Prospective Relations Among Victimization, Rejection, Friendlessness, and Children's Self- and Peer-Perceptions

Entering the Classroom: Do Newcomers Experience More Peer Victimization than Their Established Peers?

Students changing classrooms or schools may face challenges from entering a new peer context without friends and standing out from the crowd as newcomers. Two studies examined whether newcomer status predicts peer victimization at school, exploring several potential moderating factors (e.g., social anxiety, immigrant background and having good friends in the classroom) (Study 1: n = 6,199; Mage=12.53) and whether being victimized as a newcomer varied based on the different reasons for mobility (e.g., parental dissolution, residential move, previous victimization, changing into a more suitable school) (Study 2: n = 58,738). In both studies, newcomers reported higher peer victimization compared to established students. Having good friends in the classroom was found as a protective factor in Study 1, being the only statistically significant moderator. All reasons for mobility, except changing into a more suitable school, predicted slightly higher peer victimization in Study 2, with the highest risk for those changing schools due to previous peer victimization experiences.

The longitudinal associations between bullying perpetration, bullying victimization, and internalizing symptoms: Bidirectionality and mediation by friend support

Internalizing symptoms have been linked to bullying perpetration and victimization in adolescence. However, the directions of any causal relationships remain unclear, and limited research has identified the mechanisms that explain the associations. Given the salience of peer relationships during the teenage years, we examine whether perceived support from friends is one such mechanism. By using a transactional framework and four waves of longitudinal panel data on over 900 youth, we test both cross-lagged and indirect associations between bullying perpetration, bullying victimization, internalizing symptoms, and perceived friend support. Our method represents one of the most rigorous tests to date of the mutual influences among these factors. The results show that internalizing symptoms and perceived friend support were reciprocally linked to bullying victimization, but perceived support did not predict internalizing symptoms, and bullying perpetration neither preceded nor followed perceived support or internalizing symptoms. There were no significant indirect paths between bullying involvement and internalizing symptoms through perceived friend support. The results provide only partial support for a transactional model in which bullying victimization, support, and internalizing symptoms are reciprocally related. The implications of these findings for theory, future research, and practice are discussed.

Reciprocal Links Between Friendship Quality and Peer Victimization Among Middle Adolescents

There is a robust association between friendship quality and victimization in adolescence; yet, it remains unclear whether friendship quality may be linked causally with different forms of victimization in middle adolescence. To fill this gap, this study examines the bidirectional associations of friendship quality and relational/verbal victimization with data collected at two time points, 6 months apart, in a sample of 671 middle Chinese adolescents (Mage = 15.63, SDage = 0.73, 49% males). Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed a two-way relationship between friendship quality and victimization, which existed in both verbal and relational victimization. Multi-group panel analyses observed that the cross-lagged associations between friendship quality and relational/verbal victimization were only found for males, but not for females. This result suggests that adolescent males' victimization is both affected by and a predictor of friendship quality, with implications for youth prevention programs.

Unmasking artifactual links: A reanalysis reveals No direct causal relationship between self-esteem and quality of social relations

A meta-analysis conducted by Harris and Orth (2020) found positive prospective cross-lagged effects between quality of social relations and self-esteem in included longitudinal studies. Harris and Orth concluded that the link between self-esteem and quality of social relations is reciprocal and characterized by a positive feedback loop. However, meta-analytic effects were estimated while controlling for a prior measurement of the outcome and such effects are known to be susceptible to artifactual (i.e. spurious) effects due to correlations with measurement errors and reversion to mediocrity. We reanalyzed the same data and found paradoxical effects indicating, simultaneously, both increasing and decreasing effects between self-esteem and social relations. These findings suggest that prospective effects between self-esteem and quality of social relations are artifactual rather than due to a true reciprocal effect. Thus, these findings have important theoretical implications and challenge both the risk regulation model, which posits that self-esteem has a causal effect on quality of social relations, and the sociometer theory, which claims that quality of relations is the cause and self-esteem the effect. The present results prompt further investigation into the underlying mechanisms driving these artifactual associations. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of considering methodological limitations in future meta-analyses to improve the accuracy of causal inferences.

The Role of Peer- and Self-Appraisals in the Association Between Maltreatment and Symptomatology

Recent research highlights the use of artificial boundaries between distinct types of adverse experiences, including forms of maltreatment. Commonly-utilized methods that isolate the impact of one maltreatment subtype over others and fail to consider the often co-occurring nature of maltreatment may not adequately capture the complex heterogeneous nature of maltreatment and may obscure understanding of developmental pathways. Moreover, childhood maltreatment is associated with the development of maladaptive peer relationships and psychopathology, with negative conceptions of relationships identified as a risk pathway. The current study utilizes structural equation modeling to examine the impact of an adapted threat versus deprivation framework for conceptualizing maltreatment via children's negative conceptions of relationships, which have not been previously tested as mechanisms in the context of this conceptual framework. Participants included 680 socioeconomically disadvantaged children who attended a week-long summer camp. Multi-informant methods were used to assess children's symptomatology and interpersonal functioning. Results did not support differences between threatening versus depriving maltreatment experiences, but indicated that all groups of children who experienced maltreatment, including those enduring both threatening and depriving experiences, showed more maladaptive functioning and more negative conceptions of relationships relative to non-maltreated peers. Results of the current study support the mediating role of children's appraisals of the self and peers in the effect of maltreatment on children's internalizing and externalizing symptomatology.

Trajectories of physical and relational aggression across early childhood: Relations with peer risk factors

The goal of the current study was to examine trajectories of relational and physical aggression in early childhood and evaluate peer predictors of these trajectories (i.e., peer rejection, relational victimization, and physical victimization). The study spanned three-time points (T1 in the spring, T2 in the fall, and T3 in the spring) in early childhood (N = 300; 44.0% girls; Mage  = 44.70 months, SD = 4.38; 3.0% African American/Black, 7.6% Asian/Asian American/Pacific Islander, 1.0% Hispanic/Latinx, 11.3% multiracial, 62.1% White, and 15.0% missing/unknown). Observations of peer victimization and teacher report of peer rejection were collected at T1, and teacher report of aggression was collected at all time points. Results from piecewise latent growth models demonstrated that both forms of aggression decreased from T1 to T2 as children entered a new classroom and increased from T2 to T3 as they remained in that classroom. The increase in physical aggression from T2 to T3 was only significant for boys. Peer rejection at T1 emerged as a predictor of both intercepts and slopes from T1 to T2, and physical victimization predicted the physical aggression intercept and physical aggression slope from T1 to T2. Children high on these peer risk variables had higher initial levels of aggression, followed by a greater decrease in aggression from T1 to T2. Results underscore the importance of studying incremental change in aggression in early childhood and suggest that children who experience negative peer treatment have greater fluctuations in aggression over time.

The Role of Neural Self-Referential Processes Underlying Self-Concept in Adolescent Depression: A Comprehensive Review and Proposed Neurobehavioral Model

There is growing knowledge about how self-concept develops in adolescence and contributes to the onset of depression, but researchers have only recently begun investigating the neural mechanisms that underlie self-referential cognition in adolescents with and without depression. This paper reviews task-related functional neuroimaging (fMRI) research on self-referential neural processing in both healthy and depressed adolescents (M_age range = 12-18 years), with a focus on elucidating brain activation that may subserve adolescent self-perception and related associations with depression. Drawing on conclusions from the affective neuroscience literature and developmental theory, we propose a neurobehavioral model and future research recommendations to address how social factors might shape self-referential neural processes and self-concept in ways that confer risk for depression. We review the operationalization of self-concept, developmental theory (i.e., symbolic interactionism) on self-concept development, and the role of self-concept in adolescent depression. We then review empirical studies assessing neural activation during healthy and depressed adolescents' processing of self-relevant information, and the limited studies assessing links between social factors and neural self-referential processing.

Multigroup analysis of the relationship loneliness, fear of missing out, problematic internet usage and peer perception in gifted and normally developing adolescents

The current study examined the effects of Internet usage characteristics and peer perception on loneliness. The mediating role of Internet usage characteristics was examined in the relationship between loneliness and peer perception. The sample included 661 Turkish adolescents (N_girls =379, 57.34%; N_gifted= 211, 31.92%) aged 11-18 years. Structural equation model analyzes were conducted to test the hypothesis model across the group. Moreover, multigroup structural model was conducted to test the differences of the relationships across gifted and normally developing adolescents. The results of the structural model showed that Internet use characteristics did not have a mediating role in the relationship between adolescents' peer perception and loneliness. On the other hand, problematic Internet use had a full mediator role in the relationship between fear of missing out and loneliness. The results of the multigroup structural model emphasized the similar effects between the research variables in gifted and normally developing adolescents. The results were discussed with the effects of Internet use characteristics and peer perception on loneliness. We also pointed out that gifted and normally developing adolescents have similar social and technological outcomes and that these outcomes influence mental health.

Peer Adversity Predicts Interpersonal Needs in Adolescent Girls

The need to belong (NTB) and need for approval (NFA) are fundamental interpersonal needs vital to social development. Although these needs are universal, individual differences in the strength of these needs likely emerge from critical social experiences. In particular, given the growing salience of peer social evaluation and belonging across adolescence, interpersonal needs during this stage may be strongly tied to both early and recent experiences in the peer group. The aim of the present study was to examine the contribution of lifetime and recent peer adversity to both general and situation-specific interpersonal needs in a sample of adolescent girls (N = 89, Mage  = 15.85). Results revealed that recent peer adversity predicted avoidance-oriented NFA, whereas a significant interaction between lifetime and recent peer adversity predicted approach-oriented NFA. Although neither lifetime nor recent peer adversity predicted individual differences in NTB, both predicted threats to interpersonal needs in the context of a laboratory manipulation of social exclusion. Specifically, both lifetime and recent peer adversity predicted greater need-threat prior to the exclusion, but only individuals who had experienced lifetime peer adversity continued to display ongoing high levels of threatened interpersonal needs.

The Interchangeability of Liking and Friend Nominations to Measure Peer Acceptance and Friendship

Two studies examine the convergence between measures of friendship and measures of liking in the assessment of friendship and peer acceptance. In the first study, 551 (301 boys and 250 girls) Canadian primary school children (ages 8 to 11) nominated friends and liked-most classmates. In the second study, 282 (127 boys and 155 girls) U.S. primary school children (ages 9 to 11) nominated friends and rated classmates on a sociometric preference scale. The results revealed considerable convergence in the assessment of friendship. Most 1st, 2nd, and 3rd ranked friends were also nominated and rated as liked-peers, suggesting that when measures of liking are used to identify friends, few top-ranked friendships are overlooked. There was less convergence in assessments of peer acceptance. Peer acceptance scores derived from friend nominations were more strongly correlated with peer acceptance scores derived from liking nominations than with those derived from sociometric preference ratings. We conclude that liking nominations accurately capture friendships, particularly best friendships. Friend nominations may be a suitable substitute for assessments of liking, but they are a poor substitute for assessments of sociometric preference.

Relationships of Homophobic Bullying Victimization during Childhood with Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms in Early Adulthood among Gay and Bisexual Men: Mediating Effect of Depressive Symptoms and Moderating Effect of Family Support

This study investigated (1) the associations of homophobic bullying victimization in childhood with borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms in early adulthood among gay and bisexual men; (2) the mediating effect of depressive symptoms on the association between homophobic bullying victimization and BPD symptoms, and (3) the moderating effects of perceived family support on the association between homophobic bullying victimization and BPD symptoms. A total of 500 gay or bisexual men aged between 20 and 25 years were recruited into this study. The experiences of physical, verbal and social relationship bullying victimization during childhood were evaluated using the Mandarin Chinese version of the School Bullying Experience Questionnaire. The experiences of cyberbullying victimization during childhood were evaluated using the Cyberbullying Experiences Questionnaire. BPD symptoms were assessed using the Borderline Symptom List. Depressive symptoms were examined using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Perceived family support was evaluated using the Family Adaptation, Partnership, Growth, Affection, and Resolve index. The results of mediation analyses demonstrated that all the types of homophobic bullying victimization in childhood were directly associated with BDP symptoms in young adulthood as well as indirectly associated with BPD symptoms through the mediation of depressive symptoms. The results of moderation analyses demonstrated that the association between homophobic bullying victimization and BPD symptoms decreased when the individuals had more family support. Intervention programs to reduce homophobic bullying victimization and enhance family support for gay and bisexual men and their families are necessary. Interventions to improve depressive and BPD symptoms among gay and bisexual men are also necessary, especially for those who experienced homophobic bullying victimization during childhood.

Longitudinal relationships between bullying and prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of trauma-related guilt and shame

The present study examined the relationships between bullying, trauma-related guilt, trauma-related shame, and prosocial behaviors. We investigated 1,322 college students using a longitudinal approach to explore the internal mechanism between bullying, prosocial behaviors, and the probable mediating effects of trauma-related guilt and shame. The results suggested that bullying negatively predicted prosocial behaviors and that trauma-related guilt played a positive mediating role. In contrast, trauma-related shame played a negative mediating role in the relationship between bullying and prosocial behaviors. These findings indicated that trauma-related guilt and shame played adaptive and maladaptive roles after bullying victimization, which also provided a theoretical basis for the relevant intervention.

Psychophysiological adjustment to formal education varies as a function of peer status and socioeconomic status in children beginning kindergarten

The transition to kindergarten can be stressful as children adjust to novel separations from their caregivers and become accustomed to their peer group. A 9-month study of 96 children (M_age  = 5.37 years, SD = 0.42) from Barranquilla, Colombia, assessed socioeconomic differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning across the kindergarten year. Children were from four different classrooms in one school. Saliva samples were collected twice a day across 3 consecutive days at the beginning and end of the school year. We examined whether change in HPA axis activation across the year varied as a function of a child's socioeconomic status (SES) and experience in the peer group. We found that rejected children and lower SES children had lower cortisol levels early in the morning. Rejected children had a flatter morning cortisol slope. Lower SES children had higher cortisol than their higher SES peers at the end of the school year and a flatter morning cortisol slope. Taken together, these findings suggest that diurnal cortisol in children beginning kindergarten may be influenced by both peer rejection and SES.

Friendships in Pediatric Brain Tumor Survivors and Non-Central Nervous System Tumor Survivors

OBJECTIVE

Brain tumors during childhood may disrupt the development and maintenance of friendships due to the impact of disease- and treatment-related factors on functioning. The goal of this study was to determine if children treated for either a brain tumor or a non-central nervous system (CNS) solid tumor could name a friend and to evaluate the social information processes associated with the ability to name a friend.

METHOD

Youth (ages 7-14) treated for either a brain tumor (n = 47; mean age = 10.51 years) or a non-CNS solid tumor (n = 34; mean age = 11.29) completed an assessment within 6 months of the conclusion of treatment that included asking participants to name a friend and completing measures of social information processing (SIP). Rates of self-reported friendship were compared between groups and correlates of being able to name a friend were evaluated.

RESULTS

Youth treated for a brain tumor (61.7%) were significantly less likely to name a friend compared with youth treated for a non-CNS solid tumor (85.3%). Diagnosis type (brain vs. non-CNS), relapse status, attribution style, and facial affect recognition were significant predictors of being able to name a friend or not in a logistic regression model.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth treated for a brain tumor and those who experienced a disease relapse are at risk for impairments in friendships; difficulties with SIP may increase this risk. Targeted screening and intervention efforts for children diagnosed with brain tumors and those who have relapsed could address difficulties with peers.

It hurts inside: a qualitative study investigating social exclusion and bullying among adolescents reporting frequent pain and high use of non-prescription analgesics

BACKGROUND

Being bullied and socially excluded interferes with the fundamental need for humans to belong to a social group, which is necessary for well-being. This might underpin pain and the use of non-prescription analgesics.

AIM

The aim of the study was to gain insight into how social exclusion and bullying affect well-being in adolescents reporting frequent pain and high use of non-prescription analgesics.

METHODS

A phenomenological hermeneutical method based on in-depth interviews was used. Nineteen teenagers, 14-16 years of age voluntarily participated in the study. Those included had frequent pain and used non-prescription analgesics daily or several times a week.

RESULTS

Bullying and social exclusion affects thoughts, feelings and attitudes and thereby the quality of life of the adolescents we interviewed. They described feelings such as sadness, loneliness and depression, and a sense of being an outsider among peers was common. It also appears that bullying has significant potential to spread in a school environment.

CONCLUSION

The adolescents were self-aware and well-articulated. They conceptualised their experiences of being socially excluded and bullied. They described being socially excluded and bullied by peers as painful and they used non-prescription analgesics to alleviate pain. Teachers and health professionals should be aware of frequent pain and high use of non-prescribed analgesic medication as signs of psychosocial stress caused by social exclusion and bullying. Social exclusion and bullying should be systematically mapped, and targeted interventions implemented.

Correlates of Repeat Victimization and Sex Differences in South Korean Youth

Interest in the correlates of victimization has significantly increased in criminology, while focusing on a few criminological theories, risky lifestyles/routine activities, and self-control. This study is to explore the applicability of five criminological theories, including social control theory, collective efficacy, and strain theories as well as risky lifestyles/routine activities and self-control to explain the correlates of repeat victimization. The current study also explores sex differences/similarities of Korean youth in the correlates of repeat victimization. Current study analyzes data from two waves of Korean Youth Panel Survey by using logistic regression. Results show that risky lifestyle/routine activities, social control, and general strain variables better explained the chance of repeat victimization than other theories (i.e., self-control and collective efficacy). In addition, this study suggests future study to focus on peer-related issues for girls' repeat victimization and by addressing family-related issues for boys' repeat victimization.

Social threat sensitivity and its relationships with peer victimisation and internalising symptoms among adolescent girls

Consistent associations have been shown between self-reported peer victimisation and internalising symptoms. In distinct literature, anxious and depressed youth have been shown to interpret ambiguous social stimuli in a manner consistent with social threat and rejection. The aim of the current study was to determine whether this sensitivity to social threat among anxious/depressed youth explains significant variance in the relationship between self-reports of peer victimisation and internalising symptoms. Two hundred and sixty-seven students in grades seven and eight (M age = 12.62, SD = 0.65) completed measures of their own symptoms of anxiety and depression as well as their experiences of being physically or relationally victimised by their peers. They also read descriptions of 10 hypothetical ambiguous social interactions and provided responses indicating whether they interpreted each scenario as indicating social threat (rejection/negative evaluation) and the extent to which they perceived it as victimisation. As expected, anxiety and depression were positively correlated with self-reported peer victimisation and with interpretations consistent with social threat and victimisation (social threat sensitivity). In turn, social threat sensitivity was positively correlated with both self-reported relational and physical victimisation, but moreso with the former. However, the relationship between anxiety and depression and victimisation remained significant, even after controlling for social threat sensitivity. Results suggest that a sensitivity toward social threat can influence self-reports of peer victimisation among anxious and depressed youth, but that the relationship between internalising and victimisation goes beyond this sensitivity.

Ethnic Bullying Victimization in Italy: The Role of Acculturation Orientation for Ethnic Minority Adolescents With Differing Citizenship Statuses

This study examines the role of acculturation orientation toward home and host countries in ethnic bullying victimization, by considering citizenship status and taking into account social withdrawal. Within a larger school project with middle and high school students, we analyzed data on 252 adolescents from immigrant backgrounds: 71 born abroad without Italian citizenship (Males = 71.4%; mean age = 13.98, SD = 1.7); 96 born in Italy to immigrant parents and without Italian citizenship (Males = 58.3%; mean age = 13.26, SD = 1.6); and 85 Italian citizens born in Italy with an immigrant parent (Males = 54.7%; mean age = 13.12, SD = 1.5). At the univariate level we found that the group of adolescents born abroad with foreign parents showed significantly higher levels of ethnic victimization compared to the group of adolescents born in Italy with an Italian parent. The latter also reported a significantly higher mean in Acculturation Orientation toward their Host Country (i.e., Italy) compared to the other two groups. Looking at the processes working within each group, we found differences in the patterns of association between acculturation orientation and ethnic bullying victimization. Specifically, we found a significant and positive association between acculturation orientation toward the home country and ethnic victimization in the two groups of adolescents born in Italy, while acculturation orientation toward the host country seems to be a protective factor only for adolescents with Italian citizenship. Acculturation orientation does not play any role in ethnic victimization for the first generation of immigrants, while for this group we found a stronger positive effect of Social Withdrawal. Citizenship status appears to be a good indicator of belonging to an ethnic minority group with a background of immigration: it seems to catch specific processes in ethnic bullying victimization.

Maltreatment experiences and psychopathology in children and adolescents: The intervening role of domain-specific self-representations moderated by age

BACKGROUND

Associations between maltreatment experiences and psychopathology symptoms in children and adolescents are well established. However, the role of domain-specific self-representations (SR) in those associations remains unexplored.

OBJECTIVE

This multi-informant study aimed to explore the indirect associations between maltreatment experiences and children's and adolescents' psychopathology symptoms (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems), through domain-specific self-representations, and the moderating role of age in those indirect associations.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Participants were 203 children/adolescents (52.7 % boys), aged 8-16 years old (M = 12.64; SD = 2.47), referred to child/youth protection commissions, their parents, and case workers.

METHOD

Case workers reported on child/adolescent maltreatment, children/adolescents reported on SR, and parents reported on psychopathology symptoms.

RESULTS

Controlling for chronicity of maltreatment and child/adolescent sex effects, multiple mediation path analysis revealed that: 1) higher levels of physical and psychological abuse were associated with less externalizing problems through more negative social SR; 2) higher levels of physical neglect were associated with more externalizing problems through more positive opposition SR; 3) higher levels of psychological neglect were associated with less externalizing problems through more negative physical appearance SR, and 4) associated with more externalizing problems through more negative opposition SR. Moreover, the indirect effects of physical and psychological abuse on internalizing and externalizing problems through instrumental SR were conditional on child/adolescent age.

CONCLUSION

Findings signal the relevance of preventing child/adolescent maltreatment and promoting the construction of positive and, foremost, realistic and adaptive self-representations as protection against maladjustment.

Comparisons Between Adolescent Bullies, Victims, and Bully-Victims on Perceived Popularity, Social Impact, and Social Preference

This study investigated the effect of bullying role, i.e., bully, victim, and bully-victim, on three measures of peer status; perceived popularity, social preference, and social impact. In addition to completing peer nominations for these measures of peer status, adolescents (n = 2,721) aged 11 to 16 years from 5 secondary schools completed an online survey that assessed bullying involvement (self- and peer-reported), self-esteem, and behavioral difficulties. Compared to uninvolved adolescents, all bullying roles had a greater social impact. Bullies scored higher than all other roles for perceived popularity, whereas victims and bully-victims were the lowest in social preference. These significant group comparisons remained when controlling for demographic variables, behavioral difficulties, self-esteem and prosocial behavior. Overall, the perceived popularity found for bullies suggests that these adolescents are socially rewarded by peers for their victimization of others. These findings highlight the need to address the whole peer system in raising the social status of those who are victimized, whilst reducing the rewards received by bullies for their behavior.

The Interplay of Adolescents' Aggression and Victimization with Friendship and Antipathy Networks within an Educational Prosocial Intervention

How the interplay between peer relationships and behaviors unfolds and how this differs between classrooms is an understudied topic. This study examined whether adolescents befriend or dislike peers whom they consider as aggressor or victim and whether these results differ in classrooms that received an intervention to promote prosocial behavior compared to classrooms without the intervention. The sample was composed of 659 seventh graders (Mage = 12.32; 48% girls) from nine intervention and seven control classrooms in eight schools in Santiago, Chile. It was hypothesized that adolescents in intervention classrooms would be less befriended and more disliked by classmates who considered them as aggressors, and more befriended and less disliked by classmates who considered them as victims, compared to control classrooms. Longitudinal multiplex social network analyses (RSiena) indicate that antipathies toward peers considered as aggressive and victimized were significantly lower in intervention classrooms than in control classrooms, but no significant differences were found for friendships. These findings suggest that the impact of an educational intervention may go beyond changing individual behavior and extend to the way peer relations develop in classrooms.

Why Does a Universal Anti-Bullying Program Not Help All Children? Explaining Persistent Victimization During an Intervention

Although anti-bullying interventions are often effective, some children continue to be victimized. To increase knowledge of potential factors that might impede children's benefiting from an anti-bullying intervention, we examined potential reasons for individual differences in victimization trajectories during a group-based anti-bullying intervention. Data stem from a five-wave survey among 9122 children (7-12 years old; grades 2-5) who participated in the KiVa anti-bullying intervention (n = 6142) or were in control schools (n = 2980 children). Three trajectories were found in the intervention sample, representing children who experienced stable high, decreasing, or stable low/no victimization. A two-trajectory model of high and low trajectories represented the control sample best. Multinomial regressions on the intervention sample showed that children who experienced particularly high levels of peer rejection, internalizing problems, and lower quality parent-child relationships decreased less in victimization; thus these characteristics appeared to contribute to persistent victimization. The results call for tailored strategies in interventions aiming to reduce victimization for more children.

The temporal sequence of depressive symptoms, peer victimization, and self-esteem across adolescence: Evidence for an integrated self-perception driven model

Depression is associated with a multiplicity of adverse outcomes in adolescence, including peer victimization and low self-esteem. Depressive symptoms, peer victimization, and self-esteem are linked in cross-sectional studies, but no longitudinal study has been conducted assessing their developmental pathways in one integrated model across adolescence. We explored their temporal sequencing in a normative sample of 612 Canadian adolescents (54% girls) assessed annually over 5 years (Grade 7 to Grade 11). Potential confounders such as biological sex, ethnicity/race, and parent income and education were statistically controlled. We found evidence for the vulnerability model (self-esteem predicting depression) and the symptoms-driven model (depression predicting peer victimization). Our findings also supported the integration of these pathways into a self-perception driven model characterized by the indirect effect of self-esteem on later peer victimization via depressive symptoms. Specifically, poor self-esteem initiated a developmental cascade that led to poor mood and poor peer relations. These results highlight the importance of helping youth form a healthy identity that promotes positive mental health and peer relations, and the need to intervene with depressed, victimized, and at-risk adolescents to instill positive self-regard. Our results also emphasize the central role that self-perceptions play in the onset and maintenance of poor outcomes.

Bullied by Siblings and Peers: The Role of Rejecting/Neglecting Parenting and Friendship Quality Among Korean Children

The primary aim of this study was to examine the direct and indirect links of rejecting/neglecting parenting, sibling victimization, and friendship quality with peer victimization using a convenience sample of 584 Korean children in Grades 3 to 6. In addition, we tested whether these associations differed between male and female students. Structural equation modeling was performed to analyze the data. The results revealed rejecting/neglecting parenting indirectly influenced peer victimization through sibling victimization for both males and females, although such effects were stronger for females than males. Sibling victimization had a direct effect on peer victimization across both sexes, although it indirectly influenced peer victimization through poor friendship quality only for males. Therefore, bullying prevention and intervention programs must involve parents to make them aware of the important role they play in this process and to improve their parenting styles and involvement in sibling conflicts. Furthermore, while the role of friendship quality needs to be highlighted to prevent peer victimization among males, future research continues to explore other peer variables that are related to decreased peer victimization for females.

Bullying in School: Importance of and Challenges Involved in Talking to the School Nurse

Bullying has negative consequences for health and quality of life of students. This study is part of a pilot project, “School Health,” which included a web-based questionnaire completed by students before a consultation with the school nurse. The aim of this study was to explore how students experience answering questions about bullying before an individual consultation and how they talk about bullying with the school nurse. This study had qualitative design with individual and focus group interviews and involved 38 students aged 13–14 years, both boys and girls, from three schools. Data were analyzed according to Kvale’s three levels of interpretation within a phenomenological and hermeneutic perspective. The students found it difficult to report being bullied. They expressed confidence in the school nurse and liked talking with her. Some complained about the school environment and reported that having a friend was important.

Does Peer Rejection Moderate the Associations among Cyberbullying Victimization, Depression, and Anxiety among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

While the consequences of cyberbullying victimization have received some attention in the literature, to date, little is known about the multiple types of strains in adolescents' lives, such as whether cyberbullying victimization and peer rejection increase their vulnerability to depression and anxiety. Even though some research found that adolescents with disabilities show higher risk for cyberbullying victimization, most research has focused on typically developing adolescents. Thus, the present study focused on examining the moderating effect of peer rejection in the relationships between cyberbullying victimization, depression, and anxiety among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. There were 128 participants (89% male; ages ranging from 11⁻16 years old) with autism spectrum disorder in the sixth, seventh, or eighth grade at 16 middle schools in the United States. Participants completed questionnaires on cyberbullying victimization, peer rejection, depression, and anxiety. Results revealed that cyberbullying victimization was associated positively with peer rejection, anxiety, and depression among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Further, peer rejection was linked positively with depression and anxiety. Peer rejection moderated the positive relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression, but not anxiety. Implications for prevention programs and future research are discussed.

From Their Point of View: Identifying Socio-Behavioral Profiles of Primary School Pupils Based on Peer Group Perception

Our study adopted a person-based approach with the aim to identify socio-behavioral profiles of primary school students based on peer group perception. The study involved 109 classes and their teachers, from the first three grades of elementary school. The final student sample consisted of 424 children, aged 6–9 years (M = 94.9 months; SD = 9.7), of whom 58.3% were male. We used peer-group nomination to investigate the aspects that are linked to peer group acceptance and perception of classroom behaviors, with reference to academic and relational criteria. We identified and defined six clusters. We validated these clusters by taking into consideration the children’s academic performances and the teacher’s perceptions of their relationship with the single students. The identified clusters were related to both of these aspects, and they show predictive value when referring to children’s behaviors as evaluated by their teachers. Implications for theory and educational policies are discussed.

Interpersonal Perceptions of Adverse Peer Experiences in First-Grade Students

Aim: The aim of this study was to identify which adverse peer experiences better predict perceived negative peer relationships among elementary school first graders according to sex. The peer experiences examined were peer rejection, peer victimization, and mutual antipathy; the interpersonal perceptions studied were perceived peer victimization, dyadic meta-perception of peer disliking, and loneliness. Methods: The participants were 809 children (Mage = 6.4 years, SD = 0.32; ngirls = 412, 50.9%) enrolled in 35 first-grade classes from 15 schools in 4 Spanish regions: Valencia, n = 276, 34.1%; Balearic Islands, n = 140, 17.3%; Andalusia, n = 199, 24.6%; Castile-Leon, n = 194, 24%. We calculated sex differences in peer experiences and interpersonal perceptions by means of one-way ANOVA for means differences and Fisher's r-to-z transformation for correlations differences. We used a multilevel regression analysis (nesting variables: class and region) to determine whether the associations between each peer experiences and each perception were unique. Results: Each adverse peer relationship predicted each interpersonal perception differentially. Peer victimization was a good predictor of the three interpersonal perceptions, and the only predictor of perceived peer victimization. Peer rejection predicted loneliness, whereas mutual antipathies predicted dyadic meta-perception of peer disliking, although more so among girls. A significant effect at region level was found but not at class level. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that research should take into account the different levels of the social peer system when analyzing peer experiences within the classroom context. The study contributes to sensitize teachers about the greater responsiveness of 6-year-old girls to adverse peer experiences, and it could be useful for designing interventions that would help children oppose rejection and empower active bystanders to fight against peer mistreatment.

Poor Kids? Economic Resources and Adverse Peer Relations in a Nationally Representative Sample of Swedish Adolescents

There is limited knowledge on the impact of economic resources on adverse peer relations during adolescence. This study used a nationally representative sample (n = 4725, 51% girls) of Swedish eighth-grade students (approximately age fourteen) to examine associations between economic resources and adverse peer relations in the form of peer rejection and bullying victimization. Adolescents from households in the lowest within-school household income quintile were found to be rejected by school class peers to a greater extent than more advantaged students, but an association was not found between relative household income and bullying victimization. In contrast, adolescents unable to participate in activities with peers for economic reasons experienced more rejection and were at higher risk of victimization. The results underline the multidimensionality of adverse peer relations and advance our knowledge on how economic resources relate to peer relations in youth.

A Randomized Trial of Soft Multifocal Contact Lenses for Myopia Control: Baseline Data and Methods

SIGNIFICANCE

The Bifocal Lenses In Nearsighted Kids (BLINK) study is the first soft multifocal contact lens myopia control study to compare add powers and measure peripheral refractive error in the vertical meridian, so it will provide important information about the potential mechanism of myopia control.

PURPOSE

The BLINK study is a National Eye Institute-sponsored, double-masked, randomized clinical trial to investigate the effects of soft multifocal contact lenses on myopia progression. This article describes the subjects' baseline characteristics and study methods.

METHODS

Subjects were 7 to 11 years old, had -0.75 to -5.00 spherical component and less than 1.00 diopter (D) astigmatism, and had 20/25 or better logMAR distance visual acuity with manifest refraction in each eye and with +2.50-D add soft bifocal contact lenses on both eyes. Children were randomly assigned to wear Biofinity single-vision, Biofinity Multifocal "D" with a +1.50-D add power, or Biofinity Multifocal "D" with a +2.50-D add power contact lenses.

RESULTS

We examined 443 subjects at the baseline visits, and 294 (66.4%) subjects were enrolled. Of the enrolled subjects, 177 (60.2%) were female, and 200 (68%) were white. The mean (± SD) age was 10.3 ± 1.2 years, and 117 (39.8%) of the eligible subjects were younger than 10 years. The mean spherical equivalent refractive error, measured by cycloplegic autorefraction was -2.39 ± 1.00 D. The best-corrected binocular logMAR visual acuity with glasses was +0.01 ± 0.06 (20/21) at distance and -0.03 ± 0.08 (20/18) at near.

CONCLUSIONS

The BLINK study subjects are similar to patients who would routinely be eligible for myopia control in practice, so the results will provide clinical information about soft bifocal contact lens myopia control as well as information about the mechanism of the treatment effect, if one occurs.

Multidimensional Social Competence, Motivation, and Cyberbullying: A Cultural Approach With Colombian and Spanish Adolescents

International research on the risk and protective factors of cyberbullying focus on individual personality variables and the use of technological devices. However, it is necessary to examine in greater depth the interpersonal context as a factor that may influence cyberbullying and the possible differences between cultures. The objective of this article was to analyze the relationship of influence of two interpersonal variables, multidimensional social competence and social motivation, on cyberaggression and cybervictimization through a cultural study of Spain and Colombia, which will permit generalizing the influence of interpersonal variables on cyberbullying in different cultural settings. The sample consisted of 3,830 secondary school students (50.4% Colombian and 49.6% Spanish). Self-reporting measurement instruments validated with different European samples were used. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed. A model of mutual influence revealing the inverse relationship of normative adjustment and the direct relationship of popularity goals in cyberaggression was obtained. Cybervictimization was explained by the direct influence of prosocial behaviors and avoidance goals and the inverse influence of perceived social efficacy, development goals, and social and normative adjustment. As conclusion, this study demonstrates the homogeneity of the Colombian and Spanish models and the important role that the face-to-face context plays in cyberbullying involvement. This article highlights and supports the design of cyberbullying prevention programs, which requires the inclusion of multidimensional social competence and social goals.

Modifying Self-Blame, Self-Esteem, and Disclosure Through a Cooperative Cross-Age Teaching Intervention for Bullying Among Adolescents

Bullying is common among school students, and some victims hold self-blaming attributions, exhibit low self-esteem, and do not seek social support. A wait-list control pre-/post-test experimental design, with random allocation, was used to assess the effects of a novel cross-age teaching of social issues (CATS) intervention on the latter 3 variables among peer-identified victims of bullying (N = 41, mean age = 14.5 years). In small cooperative groups of classmates, participants designed and delivered a lesson to younger students that informed them that bullies not victims are in the wrong, victims have no reason to feel bad about themselves, and that seeking help can be beneficial. CATS led to a significant improvement on all 3 dependent variables with mostly large effect sizes; these positive effects were even stronger with a bigger dose of intervention (6 hr vs. 4 hr), and changes in self-blame, and separately changes in self-esteem, mediated the positive effect of the intervention on help-seeking. The theoretical and practical implications of these results were discussed, especially in terms of supporting a highly vulnerable subgroup of adolescents.

Chronic Childhood Peer Rejection is Associated with Heightened Neural Responses to Social Exclusion During Adolescence

This functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) study examined subjective and neural responses to social exclusion in adolescents (age 12-15) who either had a stable accepted (n = 27; 14 males) or a chronic rejected (n = 19; 12 males) status among peers from age 6 to 12. Both groups of adolescents reported similar increases in distress after being excluded in a virtual ball-tossing game (Cyberball), but adolescents with a history of chronic peer rejection showed higher activity in brain regions previously linked to the detection of, and the distress caused by, social exclusion. Specifically, compared with stably accepted adolescents, chronically rejected adolescents displayed: 1) higher activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) during social exclusion and 2) higher activity in the dACC and anterior prefrontal cortex when they were incidentally excluded in a social interaction in which they were overall included. These findings demonstrate that chronic childhood peer rejection is associated with heightened neural responses to social exclusion during adolescence, which has implications for understanding the processes through which peer rejection may lead to adverse effects on mental health over time.

Emotion dysregulation mediates the longitudinal relation between peer rejection and depression

The goal of the current investigation was to test emotion dysregulation as a mechanism explaining the longitudinal association between peer rejection and depressive symptoms across 1 school year in middle childhood and to determine whether this process differed based on gender and grade. Youth in Grades 3 through 6 ( N = 131; 71 girls) and their primary school teachers ( n = 8) were recruited from a Midwestern elementary school. Youth reported on their emotion dysregulation and depressive symptoms at two time points (T1 and T2), approximately 6 months apart. Teachers completed ratings of peer rejection at T1. Peer rejection at T1 predicted youth-report of depressive symptoms at T2, even after controlling for depression at T1. Moderated mediation suggested that change in emotion dysregulation mediated the relation of peer rejection to depressive symptoms over time, but only for older boys. Results underscore the importance of considering gender-specific processes within interpersonal risk models of depression, and provide support for peer rejection as a critical social process shaping emotion regulation in middle childhood.

Interparental conflict and adolescents' self-representations: The role of emotional insecurity

Adolescents' signs of emotional insecurity in the context of interparental conflict (IC) - emotional reactivity, internal representations (i.e., constructive/destructive; spillover) and behavioral responses (i.e., withdrawal; inhibition; involvement) - were examined as mediators in the relation between IC and adolescents' self-representations. Self-reported measures were filled out by 221 Portuguese adolescents (59.3% girls; Mage = 12.91), attending public elementary and secondary schools. IC predicted less favorable self-representations. Adolescents' emotional reactivity and withdrawal mediated the relation between IC and emotional and physical appearance self-representations, while conflict spillover representations and constructive family representations mediated associations between IC and instrumental self-representations. This study emphasizes the importance of interparental conflict and adolescent emotional insecurity in the construction of their self-representations, having important theoretical and practical implications. It highlights the value of analyzing the specific role of several emotional insecurity dimensions, and informs practitioners' work aimed at promoting constructive conflict and adaptive emotional regulation skills.

Situation-specificity of children's social goals: Changing goals according to changing situations?

Children's agentic and communal goals were examined in hypothetical conflict, group entry, victimization, and positive situations ( N = 310, 11—13 years). Multilevel modeling was used to separate the variation in goals to the between- and within- (i.e., situation-specific) individual levels. About half of the variation in goals was due to individual differences. Boys endorsed more agentic goals than girls. A positive perception of self was associated with more agentic goals, whereas a positive perception of peers was associated with high degrees of communal goals. In addition, agentic goals were associated with rejection, whereas communal goals were related to peer acceptance. Children aimed for closeness with peers most often when no stressful interaction pattern was imposed (positive situation), endorsing fewer affiliation aims when involved in a conflict, and having the least of these aims when victimized by peers. Agentic goals, in turn, were most common in the victimization situation, the next typical in conflict and positive situations, and least likely in the group entry situation. Finally, the way children adjusted their goals in response to the victimization situation varied between children, and was related to sociometric status in older children.

Neural correlates of retaliatory and prosocial reactions to social exclusion: Associations with chronic peer rejection

Social exclusion is a distressing experience and can lead to both retaliatory and prosocial reactions toward the sources of exclusion. The way people react to social exclusion has been hypothesized to be shaped through chronic exposure to peer rejection. This functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging study examined associations between chronic peer rejection and retaliatory (i.e. punishing) and prosocial (i.e. forgiving) reactions to social exclusion and the neural processes underlying them. Chronically rejected (n=19) and stably highly accepted adolescents (n=27) distributed money between themselves and unknown others who previously included or excluded them in a virtual ball-tossing game (Cyberball). Decreasing the excluders' monetary profits (i.e., punishment) was associated with increased activity in the ventral striatum, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and parietal cortex in both groups. Compared to stably highly accepted adolescents, chronically rejected adolescents exhibited higher activity in the dorsal striatum and lateral prefrontal cortex - brain regions implicated in cognitive control - when they refrained from punishment and shared their money equally with (i.e. forgave) the excluders. These results provide insights into processes that might underlie the maintenance of peer rejection across development, such as difficulties controlling the urge to retaliate after exclusion.

A meta-analysis of predictors of bullying and victimisation in adolescence

Bullying is common and harms all involved, yet there is no clarity regarding factors that influence bullying and victimisation for adolescent samples. This meta-analysis aims to synthesise the literature and identify reliable risk and protective factors to adolescent bullying and victimisation. A systematic search of the literature using databases; PsycINFO and Scopus, was undertaken to identify relevant publications from 1985 until July 2014. Inclusion criteria included longitudinal data, an adolescent sample and a focus on predictive factors of bullying or victimisation. From 4698 articles identified, 18 were included. Four predictors of victimisation (prior victimisation, conduct problems, social problems and internalising problems) and four predictors of bullying (conduct problems, social problems, school problems and age) were identified. The literature provides little consistency in predictors assessed and replication is needed for clarification, however, social problems and conduct problems are consistent risk factors and a potential focus for future interventions.

Chronic Childhood Peer Rejection is Associated with Heightened Neural Responses to Social Exclusion During Adolescence

This functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) study examined subjective and neural responses to social exclusion in adolescents (age 12-15) who either had a stable accepted (n = 27; 14 males) or a chronic rejected (n = 19; 12 males) status among peers from age 6 to 12. Both groups of adolescents reported similar increases in distress after being excluded in a virtual ball-tossing game (Cyberball), but adolescents with a history of chronic peer rejection showed higher activity in brain regions previously linked to the detection of, and the distress caused by, social exclusion. Specifically, compared with stably accepted adolescents, chronically rejected adolescents displayed: 1) higher activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) during social exclusion and 2) higher activity in the dACC and anterior prefrontal cortex when they were incidentally excluded in a social interaction in which they were overall included. These findings demonstrate that chronic childhood peer rejection is associated with heightened neural responses to social exclusion during adolescence, which has implications for understanding the processes through which peer rejection may lead to adverse effects on mental health over time.

Social Information Processing Mechanisms and Victimization: A Literature Review

The aim of the current literature review, which is based on 64 empirical studies, was to assess to what extent mechanisms of the Social Information Processing (SIP) model of Crick and Dodge (1994) are related to victimization. The reviewed studies have provided support for the relation between victimization and several social information processing mechanisms, especially the interpretation of cues and self-efficacy (as part of the response decision). The relationship between victimization and other mechanisms, such as the response generation, was only studied in a few articles. Until now research has often focused on just one step of the model, instead of attempting to measure the associations between multiple mechanisms and victimization in multivariate analyses. Such analyses would be interesting to gain more insight into the SIP model and its relationship with victimization. The few available longitudinal studies show that mechanisms both predict victimization (internal locus of control, negative self-evaluations and less assertive response selection) and are predicted by victimization (hostile attribution of intent and negative evaluations of others). Associations between victimization and SIP mechanisms vary across different types and severity of victimization (stronger in personal and severe victimization), and different populations (stronger among young victims). Practice could focus on these stronger associations and the interpretation of cues. More research is needed however, to investigate whether intervention programs that address SIP mechanisms are suitable for victimization and all relevant populations.