mounting immune and metabolic responses that must be balanced against the metabolic needs of the pathogens. In this context, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-dependent signaling is critical to regulating both innate immunity and metabolism during infection. Accordingly, we asked to what extent the Asian malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi utilizes p38 MAPK signaling during infection with the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Methods A. stephensi p38 MAPK (AsP38 MAPK) was identified and patterns of signaling in vitro and in vivo (midgut) were analyzed using phospho-specific antibodies and small molecule inhibitors. Functional effects of AsP38 MAPK inhibition were assessed using P. falciparum infection, quantitative real-time PCR, assays for reactive oxygen species and survivorship under oxidative stress, proteomics, and biochemical analyses. Results The genome of A. stephensi encodes a single p38 MAPK that is activated in the midgut in response to parasite infection. Inhibition of AsP38 MAPK signaling significantly reduced P. falciparum sporogonic development. This phenotype was associated with AsP38 MAPK regulation of mitochondrial physiology and stress responses in the midgut epithelium, a tissue critical for parasite development. Specifically, inhibition of AsP38 MAPK resulted in reduction in mosquito protein synthesis machinery, a shift in glucose metabolism, reduced mitochondrial metabolism, enhanced production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, induction of an array of anti-parasite effector genes, and decreased resistance to oxidative stress-mediated damage. Hence, P. falciparum-induced activation of AsP38 MAPK in the midgut facilitates parasite infection through a combination of reduced anti-parasite immune defenses and enhanced host protein synthesis and bioenergetics to minimize the impact of infection on the host and to maximize parasite survival, and ultimately, transmission. Conclusions These observations suggest that, as in mammals, innate immunity and mitochondrial responses are integrated in mosquitoes and that AsP38 MAPK-dependent signaling facilitates mosquito survival during parasite infection, a fact that may attest to the relatively longer evolutionary relationship of these parasites with their invertebrate compared to their vertebrate hosts. On a practical level, improved understanding of the balances and trade-offs between resistance and metabolism could be leveraged to generate fit, resistant mosquitoes for malaria control. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-1016-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Nazzy Pakpour
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Eleonora Napoli
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Anna Drexler
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Elizabeth K K Glennon
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Win Surachetpong
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Kong Cheung
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Alejandro Aguirre
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - John M Klyver
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Edwin E Lewis
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Richard Eigenheer
- Genome and Biomedical Sciences Center, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Brett S Phinney
- Genome and Biomedical Sciences Center, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Cecilia Giulivi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA. .,Medical Investigations of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (MIND) Institute, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Shirley Luckhart
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, 3437 Tupper Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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In Silico Elucidation and Inhibition Studies of Selected Phytoligands Against Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases of Protozoan Parasites. Interdiscip Sci 2015; 8:41-52. [DOI: 10.1007/s12539-015-0269-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Wirth CC, Bennink S, Scheuermayer M, Fischer R, Pradel G. Perforin-like protein PPLP4 is crucial for mosquito midgut infection by Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2015; 201:90-9. [PMID: 26166358 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2015.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The genomes of Plasmodium parasites encode for five perforin-like proteins, PPLP1-5, and four of them have previously been demonstrated to be involved in disruption of host cell barriers. We now show that the fifth perforin, PPLP4, is crucial for infection of the mosquito vector by Plasmodium falciparum parasites. PPLP4 is expressed in the blood and mosquito midgut stages in granular structures. In gametocytes, PPLP4 expression is specific to the female gender, while ookinetes show a PPLP4 localization at the apical pole. Gene disruption of pplp4 results in no phenotypical change during blood stage replication, gametocyte development or gametogenesis, while mosquitoes fed with PPLP4-deficient gametocytes display a severe reduction in oocyst numbers, and an accumulation of ookinetes in the mosquito midguts was observed. In conclusion, we propose an essential role for PPLP4 in infection of the mosquito midgut, presumably by mediating ookinete traversal through the midgut epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine C Wirth
- Cellular and Applied Infection Biology Section, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Sandra Bennink
- Cellular and Applied Infection Biology Section, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Matthias Scheuermayer
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Rainer Fischer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Forckenbeckstr. 6, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Cellular and Applied Infection Biology Section, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Forckenbeckstr. 6, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
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Suvorova ES, Francia M, Striepen B, White MW. A novel bipartite centrosome coordinates the apicomplexan cell cycle. PLoS Biol 2015; 13:e1002093. [PMID: 25734885 PMCID: PMC4348508 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites can change fundamental features of cell division during their life cycles, suspending cytokinesis when needed and changing proliferative scale in different hosts and tissues. The structural and molecular basis for this remarkable cell cycle flexibility is not fully understood, although the centrosome serves a key role in determining when and how much replication will occur. Here we describe the discovery of multiple replicating core complexes with distinct protein composition and function in the centrosome of Toxoplasma gondii. An outer core complex distal from the nucleus contains the TgCentrin1/TgSfi1 protein pair, along with the cartwheel protein TgSas-6 and a novel Aurora-related kinase, while an inner core closely aligned with the unique spindle pole (centrocone) holds distant orthologs of the CEP250/C-Nap protein family. This outer/inner spatial relationship of centrosome cores is maintained throughout the cell cycle. When in metaphase, the duplicated cores align to opposite sides of the kinetochores in a linear array. As parasites transition into S phase, the cores sequentially duplicate, outer core first and inner core second, ensuring that each daughter parasite inherits one copy of each type of centrosome core. A key serine/threonine kinase distantly related to the MAPK family is localized to the centrosome, where it restricts core duplication to once per cycle and ensures the proper formation of new daughter parasites. Genetic analysis of the outer core in a temperature-sensitive mutant demonstrated this core functions primarily in cytokinesis. An inhibition of ts-TgSfi1 function at high temperature caused the loss of outer cores and a severe block to budding, while at the same time the inner core amplified along with the unique spindle pole, indicating the inner core and spindle pole are independent and co-regulated. The discovery of a novel bipartite organization in the parasite centrosome that segregates the functions of karyokinesis and cytokinesis provides an explanation for how cell cycle flexibility is achieved in apicomplexan life cycles. The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii has a unique centrosome with two specialized compartments, potentially explaining the remarkable flexibility in life cycle that these organisms can show in diverse host cells. Apicomplexan parasites infect many different hosts and tissues, causing numerous human diseases, including malaria. These important pathogens have a peculiar cell cycle in which chromosomes sometimes amplify to remarkable levels, followed by concerted cell division—providing an unusual proliferative capacity. This capacity for proliferation, combined with an ability to change the scale of replication when needed, are hallmarks of the cell cycles of these parasites. Yet the molecular mechanism responsible for these peculiar cell cycles remains one of the unsolved mysteries of Apicomplexa biology. Here we show that the centrosome—an organelle that orchestrates several aspects of the cell cycle—of the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii contains specialized structures that coordinate parasite cell division. Our findings demonstrate that a two-part centrosomal architecture, comprising an inner and an outer core with distinct protein compositions, segregates the processes of mitosis from the assembly of new daughter parasites. The modular organization of the centrosome offers an explanation for how cell division can be suspended while the parasites amplify their genome to the biotic scale required for their life cycles. It is unknown whether these distinct centrosome core complexes evolved independently in Apicompexa. Another possibility is that the foundations for these mechanisms were present in the original eukaryote, which could explain how the distinct extranuclear centrosome of animal cells and the novel yeast spindle pole body of the nuclear envelope may have evolved from a common ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena S. Suvorova
- Departments of Molecular Medicine & Global Health and the Florida Center for Drug Discovery and Innovation, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Maria Francia
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Boris Striepen
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Michael W. White
- Departments of Molecular Medicine & Global Health and the Florida Center for Drug Discovery and Innovation, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Gupta CL, Akhtar S, Kumar N, Ali J, Pathak N, Bajpai P. In silico elucidation and inhibition studies of selected phytoligands against Mitogen activated protein kinases of protozoan parasites. Interdiscip Sci 2014. [PMID: 25373634 DOI: 10.1007/s12539-014-0210-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic MAPKs exhibiting significant divergence with humans and playing an imperative role in parasitic metabolic activities have been exploited from several years as important targets for development of novel therapeutics. In addition, the emergence of the drug resistant variants of parasitic diseases in the recent years has aroused a great need for the development of potent inhibitors against them. In the present study we selected the metabolically active MAPKs LmxMPK4, PfMAP2 and TbMAPK5 of the three parasitic protozoans Leishmania mexicana, Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei respectively. The homology modeling technique was used to develop the 3D structures of these proteins and the same was validated by PROCHECK, ERRAT, ProQ and ProSA web servers to check the reliability. Ten phytoligands were employed for molecular docking studies with these proteins to search for potent phytoligand as a broad spectrum inhibitor. In this regard two phytoligands (Aspidocarpine for LmxMPK4 & TbMAPK5 and Cubebin for PfMAP2) were found to be more effective inhibitors, in term of robust binding energy, strong inhibition constant and better interactions between protein-ligand complexes. Furthermore predicted ADME & Toxicity properties suggested that these identified phytoligands exhibited comparable results to control drugs potentiating them as persuasive therapeutic agents for Leishmania, Trypanosoma and Plasmodium sp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhedi Lal Gupta
- Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, 226026, India
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Gupta CL, Akhtar S, Kumar N, Ali J, Pathak N, Bajpai P. In silico elucidation and inhibition studies of selected phytoligands against Mitogen activated protein kinases of protozoan parasites. Interdiscip Sci 2014. [PMID: 25519156 DOI: 10.1007/s12539-014-0234-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Parasitic MAPKs exhibiting significant divergence with humans and playing an imperative role in parasitic metabolic activities have been exploited from several years as important targets for development of novel therapeutics. In addition, the emergence of the drug resistant variants of parasitic diseases in the recent years has aroused a great need for the development of potent inhibitors against them. In the present study we selected the metabolically active MAPKs LmxMPK4, PfMAP2 and TbMAPK5 of the three parasitic protozoans Leishmania mexicana, Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei respectively. The homology modeling technique was used to develop the 3D structures of these proteins and the same was validated by PROCHECK, ERRAT, ProQ and ProSA web servers to check the reliability. Ten phytoligands were employed for molecular docking studies with these proteins to search for potent phytoligand as a broad spectrum inhibitor. In this regard two phytoligands (Aspidocarpine for LmxMPK4 & TbMAPK5 and Cubebin for PfMAP2) were found to be more effective inhibitors, in term of robust binding energy, strong inhibition constant and better interactions between protein-ligand complexes. Furthermore predicted ADME & Toxicity properties suggested that these identified phytoligands exhibited comparable results to control drugs potentiating them as persuasive therapeutic agents for Leishmania, Trypanosoma and Plasmodium sp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhedi Lal Gupta
- Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, 226026, India
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Dacher M, Morales MA, Pescher P, Leclercq O, Rachidi N, Prina E, Cayla M, Descoteaux A, Späth GF. Probing druggability and biological function of essential proteins inLeishmaniacombining facilitated null mutant and plasmid shuffle analyses. Mol Microbiol 2014; 93:146-66. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Dacher
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Miguel A. Morales
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Pascale Pescher
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Olivier Leclercq
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Najma Rachidi
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Eric Prina
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Mathieu Cayla
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
| | - Albert Descoteaux
- INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier and Center for Host-Parasite Interactions; Laval Québec Canada
| | - Gerald F. Späth
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA 2581; Unité de Parasitologie moléculaire et Signalisation; Paris France
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Campbell CO, Santiago DN, Guida WC, Manetsch R, Adams JH. In silico characterization of an atypical MAPK phosphatase of Plasmodium falciparum as a suitable target for drug discovery. Chem Biol Drug Des 2014; 84:158-68. [PMID: 24605883 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria, contributes to significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Forward genetic analysis of the blood-stage asexual cycle identified the putative phosphatase from PF3D7_1305500 as an important element of intraerythrocytic development expressed throughout the life cycle. Our preliminary evaluation identified it as an atypical mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase. Additional bioinformatic analysis delineated a conserved signature motif and three residues with potential importance to functional activity of the atypical dual-specificity phosphatase domain. A homology model of the dual-specificity phosphatase domain was developed for use in high-throughput in silico screening of the available library of antimalarial compounds from ChEMBL-NTD. Seven compounds from this set with predicted affinity to the active site were tested against in vitro cultures, and three had reduced activity against a ∆PF3D7_1305500 parasite, suggesting PF3D7_1305500 is a potential target of the selected compounds. Identification of these compounds provides a novel starting point for a structure-based drug discovery strategy that moves us closer toward the discovery of new classes of clinical antimalarial drugs. These data suggest that mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatases represent a potentially new class of P. falciparum drug target.
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Wirth CC, Glushakova S, Scheuermayer M, Repnik U, Garg S, Schaack D, Kachman MM, Weißbach T, Zimmerberg J, Dandekar T, Griffiths G, Chitnis CE, Singh S, Fischer R, Pradel G. Perforin-like protein PPLP2 permeabilizes the red blood cell membrane during egress of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. Cell Microbiol 2014; 16:709-33. [PMID: 24602217 PMCID: PMC4312913 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Egress of malaria parasites from the host cell requires the concerted rupture of its enveloping membranes. Hence, we investigated the role of the plasmodial perforin-like protein PPLP2 in the egress of Plasmodium falciparum from erythrocytes. PPLP2 is expressed in blood stage schizonts and mature gametocytes. The protein localizes in vesicular structures, which in activated gametocytes discharge PPLP2 in a calcium-dependent manner. PPLP2 comprises a MACPF domain and recombinant PPLP2 has haemolytic activities towards erythrocytes. PPLP2-deficient [PPLP2(−)] merozoites show normal egress dynamics during the erythrocytic replication cycle, but activated PPLP2(−) gametocytes were unable to leave erythrocytes and stayed trapped within these cells. While the parasitophorous vacuole membrane ruptured normally, the activated PPLP2(−) gametocytes were unable to permeabilize the erythrocyte membrane and to release the erythrocyte cytoplasm. In consequence, transmission of PPLP2(−) parasites to the Anopheles vector was reduced. Pore-forming equinatoxin II rescued both PPLP2(−) gametocyte exflagellation and parasite transmission. The pore sealant Tetronic 90R4, on the other hand, caused trapping of activated wild-type gametocytes within the enveloping erythrocytes, thus mimicking the PPLP2(−) loss-of-function phenotype. We propose that the haemolytic activity of PPLP2 is essential for gametocyte egress due to permeabilization of the erythrocyte membrane and depletion of the erythrocyte cytoplasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine C Wirth
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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Morahan B, Garcia-Bustos J. Kinase signalling in Plasmodium sexual stages and interventions to stop malaria transmission. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2014; 193:23-32. [PMID: 24509402 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Revised: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The symptoms of malaria, one of the infectious diseases with the highest mortality and morbidity world-wide, are caused by asexual parasites replicating inside red blood cells. Disease transmission, however, is effected by non-replicating cells which have differentiated into male or female gametocytes. These are the forms infectious to mosquito vectors and the insects are the only hosts where parasite sexual reproduction can take place. Malaria is thus a complex infection in which pharmacological treatment of symptoms may still allow transmission for long periods, while pharmacological blockage of infectivity may not cure symptoms. The process of parasite sexual differentiation and development is still being revealed but it is clear that kinase-mediated signalling mechanisms play a significant role. This review attempts to summarise our limited current knowledge on the signalling mechanisms involved in the transition from asexual replication to sexual differentiation and reproduction, with a brief mention to the effects of current treatments on the sexual stages and to some of the difficulties inherent in developing pharmacological interventions to curtail disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda Morahan
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Jose Garcia-Bustos
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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Abstract
SUMMARYEimeriais a common genus of apicomplexan parasites that infect diverse vertebrates, most notably poultry, causing serious disease and economic loss. Like all apicomplexans, eimerians have a complex life cycle characterized by asexual divisions that amplify the parasite population in preparation for sexual reproduction. This can be divided into three events: gametocytogenesis, producing gametocytes from merozoites; gametogenesis, producing microgametes and macrogametes from gametocytes; and fertilization of macrogametes by microgametes, producing diploid zygotes with ensuing meiosis completing the sexual phase. Sexual development inEimeriadepends on the differential expression of stage-specific genes, rather than presence or absence of sex chromosomes. Thus, it involves the generation of specific structures and, implicitly, storage of proteins and regulation of protein expression in macrogametes, in preparation for fertilization. InEimeria, the formation of a unique, resilient structure, the oocyst wall, is essential for completion of the sexual phase and parasite transmission. In this review, we piece together the molecular events that underpin sexual reproduction inEimeriaand use additional details from analogous events inPlasmodiumto fill current knowledge gaps. The mechanisms governing sexual stage formation and subsequent fertilization may represent targets for counteracting parasite transmission.
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Abstract
There is an urgent need for the development of new antimalarial drugs with novel modes of actions. The malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, has a relatively small kinome of <100 kinases, with many members exhibiting a high degree of structural divergence from their host counterparts. A number of Plasmodium kinases have recently been shown by reverse genetics to be essential for various parts of the complex parasitic life cycle, and are thus genetically validated as potential targets. Implementation of mass spectrometry-based phosphoproteomics approaches has informed on key phospho-signalling pathways in the parasite. In addition, global phenotypic screens have revealed a large number of putative protein kinase inhibitors with antimalarial potency. Taken together, these investigations point to the Plasmodium kinome as a rich source of potential new targets. In this review, we highlight recent progress made towards this goal.
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Wierk JK, Langbehn A, Kamper M, Richter S, Burda PC, Heussler VT, Deschermeier C. Plasmodium berghei MAPK1 displays differential and dynamic subcellular localizations during liver stage development. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59755. [PMID: 23544094 PMCID: PMC3609774 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) regulate key signaling events in eukaryotic cells. In the genomes of protozoan Plasmodium parasites, the causative agents of malaria, two genes encoding kinases with significant homology to other eukaryotic MAPKs have been identified (mapk1, mapk2). In this work, we show that both genes are transcribed during Plasmodium berghei liver stage development, and analyze expression and subcellular localization of the PbMAPK1 protein in liver stage parasites. Live cell imaging of transgenic parasites expressing GFP-tagged PbMAPK1 revealed a nuclear localization of PbMAPK1 in the early schizont stage mediated by nuclear localization signals in the C-terminal domain. In contrast, a distinct localization of PbMAPK1 in comma/ring-shaped structures in proximity to the parasite's nuclei and the invaginating parasite membrane was observed during the cytomere stage of parasite development as well as in immature blood stage schizonts. The PbMAPK1 localization was found to be independent of integrity of a motif putatively involved in ATP binding, integrity of the putative activation motif and the presence of a predicted coiled-coil domain in the C-terminal domain. Although PbMAPK1 knock out parasites showed normal liver stage development, the kinase may still fulfill a dual function in both schizogony and merogony of liver stage parasites regulated by its dynamic and stage-dependent subcellular localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannika Katharina Wierk
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Annette Langbehn
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria Kamper
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stefanie Richter
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Christina Deschermeier
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
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Carvalho TG, Doerig C, Reininger L. Nima- and Aurora-related kinases of malaria parasites. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2013; 1834:1336-45. [PMID: 23462523 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2013.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Completion of the life cycle of malaria parasite requires a succession of developmental stages which vary greatly with respect to proliferation status, implying a tightly regulated control of the parasite's cell cycle, which remains to be understood at the molecular level. Progression of the eukaryotic cell cycle is controlled by members of mitotic kinase of the families CDK (cyclin-dependent kinases), Aurora, Polo and NIMA. Plasmodium parasites possess cyclin-dependent protein kinases and cyclins, which strongly suggests that some of the principles underlying cell cycle control in higher eukaryotes also operate in this organism. However, atypical features of Plasmodium cell cycle organization and important divergences in the composition of the cell cycle machinery suggest the existence of regulatory mechanisms that are at variance with those of higher eukaryotes. This review focuses on several recently described Plasmodium protein kinases related to the NIMA and Aurora kinase families and discusses their functional involvement in parasite's biology. Given their demonstrated essential roles in the erythrocytic asexual cycle and/or sexual stages, these enzymes represent novel potential drug targets for antimalarial intervention aiming at inhibiting parasite replication and/or blocking transmission of the disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Inhibitors of Protein Kinases (2012).
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Gil Carvalho
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
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Abstract
Malaria, the disease caused by infection with protozoan parasites from the genus Plasmodium, claims the lives of nearly 1 million people annually. Developing nations, particularly in the African Region, bear the brunt of this malaria burden. Alarmingly, the most dangerous etiologic agent of malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, is becoming increasingly resistant to current first-line antimalarials. In light of the widespread devastation caused by malaria, the emergence of drug-resistant P. falciparum strains, and the projected decrease in funding for malaria eradication that may occur over the next decade, the identification of promising new targets for antimalarial drug design is imperative. P. falciparum kinases have been proposed as ideal drug targets for antimalarial drug design because they mediate critical cellular processes within the parasite and are, in many cases, structurally and mechanistically divergent when compared with kinases from humans. Identifying a molecule capable of inhibiting the activity of a target enzyme is generally an arduous and expensive process that can be greatly aided by utilizing in silico drug design techniques. Such methods have been extensively applied to human kinases, but as yet have not been fully exploited for the exploration and characterization of antimalarial kinase targets. This review focuses on in silico methods that have been used for the evaluation of potential antimalarials and the Plasmodium kinases that could be explored using these techniques.
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Talevich E, Tobin AB, Kannan N, Doerig C. An evolutionary perspective on the kinome of malaria parasites. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012; 367:2607-18. [PMID: 22889911 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites belong to an ancient lineage that diverged very early from the main branch of eukaryotes. The approximately 90-member plasmodial kinome includes a majority of eukaryotic protein kinases that clearly cluster within the AGC, CMGC, TKL, CaMK and CK1 groups found in yeast, plants and mammals, testifying to the ancient ancestry of these families. However, several hundred millions years of independent evolution, and the specific pressures brought about by first a photosynthetic and then a parasitic lifestyle, led to the emergence of unique features in the plasmodial kinome. These include taxon-restricted kinase families, and unique peculiarities of individual enzymes even when they have homologues in other eukaryotes. Here, we merge essential aspects of all three malaria-related communications that were presented at the Evolution of Protein Phosphorylation meeting, and propose an integrated discussion of the specific features of the parasite's kinome and phosphoproteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Talevich
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, GA 30602-7229, USA
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Oehring SC, Woodcroft BJ, Moes S, Wetzel J, Dietz O, Pulfer A, Dekiwadia C, Maeser P, Flueck C, Witmer K, Brancucci NMB, Niederwieser I, Jenoe P, Ralph SA, Voss TS. Organellar proteomics reveals hundreds of novel nuclear proteins in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Genome Biol 2012. [PMID: 23181666 PMCID: PMC4053738 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2012-13-11-r108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The post-genomic era of malaria research provided unprecedented insights into the biology of Plasmodium parasites. Due to the large evolutionary distance to model eukaryotes, however, we lack a profound understanding of many processes in Plasmodium biology. One example is the cell nucleus, which controls the parasite genome in a development- and cell cycle-specific manner through mostly unknown mechanisms. To study this important organelle in detail, we conducted an integrative analysis of the P. falciparum nuclear proteome. RESULTS We combined high accuracy mass spectrometry and bioinformatic approaches to present for the first time an experimentally determined core nuclear proteome for P. falciparum. Besides a large number of factors implicated in known nuclear processes, one-third of all detected proteins carry no functional annotation, including many phylum- or genus-specific factors. Importantly, extensive experimental validation using 30 transgenic cell lines confirmed the high specificity of this inventory, and revealed distinct nuclear localization patterns of hitherto uncharacterized proteins. Further, our detailed analysis identified novel protein domains potentially implicated in gene transcription pathways, and sheds important new light on nuclear compartments and processes including regulatory complexes, the nucleolus, nuclear pores, and nuclear import pathways. CONCLUSION Our study provides comprehensive new insight into the biology of the Plasmodium nucleus and will serve as an important platform for dissecting general and parasite-specific nuclear processes in malaria parasites. Moreover, as the first nuclear proteome characterized in any protist organism, it will provide an important resource for studying evolutionary aspects of nuclear biology.
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Low H, Chua CS, Sim TS. Plasmodium falciparum possesses a unique dual-specificity serine/threonine and tyrosine kinase, Pfnek3. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:1523-35. [PMID: 22116321 PMCID: PMC11114921 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0888-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Revised: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite the absence of classical tyrosine kinases encrypted in the kinome of Plasmodium falciparum, biochemical analyses have detected significant tyrosine phosphorylation in its cell lysates. Supporting such phosphorylation is critical for parasite development. These observations have thus raised queries regarding the plasmodial enzymes accountable for tyrosine kinase activities in vivo. In the current investigation, immunoblot analysis intriguingly demonstrated that Pfnek3, a plasmodial mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK), displayed both serine/threonine and tyrosine kinase activities in autophosphorylation reactions as well as in phosphorylation of the exogenous myelin basic protein substrate. The results obtained strongly support Pfnek3 as a novel dual-specificity kinase of the malarial parasite, even though it displays a HGDLKSTN motif in the catalytic loop that resembles the consensus HRDLKxxN signature found in the serine/threonine kinases. Notably, its serine/threonine and tyrosine kinase activities were found to be distinctly influenced by Mg(2+) and Mn(2+) cofactors. Further probing into the regulatory mechanism of Pfnek3 also revealed tyrosine phosphorylation to be a crucial factor that stimulates its kinase activity. Through biocomputational analyses and functional assays, tyrosine residues Y117, Y122, Y172, and Y238 were proposed as phosphorylation sites essential for mediating the catalytic activities of Pfnek3. The discovery of Pfnek3's dual role in phosphorylation marks its importance in closing the loop for cellular regulation in P. falciparum, which remains elusive to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyu Low
- Department of Microbiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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