A developmental perspective on executive function

Electrophysiological variability during tests of executive functioning: A comparison of athletes with and without concussion and sedentary control participants

OBJECTIVE

Sport participation may benefit executive functioning (EF), but EF can also be adversely affected by concussion, which can occur during sport participation. Neural variability is an emerging proxy of brain health that indexes the brain's range of possible responses to incoming stimuli (i.e., dynamic range) and interconnectedness, but has yet to be characterized following concussion among athletes. This study examined whether neural variability was enhanced by athletic participation and attenuated by concussion.

METHOD

Seventy-seven participants (18-25 years-old) were classified as sedentary controls (n = 33), athletes with positive concussion history (n = 21), or athletes without concussion (n = 23). Participants completed tests of attention switching, response inhibition, and updating working memory while undergoing electroencephalography recordings to index neural variability.

RESULTS

Compared to sedentary controls and athletes without concussion, athletes with concussion exhibited a restricted whole-brain dynamic range of neural variability when completing a test of inhibitory control. There were no group differences observed for either the switching or working memory tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

A history of concussion was related to reduced dynamic range of neural activity during a task of response inhibition in young adult athletes. Neural variability may have value for evaluating brain health following concussion.

Longitudinal Changes in Preschoolers' Self-reported Psychological and Social Problems: Feasibility, Reliability, and Cross-informant Agreement

For decades, parental reports were used to assess children's psychological symptoms and social problems. The Berkeley Puppet Interview (BPI) utilizes hand puppets to collect questionnaire-style interview data from children, allowing consideration of children's own perspective. The current longitudinal study compared the feasibility and reliability of preschoolers' self-report with BPI at age 4 (M = 4.03, SD = 0.16; 52% boy, 82% White American) and 5 (M = 5.22, SD = 0.36) as well as cross-informant agreement among children, mothers, alternate caregivers (> 90% biological fathers), and coders. Children completed Symptom, Prosocial, and Parenting scales of BPI and their parents completed surveys assessing similar constructs. Our findings revealed both similarities and changes across ages. Specifically, the reliability and cross-informant agreement of the broad Symptom and Parenting scales were promising at both timepoints; however, 4-year-olds showed lower internal consistency in Social scales. Recommendations for how to refine and utilize BPI appropriately in young children in future research and the importance of cross-informant design were discussed.

Prevalence and contributing factors of executive cognitive dysfunction symptoms in university students

The importance of executive cognition should not be overlooked in the private and academic lives of university students. It includes important constituents of the human mind, including but not limited to, organizing, directing, solving problems, and controlling oneself and these processes are central to surviving the rigors of higher education. Good executive function enables the students to perform complex tasks, such as fighting deadlines, understanding the course structure, and participating in many other activities. Further, it assists in arriving at resolutions and managing tensions as one transitions into adulthood, both of which are critical. In other words, executive cognitive deficits are correlated with problems in academic progression, time management, and overall adjustment to the possible social and emotional stressors of university experience. This cross-sectional study, involving 1,204 students, used the validated Arabic version of the Dysexecutive Questionnaire (DEX) to measure executive cognitive function, along with demographic and lifestyle data. The results showed significant associations between executive cognition dysfunction and certain lifestyle factors common among generation Z, such as hours spent on smartphones or electronic devices (p < 0.0001), social media platform use (p = 0.0484), weekly fast food consumption (p < 0.0001), and daily hours on social media (p < 0.0001). Additional factors included weak family relationships (p = 0.0018), gender (p = 0.029), family income (p = 0.0164), urban residence (p = 0.0176), prior mental health consultations (p < 0.0001), and parental separation (p < 0.0375). Conversely, regular sports participation and exercise were linked to lower dysfunction scores (p = 0.0327), suggesting a protective effect. These findings underscore the impact of lifestyle and personal circumstances on cognitive functioning, highlighting the need for balanced technology use, healthy diets, strong family and social networks, and physical activity. Early psychological support for at-risk students may further enhance cognitive resilience and overall well-being.

Peer Preference and Executive Functioning Development: Longitudinal Relations Among Females With and Without ADHD

Peer problems are a pervasive issue for children with ADHD, but less is known about the role of peers in the development of executive functioning (EF). We examined the predictive relation between childhood peer preference (i.e., the extent to which one is liked vs. disliked by peers) and the development of various EF skills (response inhibition, working memory, and global EF) from childhood to early adulthood within a diverse female sample enriched for ADHD. We sampled 140 girls diagnosed with ADHD in childhood and 88 neurotypical comparison girls, matched for age and race. Girls were 6-12 years old at baseline and followed for three additional waves across 16 years. Peer preference was assessed via sociometric interviews in childhood; EF data were collected at all waves via neuropsychological tests. Through multilevel modeling, we evaluated relations between childhood peer preference and the development of each EF skill from childhood to early adulthood, adjusting for ADHD diagnostic status, verbal IQ, and socioeconomic status. We found that lower peer preference in childhood (a) was associated with poorer global EF across development and (b) predicted significantly less improvement in response inhibition from childhood to adulthood. Childhood ADHD diagnostic status was also related to lower global EF and response inhibition across development, but unlike peer preference, ADHD was not predictive of differences in EF growth. Secondary analyses revealed that peer rejection, not acceptance, drove these core findings. Findings highlight the influence of childhood peer preference on EF development, particularly response inhibition. We discuss intervention implications.

Associations of executive functions with physical activity and sedentary time in children aged 5-7 years: a multi-methodological pilot study

Executive functions are critical for early childhood development. High levels of physical activity and reduced sedentary time may benefit execution function development, although prior research has yielded mixed findings. Studying executive functions through both neurophysiological and behavioral measures provides a more comprehensive view of their relationship with physical activity and sedentary time, yet this approach remains underexplored in young children. Thus, this cross-sectional study aimed to explore these associations using a multi-methodological approach. Eighteen children (Mage = 6.75, SD = 0.60, 50% girls) participated. Executive functions were assessed behaviorally (inhibition+switching and working memory with computerized tests) and neuroelectrically (event-related potential EEG paradigm) in early childhood education settings. Physical activity and sedentary time were measured using hip-worn accelerometers. Associations were examined using linear regression. The results showed that faster response times in inhibition+switching task were associated with larger novelty P3 amplitudes (β = -.54, p < .05). Moderate and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were associated with increased novelty P3 amplitude (β = .72, p < .01; β = .56, p < .05) and longer peak latency (β = .59, p < .05; β = .53, p < .05), while light physical activity was associated with smaller amplitude (β = -.64, p < .05). Sedentary time was associated with shorter latency (β = -.57, p < .05). No associations between physical activity or sedentary time and behavioral measures of executive functions were found. The findings of this pilot study suggest that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity may support neurocognitive processes in early childhood.

Prefrontal cortex intrinsic functional connectivity and executive function in early childhood and early adulthood using fNIRS

Executive function (EF) is crucial for goal-directed behavior and predicts overall wellbeing, academic and interpersonal success. Intrinsic (i.e., non-evoked) resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) during naturalistic paradigms offers insight into neural mechanisms underlying EF. However, few studies have explored EF-rsFC associations using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) across age groups. This cross-sectional study validates a naturalistic viewing paradigm (Inscapes) using fNIRS and examines the link between rsFC in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and EF in children ages 4-5 and in young adults ages 18-22. Adults were presented with two rsFC paradigms in a counterbalanced within-subjects design: a traditional static crosshair and Inscapes. Representational similarity analysis revealed robustly similar rsFC patterns between the crosshair and Inscapes conditions, and both were associated with EF (Stroop performance). Children were presented with Inscapes to assess rsFC, and exhibited high compliance using fNIRS. Importantly, rsFC assessed with Inscapes in children was associated with EF (Stroop-like Day-Night Task performance). Age-related differences showed intrinsic functional connections within the PFC strengthening over development. This study uses child-friendly, noninvasive optical neuroimaging and a publicly available rsFC paradigm to elucidate the role of the PFC in EF development, illuminating practical methodological approaches to study the developmental trajectory and neural underpinnings of EF.

Are there associations between Executive Functions and Theory of Mind in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? Results from a systematic review with meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Deficits in Executive Function (EF) and Theory of Mind (ToM) are common and significant in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), impacting self-regulation and social interaction. The nature of ToM deficits is believed to be partially associated with preexisting deficits in other core cognitive domains of ADHD, such as EF, which are essential for making mental inferences, especially complex ones. Evaluating these associations at a meta-analytic level is relevant.

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a systematic literature review followed by a meta-analysis to identify potential associations between EF and ToM among individuals with ADHD and their healthy counterparts, considering different developmental stages.

METHOD

A systematic review was conducted in seven different databases. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. The meta-analytic measurement was estimated with the correlation coefficient as the outcome. Due to the presence of heterogeneity, a random-effects model was adopted. Independent meta-analyses were conducted for different EF subdomains and ADHD and healthy control groups. Subgroup analyses were performed to examine the influence of age on the outcome of interest.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies were analyzed. Moderate associations were found when comparing EF and ToM between individuals with ADHD (0.20-0.38) and healthy subjects (0.02-0.40). No significant differences were found between child and adult samples (p > 0.20).

CONCLUSION

The association between EF and ToM was significant, with a moderate effect size, although no significant differences were found according to age, the presence of ADHD, or EF subdomains. Future research is suggested to expand the age groups and overcome the methodological limitations indicated in this review.

Cannabinoid CB1 receptor-sensitive neurodevelopmental processes and trajectories

As high-potency cannabis (with high Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol content) becomes easily accessible and widespread, it is of extreme importance for public health that a scientific platform is used to implement practical guidelines, particularly for at-risk populations. Many reviews have been written in the past decade summarizing the impact of cannabis in the developing brain. One critical concept frequently mentioned but not discussed in detail is whether there are sensitive neurodevelopmental events driving the age-specific sensitivity to cannabis, particularly those mediated by cannabinoid type 1 receptor signaling. By integrating available data from humans and animal models, the goal of the present expert review article is to provide a mechanistic overview on how cannabis exposure during sensitive periods of neural circuit plasticity and development can result in lasting consequences. Here we used the frontal cortex as a proxy to align the trajectory of the brain cannabinoid system between humans and rodents. Both the strengths and limitations of available mechanistic studies on the effects of cannabis and cannabinoids were discussed using a developmental framework from which neural circuit adaptations during sensitive periods are considered. Such an approach is needed to align key neurodevelopmental variables through the lifespan, which in turn will provide valuable insights applicable to the human brain by defining the underpinning mechanisms of sensitive periods and how the impact of cannabis changes from childhood to adolescence, and thereafter through young adulthood.

Does executive function moderate the spatial-math link in preschoolers?

In the present study, we examine if the spatial-math link is moderated by executive function in preschoolers, with a particular interest in which aspects of executive function may serve as moderators for this relation. We collected data from a sample of 242 preschoolers from the Midwest United States. Individual moderation analyses were run for each of the five executive function measures to assess whether various executive functions moderate the spatial-math link. We found that only planning (β = .13, p = .017) significantly moderated the association between spatial assembly and numeracy skills. Specifically, these results indicated that the association between spatial and math skills was stronger when children also had stronger planning skills. The findings from this study provide preliminary evidence that one aspect of executive function (planning) strengthens the spatial-math link. Implications for future research are discussed.

Cognitive Control After ACL Reconstruction: A Cross-Sectional Study on Impaired Proactive Inhibition Compared to Healthy Controls

Background/Objectives: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is common in interaction sports and has severe physical and psychological consequences. Recent research suggests that neurocognitive factors, such as proactive inhibitory control, may influence injury risk. The present work compares the proactive inhibitory performance ability of athletes with no ACL injury and ACL-rehabilitated athletes (ACLR). Methods: This study involved 60 athletes from interaction sports (30 with no history of ACL injury and 30 ACL rehabilitated athletes). During the experimental session, participants performed an executive go-no-go task to assess proactive inhibitory control. Results: The ACLR group exhibited higher adjusted-precision response times (p = 0.011), higher inhibitory failures response times (p < 0.001), poorer accuracy (p = 0.003), and higher commission error rate (p = 0.026) than the group of athletes with no history of ACL injury. Conclusions: Athletes rehabilitated from an ACL injury show inferior performance in proactive inhibitory control, evidenced by lower accuracy and higher reaction times than athletes without a history of injury. Consequently, physiotherapists and exercise professionals should consider cognition during ACL injury rehabilitation and physical retraining before returning to sporting activity.

Examining measurement discrepancies in adolescent screen media activity with insights from the ABCD study

Concerns about the accuracy of self-reported screen time persist due to discrepancies with objective measures. This study compared passive smartphone tracking via the "Effortless Assessment of Risk States'' (EARS) app with self-reported screen time from 495 adolescents. Based on self-reports, 94.26% of social media use occurred on smartphones. EARS-recorded social media use was higher (1.64 ± 1.93 h) than past-year self-report (1.44 ± 1.97 h; p = 0.037) but similar to post-sensing self-report (1.63 ± 1.93 h; p = 0.835). Higher picture vocabulary scores were associated with lower odds of under-reporting social media use (OR = 0.96, 95% CI: 0.93-0.99). Both self-reported (β = 0.06, 95% CI: 0.01-0.11) and EARS (β = 0.07, 95% CI: 0.03-0.12) measures correlated with externalizing symptoms. They were also correlated with social media addiction (self-reported:β = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.10-0.20; EARS:β = 0.06, 95% CI: 0.01-0.11). However, past-year self-report uniquely correlated with internalizing symptoms (β = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.01-0.09) and video game addiction (β = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.01-0.10). These findings highlight the value of integrating self-report and objective measures in screen media use research.

Autism Predicts Performance on iPad-Administered Tests of Executive Functioning in Preschoolers in Mainland China

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether autism diagnostic status (versus neurotypical status) predicts performances on iPad-delivered measures of executive functioning (EF) in mainland Chinese preschoolers. The present study included 21 autistic preschoolers and 28 age- and gender-matched neurotypical preschoolers aged 3-6 years old. Participants were administered tests of visuospatial working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility using the Early Years Toolbox. Results showed that autism predicted poorer performances on tests of working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility in Chinese preschoolers. This study provides support for difficulties with visuospatial working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility in autistic preschoolers in mainland China.

Child Vocabulary and Developmental Growth in Executive Functions During Toddlerhood

Executive functions (EFs) emerge in the first years of life and are essential for many areas of child development. However, intraindividual developmental trajectories of EF during toddlerhood and their associations with ongoing development of language skills remain poorly understood. The present three-wave study examined these trajectories and their associations with language skills. Child EF and vocabulary were assessed around 13, 19, and 28 months of age in a sample of 145 toddlers (51% boys) from mostly White families. At each time point, mothers reported on child receptive and expressive vocabulary, and EF were assessed with three behavioral tasks targeting inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. Multilevel growth models revealed that toddlerhood is a period of significant developmental growth in child inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. The findings also provide evidence for a sustained relation between toddlers' language skills and their ongoing acquisition of inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. This study offers novel insight into intraindividual developmental changes in EF during toddlerhood and the role of language in these meaningful, though neglected, changes.

Executive and Social Functioning in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Comparison to Autism

Executive function is an area of challenge for both children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Parent ratings of everyday executive function relate to a range of outcomes, including social functioning in ASD. Comparisons between FASD and ASD have revealed both overlapping and distinct skills, but have not addressed executive function or its relation to social function. Utilizing parent report, the current study addressed relative strengths and weaknesses across scales of everyday executive function, as well as group differences between FASD and ASD. The association between executive function and social function was also evaluated. Participants with FASD (n = 23) and ASD (n = 18) were preschool and school-age children whose caregivers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF, BRIEF-2, or BRIEF-P) and the Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition. For both groups and all examined executive function scales, scores exceeded the normative mean, indicating challenges. The groups differed significantly on only one executive function scale: working memory. In both groups, executive function was positively correlated with social functioning, even when controlling for nonverbal IQ. The current findings highlight an overlapping association between executive function and social function in FASD and ASD.

Quadratic associations between cardiovascular stress reactivity and development of cool and hot executive functions in adolescents

Stress affects executive functions and exploring the association between stress-induced physiological reactivity and executive functions could highlight the potential mechanism of the stress-cognitive function link. Our study examined the linear and nonlinear associations between cardiovascular stress reactivity and cool and hot executive functions among adolescents. In November 2021 (T1), 273 Chinese adolescents between 11 and 14 (Mage = 12.93, SDage = 0.79) underwent a speech task during which their cardiovascular data were recorded, and they completed a Flanker task and an Emotional Stroop task. In May 2023 (T2), 253 adolescents again completed the Flanker and Emotional Stroop tasks. Cool and hot executive functions were assessed using the intra-individual reaction time variability of the Flanker task and Emotional Stroop task, respectively. Results showed that cardiovascular stress reactivity was positively linearly associated with cool executive functions at T1 and quadratically (inverted U-shaped) associated with cool executive functions at T1 and hot executive functions at T1 and T2. These findings suggest that compared to very high and very low cardiovascular reactivity, moderate to high cardiovascular reactivity to a structured social challenge is associated with better cool and hot executive functions.

Modeling the Latent Factor Structure of the "EXcEEDS" (EXecutive function Early Evaluation in Down Syndrome) Battery

Executive function (EF) is frequently an area of vulnerability in conditions associated with intellectual disability, like Down syndrome (DS). However, current EF evaluation approaches are not designed for children with underlying neurodevelopmental conditions and may not demonstrate construct validity due to interpretational confounds. The current study evaluated the construct validity of a novel battery designed to reduce measurement confounds in the assessment of EF in young children with DS. Participants were 124 children with DS (ages 2 to 8 years) who completed a set of adapted EF tasks. Exploratory graph analysis demonstrated that a two-factor solution (an Inhibition factor and a Working Memory/Flexibility factor) was the best fit for the data, providing evidence of construct validity for the adapted EF battery.

Early childhood trauma exposure and neurocognitive and emotional processes: Associations in young children in a partial hospital program

Early childhood trauma has been linked to neurocognitive and emotional processing deficits in older children, yet much less is known about these associations in young children. Early childhood is an important developmental period in which to examine relations between trauma and executive functioning/emotion reactivity, given that these capacities are rapidly developing and are potential transdiagnostic factors implicated in the development of psychopathology. This cross-sectional study examined associations between cumulative trauma, interpersonal trauma, and components of executive functioning, episodic memory, and emotion reactivity, conceptualized using the RDoC framework and assessed with observational and performance-based measures, in a sample of 90 children (ages 4-7) admitted to a partial hospital program. Children who had experienced two or more categories of trauma had lower scores in episodic memory, global cognition, and inhibitory control as measured in a relational (but not computerized) task, when compared to children with less or no trauma. Interpersonal trauma was similarly associated with global cognition and relational inhibitory control. Family contextual factors did not moderate associations. Findings support examining inhibitory control in both relationally significant and decontextualized paradigms in early childhood, and underscore the importance of investigating multiple neurocognitive and emotional processes simultaneously to identify potential targets for early intervention.

Positional Differences in Youth Water Polo Players: Cognitive Functions, Specific Swimming Capacities and Anthropometric Characteristics

Objectives: Water polo players ought to possess various physical capacities and well-developed cognitive functions that reflect the requirements of their specific playing position. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the cognitive performance, anthropometric characteristics and specific swimming capacities of youth water polo players in different playing positions. Methods: The present cross-sectional study involved 106 youth water polo players. The subjects were recruited as part of a project for talent identification and selection for the Croatian National Water Polo Team. Testing included anthropometric measurements, specific swimming capacities and cognitive performance (Stroop test). Results: Among the 106 youth water polo players, there were 15 goalkeepers (14.2%), 21 center-defenders (19.8%), 17 center-forwards (16.0%), 34 drivers (32.1%) and 19 wings (17.9%), with the mean age of 14.14 ± 0.38 years. The wings performed faster than center-forwards in both StroopOff time (wings: 57.14 ± 10.04 s vs. center-forwards: 67.03 ± 9.72 s, p = 0.016) and StroopOn time (wings: 66.18 ± 15.86 s vs. center-forwards: 80.24 ± 15.64 s, p = 0.019). Conclusions: In conclusion, this study demonstrated significant differences between different playing positions in youth water polo players, specifically between center-forwards and wings. They performed faster than center-forwards in all tested variables of the Stroop test, measures of psychomotor ability, response inhibition and motor speed, as well as in specific swimming capacities measured in the 50 m crawl and the 400 m crawl. The results of this study provide a valuable foundation for establishing developmental recommendations for different playing positions, aimed at improving player's performance. These recommendations should take into account anthropometric characteristics, specific functional swimming capacities and cognitive functions that influence players' game intelligence, which can be enhanced through properly designed training programs.

Agreement between the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks and the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery in theassessment of PKU patients and healthy controls

BACKGROUND

Several neuropsychological testing batteries have been used to assess and monitor neurocognitive functioning in healthy individuals and patients. Two of these test batteries, the Amsterdam Neuropsychological Tasks (ANT) and the Cambridge Neuropsychological Automated Test Battery (CANTAB), have indicated impairments in early- and continuously treated phenylketonuria (PKU) patients. However, the tasks of these batteries have never been cross-validated. This study aims to establish the comparability of the two test batteries in the assessment and monitoring of PKU patients and healthy controls.

METHODS

22 PKU patients and 19 controls of various ages (7-67 years old) were tested twice, once using tasks from the ANT and once using tasks from the CANTAB. Tasks of the two batteries were matched based on the neurocognitive functions they (were deemed to) assess, including motor skills, emotion recognition, sustained attention and executive functions (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility). Correlation matrices were used to assess the specificity of the correlations between tasks assigned to similar skills, versus non-related tasks.

RESULTS

Correlations between matched tasks from the ANT and CANTAB ranged from moderate to strong (range ρ: 0.50-0.84, P < 0.001), with strong correlations (ρ > 0.70) for emotion recognition, cognitive flexibility and sustained attention. These correlations remained significant after correcting for age. The strongest correlations were generally found between tasks assigned to require similar skills a-priori, validating the matching between tasks.

CONCLUSION

Overall, there was a good level of agreement between ANT and CANTAB tasks, especially in emotion recognition, sustained attention and the broad construct of executive functioning. These results suggest that a number of ANT and CANTAB tasks assessing the same functions may be used and interpreted interchangeably, which would support a better integration of neuropsychological research in PKU.

EuleApp©: a computerized adaptive assessment tool for early literacy skills

Introduction

Ample evidence indicates that assessing children's early literacy skills is crucial for later academic success. This assessment enables the provision of necessary support and materials while engaging them in the culture of print and books before school entry. However, relatively few assessment tools are available to identify early literacy skills, such as concepts of print, print awareness, phonological awareness, word awareness, alphabet knowledge, and early reading. The digital landscape presents new opportunities to enhance these assessments and provide enriching early literacy experiences. This study examines the psychometric properties of an adaptive assessment tool, EuLeApp©, focusing on its reliability and concurrent validity.

Methods

Data involved 307 German kindergarten children (Mage = 64 months old, range = 45-91). A Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) method, grounded in Item Response Theory (IRT), was employed to develop an adaptive digital tool for assessing early literacy competencies. We utilized an automatic item selection procedure based on item difficulty and discrimination parameters for the 183-item pool to ensure a precise and efficient assessment tailored to each child's ability level.

Results

The 4-parameter Logistic (4PL) model was identified as the best-fitting model for adaptive assessment, providing the highest precision in estimating children's abilities within this framework.

Discussions

The findings support the idea that the adaptive digital-based assessment tool EuLeApp© can be used to assess early literacy skills. It also provides a foundation for offering individualized and adaptable learning opportunities embedded in daily routines in daycare centers.

How Is the Digital Age Shaping Young Minds? A Rapid Systematic Review of Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Exposure to ICT

Objectives: This review assesses how daily exposure to Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) affects executive functions in children and adolescents and explores the roles of parents in mitigating potential negative impacts on cognitive development and emotional regulation. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search was conducted from 2022 to 2024 using PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library. The study criteria included cohort studies, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, and systematic reviews. Data extraction and risk-of-bias assessments were performed using ROBIS and ROBINS-E tools. Due to the heterogeneity of the results, a narrative synthesis was carried out. Results: Ten studies were included for analysis, comprising a total of 231,117 children from nine countries on three continents. Most studies indicated that excessive ICT exposure negatively affects executive functions, particularly working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and attention. Adverse effects were linked to increased screen time, poor sleep quality, and multitasking. However, two studies found no significant association, highlighting the influence of contextual factors like socioeconomic status, parental mediation, and screen content type. Shared ICT use with parents or siblings appeared to reduce negative effects. Conclusions: Excessive ICT exposure is associated with impaired executive function development in children and adolescents. Parental supervision and structured ICT use may mitigate risks. Future research should investigate moderating factors, such as socioeconomic status and ICT content, to develop guidelines for healthy digital engagement in youth.

Associations of Prenatal Socioeconomic Status and Childhood Working Memory: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

OBJECTIVE

To determine if prenatal socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with childhood working memory (WM), we constructed a more precise, integrative measure of WM using variables from multiple tasks that may provide a more representative measure of WM.

STUDY DESIGN

We used data from a prospective birth cohort study in Mexico City, Mexico, with N = 515 children aged 6-9 years. Prenatal SES was measured using the Mexican Association of Marketing Research and Public Opinion Agencies (AMAI) index. We created a latent variable for nonverbal working memory using multiple tasks (Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery spatial working memory, operant chamber Delayed Match to Sample and Incremental Repeated Acquisition). Structural equation models were used to assess associations between prenatal SES and nonverbal working memory, adjusting for child demographics (e.g., age and sex), prenatal exposures (e.g., exposures to lead, arsenic, and secondhand smoke), and family (current SES, maternal IQ) variables.

RESULTS

Children had a mean age of 6.6 years [SD 0.6], and 50.5% were boys. Using confirmatory factor analysis, we constructed a latent variable of nonverbal working memory, which was measurement invariant across child sex. Prenatal SES was associated with childhood nonverbal working memory (standardized factor loading = 0.17; p = 0.004). These associations were modified by child sex. Higher prenatal SES was significantly associated with higher childhood WM in females (standardized factor loading = 0.26; p = 0.002), but not in males.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal socioeconomic status is a predictor of childhood working memory, but it may be a stronger predictor for girls compared with for boys.

The effect of time pressure and ego depletion on young children's helping behavior

Based on the theory of limited cognitive resources and the dual-process theory, this study explores the mechanisms by which time pressure (an external factor) and ego depletion (an internal factor) affect helping behavior in children aged 4 to 6 years through two experiments. Experiment 1 (n = 153, M = 5.42 years, SD = 0.71) examined the impact of time pressure on children's helping behavior, while Experiment 2 (n = 221, M = 5.41 years, SD = 0.76) investigated the role of ego depletion. The results revealed that both time pressure and ego depletion significantly inhibited children's helping behavior, with notable age-related differences in these effects: the helping behavior of 4- and 5-year-old children was significantly reduced under conditions of time pressure and resource depletion, whereas 6-year-old children demonstrated greater resistance to these disruptions. These findings suggest that children's helping behavior relies more on the cognitive processing of the deliberative system rather than the automatic responses of the intuitive system. Furthermore, as children grow older, they gradually develop more effective cognitive resource regulation abilities to counteract the negative effects of resource depletion.

Charting brain functional development from birth to 6 years of age

Early childhood is crucial for brain functional development. Using advanced neuroimaging methods, characterizing functional connectivity has shed light on the developmental process in infants. However, insights into spatiotemporal functional maturation from birth to early childhood are substantially lacking. In this study, we aggregated 1,091 resting-state functional MRI scans of typically developing children from birth to 6 years of age, harmonized the cohort and imaging-state-related bias, and delineated developmental charts of functional connectivity within and between canonical brain networks. These charts revealed potential neurodevelopmental milestones and elucidated the complex development of brain functional integration, competition and transition processes. We further determined that individual deviations from normative growth charts are significantly associated with infant cognitive abilities. Specifically, connections involving the primary, default, control and attention networks were key predictors. Our findings elucidate early neurodevelopment and suggest that functional connectivity-derived brain charts may provide an effective tool to monitor normative functional development.

Effects of exercise intervention on executive function in children with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Weight control in children depends on executive function. Previous studies have shown that exercise interventions can effectively improve children's executive function. However, the effects of these interventions on children with overweight and obesity remain unclear and require further investigation. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on executive function-related indicators in children with overweight and obesity.

Methods

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of exercise interventions on executive functions in children with overweight and obesity were included by searching PubMed, Web of Science, EMbase, Cochrane Library, ProQuest, Scopus, CNKI, China Wanfang, and VIP databases. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool. RevMan 5.4 software was used for effect size pooling, forest plot creation, and subgroup analyses. Stata 16.0 software was employed for publication bias testing and sensitivity analysis. The evidence levels of the results were evaluated using the GRADEpro tool.

Results

This meta-analysis included a total of 13 studies. The results indicate that exercise interventions may help improve executive functions in children with overweight and obesity. Specifically, inhibitory control (standardized mean (SMD) = -0.59, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-0.89 to -0.29], Z = 3.85, P < 0.001) and cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.54, 95% CI [-1.06 to -0.01], Z = 2.01, P < 0.05) showed moderate effect sizes. Working memory exhibited a smaller effect size (SMD = 0.40, 95% CI [-0.69 to -0.10], Z = 2.61, P < 0.01), while attention did not show significant improvement (SMD = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.39 to 0.65], Z = 0.50, P > 0.05).

Conclusion

The results of this meta-analysis indicate that exercise interventions have significant benefits for inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in children with overweight and obesity, but the impact on attention is not significant. Moreover, the effects of inhibitory control interventions are influenced by exercise duration, exercise intensity, exercise type, and age.

Symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and emotional behavioral problems: The mediating effect of executive function

The aim was to investigate the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and emotional behavioral problems, with focus on studying the mediating effect of executive function. A total of 240 children with ADHD aged 6-10 years old participated. They all met the diagnostic criteria for ADHD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition. SPSS 26.0 was used for statistical analysis. Mean interpolation was used to interpolate missing values of a small number of questionnaire items. One-way analysis of variance was used for comparison between multiple groups. Pearson correlation analysis was used for correlation between variables. The results of this study showed that inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity scores of children with ADHD were positively correlated with the scores of emotional and behavioral problems (EBPs), that is, the more severe the attention deficit and hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms were, the more severe the EBPs were. The hyperactivity-impulsivity score of children with ADHD positively predicted their behavioral regulation index (BMI) and metacognition index (MI) scores. The BMI score positively predicted the emotional and behavioral problem scores of children with ADHD, while the MI score had no statistically significant predictive effect on the emotional and behavioral problem scores of children with ADHD. These findings suggest that interventions targeting executive function-particularly behavioral regulation-may help mitigate emotional and behavioral difficulties in children with ADHD.

Brief Report: Longitudinal Trajectory of Working Memory in School-Aged Children on the Autism Spectrum: Period of High Plasticity and "Late Bloomers"

PURPOSE

While working memory (WM) is a powerful predictor for children's school outcomes, autistic children are more likely to experience delays. This study compared autistic children and their neurotypical peers' WM development over their elementary school years, including relative growth and period of plasticity.

METHODS

Using a nationally-representative dataset, latent growth models were built to examine periods of high plasticity and the relationship between children's performance upon school entry and their relative growth.

RESULTS

While both groups made steeper gains during the early school years, autistic children's period of highest plasticity was prolonged by 1 year, which suggests a larger window for interventions. Further, autistic children who started kindergarten with poorer WM were more likely to make rapid growth during the last 3 years of elementary school, which is when their neurotypical peers' development started to plateau.

CONCLUSION

Findings should prompt various stakeholders to examine interventions and instructions to maximize autistic children's growth in WM. Further, the continued support and monitoring by educators throughout autistic children's late childhood can be particularly beneficial for the "late-bloomers."

Developmental change of prefrontal cortex activity during handwriting tasks in children and adults

BACKGROUND

The relationship between handwriting and executive function has been explored in numerous studies. However, limited research has focused on the relationship between handwriting and prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity, which underpins executive function and writing processes. Additionally, differences in frontal lobe activity during writing between adults and children remain inadequately understood. This study aimed to investigate developmental changes in the prefrontal cortex and their neural basis during writing activities in children and adults.

METHODS

In this study, a pen tablet and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) were used to compare adult and pediatric writing dynamics and PFC function during two writing activities. The stimuli consisted of two line-drawing tasks designed to minimize linguistic influence, with two conditions (trace and predict) applied to each task. PFC activation was examined across the right, middle, and left regions. Oxygenated brain activity was quantified by converting oxygenated hemoglobin values obtained from fNIRS to z-scores.

RESULTS

The line length, an index of writing dynamics, was consistently shorter in children compared to adults across all tasks and conditions. Regarding brain function, the right PFC exhibited greater activation in adults during the predictive periodic line pattern drawing condition.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the lateralization of the right PFC plays a critical role in the development of executive function, which is integral to writing development.

Successful comparisons in novel word generalization: Executive functions or semantic knowledge?

Recent studies indicate that the opportunity to compare several stimuli associated with the same novel object noun, in contrast to a single stimulus design, promotes generalization along conceptually unifying dimensions. In two experiments (N = 240 4- and 5-year-olds), we assessed the link between executive functions and vocabulary (EVIP, a French version [Canadian norms] of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), on the one hand, and children's novel word generalization performance in a comparison design, on the other. The experiments used two types of materials: unfamiliar objects in Experiment 1 and familiar objects in Experiment 2. In both experiments, results revealed a significant association between generalization performance and flexibility, whereas no significant links were observed with inhibition, working memory, or vocabulary. For familiar objects, we anticipated that vocabulary would play a more significant role, which was not what was observed. We interpret these results in terms of children's capacity to shift to other dimensions or to re-describe stimuli. Working memory (i.e., keeping track of dimensions) and inhibition (e.g., inhibiting irrelevant salient dimensions) did not reach significance. We also discuss the absence of correlation between vocabulary and the generalization task.

Executive functions assessment in very preterm children at school age: A pilot study about a clinical and experimental approach

While the survival rate of very preterm (VPT) infants has increased in the last decades, they are still at risk of developing long-term neurodevelopmental impairments, especially regarding self-regulatory abilities, and goal-directed behaviors. These skills rely on executive functions (EFs), an umbrella term encompassing the core capacities for inhibition, shifting, and working memory. Existing comprehensive tests are time-consuming and therefore not suitable for all pediatric neuropsychological assessments. The Flanker task is an experimental computer game having the advantage to last less than ten minutes while giving multiple EFs measures. Here, we tested the potency of this task in thirty-one VPT children aged 8-10 years during their clinical assessment. First, we found that VPT children performed in the norm for most clinical tests (i.e., WISC-V, BRIEF, and NEPSY) except for the CPT-3 where they were slower with more omission errors, which could indicate inattentiveness. Second, some Flanker task scores were correlated with standardized clinical testing without resisting to multiple comparisons correction. Finally, compared to full-term children, VPT children showed poorer performance in global EFs measure and lower accuracy in the Flanker task. These findings suggest that this child-friendly version of the Flanker task demonstrated a reasonable sensitivity in capturing EFs with good discrimination between VPT and term children despite VPT children's mild difficulties. It may represent a promising tool for neuropsychological assessments and be suitable as a screening test, providing further validating larger studies. Moreover, while VPT schoolchildren globally display normal intelligence, subtle difficulties that seem to relate to EFs are observed.

Executive functions in inductive and deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning share common cognitive abilities and develop substantially during childhood, but still which executive functions (EFs) underlie this development is debated. The current study assessed three EFs-working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility-and examined their interrelations and their relationship with inductive and deductive reasoning. To examine how these types of reasoning and EFs relate in young children, we recruited 155 children (4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-year-olds) to complete two reasoning tasks and three EF tasks. Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning were directly predicted by working memory and were indirectly predicted by inhibition and cognitive flexibility. This finding sheds light on the predictive role of working memory for both inductive and deductive reasoning and provides support for the shared cognitive relation between them.

Parenting, self-regulation, and sleep in young children at-risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

OBJECTIVE

Young children at-risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often experience sleep problems, which may exacerbate ADHD symptoms and related impairment. Yet, little is known about modifiable factors associated with the maintenance of sleep problems. This study examined the relationships among parenting practices, behavioral self-regulation skills, and sleep functioning in young children at-risk for ADHD.

METHODS

Caregivers (94.2% female; 82.6% White) of 121 young children at-risk for ADHD (Mage = 4.04 years; 70.2% male; 71.9% White; 20.3% Hispanic) completed measures of parenting practices and child sleep. Children completed a lab-based task that measured behavioral self-regulation skills. Only pre-treatment data (before the delivery of behavioral parent education) were used for the study.

RESULTS

Greater use of adaptive parenting strategies, but not child behavioral self-regulation, was associated with decreased bedtime resistance after controlling for caregivers' marital status and education level. Additionally, adaptive parenting strategies moderated the relationship between child behavioral self-regulation and sleep distress, such that children with low behavioral self-regulation experienced less sleep distress when caregivers utilized more adaptive parenting strategies compared to caregivers who utilized less adaptive parenting strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

For pediatric health providers working with families with young children at-risk for ADHD presenting with sleep problems, psychoeducation on adaptive parenting practices as well as encouraging parents to utilize these strategies may potentially improve child sleep functioning.

Self-Regulation and Academic Learning in Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Links to School Engagement and Levels of Autism Characteristics

Children with autism spectrum disorder often demonstrate self-regulation challenges and academic difficulties. Although self-regulation has been well documented as an important factor for academic achievement in neurotypical children, little is known about how it is related to academic learning in autistic children, especially during preschool, a critical developmental period for both emergent academic skills and self-regulatory abilities. It is also unclear whether school engagement or autism characteristics influence the relation between self-regulation and academic learning in autistic children during preschool. Thirty-two autistic preschoolers participated in this study. Direct measures and parent reports were used to measure three dimensions of self-regulation, including executive function, effortful control, and emotion regulation. Classroom-based data from multiple academic programs were used to reflect their average rates of achieving new literacy and mathematics learning goals. Teachers reported the participants' levels of school engagement, and their autism characteristics were measured directly. Emotion regulation was significantly linked to the rate of meeting literacy learning goals in autistic preschoolers, whereas multiple executive function skills, including inhibitory and attentional control and working memory, were associated with their mathematics learning rate. Emotion regulation demonstrated a stronger association with literacy learning when autistic children were more engaged in classroom activities. Levels of autism characteristics did not mediate or moderate the association between self-regulation and academic learning. Future interventions and teaching should consider fostering self-regulation and facilitating school engagement for autistic preschoolers besides targeting their learning performance on specific academic content to promote their current and future academic success.

Effects of aging on experimentally induced pain perception during a distraction task

To investigate the effects of psychological (anxiety, depression, pain catastrophizing) aspects, pain sensitivity, cognitive performance and executive functions, on pain perception during a distraction task in an acute pain laboratory in young and elderly adults. Twenty-six young (age: 20.0 ± 1.6 years) and thirty-three elderly (age: 68.0 ± 3.8 years) adults completed four self-reported questionnaires (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-HADS, Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale-20-PASS/20, Pain Catastrophizing Scale-PCS, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index-PSQI), pressure pain thresholds (PPTs), a battery of executive functions (working memory, cognitive flexibility, mental inhibition), and attention levels before performing two distraction tasks (1-back, 2-back). Pain was experimentally induced with a thermal stimulus applied at the non-dominant forearm to provoke moderate pain (70/100 points) before and during the distraction tasks. Age (young, elderly), psychological and psychophysical variables, and neurocognitive test performance levels (low, medium, high) were included in separate ANCOVAs to compare pain intensity at baseline and during distraction tasks. All ANOVAs revealed a main effect of distraction task, indicating that perceived pain intensity scores were lower during both distraction tasks (p < 0.001) compared to baseline. Overall, there was no significant effect of age on perceived pain intensity after distraction tasks, except for an interaction effect between the distraction task and age group depending on PPTs levels (F [2,49] = 3.7, p = 0.03). Elderly adults (with higher PPTs) reported lower perceived pain intensity during both distraction tasks compared to younger adults (lower PPTs). This study found that the hypoalgesic effect of a distraction task is not directly associated with age or neurocognitive function and attention levels in pain-free subjects, but it was related with higher PPTs (lower pressure pain hyperalgesia).

Language and executive function in Mandarin-speaking deaf and hard-of-hearing children aged 3-5

The study aimed to explore spoken language and executive function (EF) characteristics in 3-5-year-old prelingually deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children, and evaluate the impact of demographic variables and EF on spoken language skills. 48 DHH children and 48 typically developing children who use auditory-oral communication were recruited. All participants underwent EF tests, including auditory working memory (WM), inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and the EF performance reported by parents. Using Mandarin Clinical Evaluation of Language for Preschoolers (MCELP), vocabulary comprehension, sentence comprehension, vocabulary naming, sentence structure imitation, and story narration were evaluated only in the DHH group, and their results were compared with the typical developmental level provided by MCELP. Results showed that DHH children exhibit deficiencies in different spoken language domains and EF components. While the spoken language skills of DHH children tend to improve as they age, a growing proportion of individuals fail to reach the typical developmental level. The spoken language ability in DHH children was positively correlated with age and EFs, and negatively correlated with aided hearing threshold, while auditory WM could positively predict their spoken language performance.

Preliminary psychometric properties of an inhibition task in young children with Down syndrome

Background: Executive function (EF) skills are important treatment targets for people with Down syndrome (DS); however, few EF measures have been evaluated for use with young children in this population. Methods: The present study evaluated preliminary psychometric properties of a measure of the EF component of inhibition. Participants were 73 children with DS between 2.5 and 8.67 years old who completed an adapted ability to delay task using a desirable toy. Results: Across two separate trials, latencies to touch the toys were significantly correlated. Latencies increased overall with chronological and mental age, with caveats for the youngest and oldest participants. Conclusion: Findings suggest that an adapted prohibition task is an appropriate method of measuring inhibition for children with DS between 4 and 7 years old, though many children in this chronological age range are at early stages of acquiring this skill set.

Effects of different types of chronic physical activities and sports on executive functions among children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This meta-analysis aimed to examine the effects of various types of chronic physical activities (PA) and sports interventions on executive functions (EF) in children and adolescents, comparing the effectiveness of cognitive engagement, frequency and intensity, and combined factors. A search of PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycInfo databases identified 30 randomized clinical trials (RCTs) with 93 comparisons, exploring the impact of chronic PA on EF subdomains (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility). Publication bias was assessed using funnel plots and statistical indices. Results showed that cognitively enriched PA and combined interventions had statistically significant but trivial effects on EF, with considerable variability. Specific PA subtypes, such as high-frequency, high-intensity activities and coordination games, resulted in small to moderate improvements in EF. PA interventions had a small significant impact on working memory, a trivial effect on cognitive flexibility, and no effect on inhibitory control. While both qualitative and quantitative elements in PA interventions produced statistically significant effects on EF, their practical significance was limited. This limitation persisted across specific PA subtypes. The study suggests future research focus on cognitively enriched activities to explore the various qualitative elements influencing cognitive function in these subtypes.

The Longitudinal Relationship Between Diet Quality and Executive Functioning Development of Hispanic Preschoolers in Houston, Texas

BACKGROUND

Diet quality has been found to be related to cognitive health in school-aged children. However, this relationship remains understudied among Hispanic preschool-aged children, who are vulnerable to poor dietary habits and low cognitive development due to socioeconomic, cultural, and structural disparities.

OBJECTIVE

This longitudinal study evaluated whether the diet quality of preschool-aged children would be associated with executive functions (EFs) in later childhood.

DESIGN

This is a secondary analysis of a longitudinal study of Hispanic preschool-aged children (age 4 and 5 years) at baseline (Time 1) and 18 months (Time 2).

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

This study included 185 mother-child dyads with complete data at Time 1, recruited through Head Start centers in Houston, TX, beginning in 2011.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Mothers reported on their child's dietary intake via 3 24-hour recalls, which was used to calculate Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2010 component and total scores. Laboratory tasks assessed cold EFs (tapping and Flexible Item Selection Tasks) and hot EFs (delay of gratification and gift-wrapping tasks). Whereas higher scores on tapping, Flexible Item Selection Task, and delay of gratification tasks represent a high EF, higher scores in gift-wrapping task represent a low EF.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Hierarchical linear regression analyses assessed the relationship between diet quality, as measured by HEI-2010 total and component scores, at Time 1 (independent variables) and EF outcomes (dependent variables) at Time 2, controlling for child sex, age, body mass index z score, and EF at Time 1.

RESULTS

HEI-2010 component score for fatty acids (b = -.13; P = .04) and seafood and plant proteins (b = .09; P = .05), were respectively related to later cold and hot EFs of Hispanic preschool-aged children. Other HEI components or the overall score did not predict EFs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that specific HEI components support cold and hot EFs development among Hispanic preschool-aged children, but total HEI-2010 score does not. Experimental research is needed to assess the influence of dietary interventions on cognitive development of Hispanic preschool-aged children.

The role of executive function in the processing and acquisition of syntax

Language acquisition is multifaceted, relying on cognitive and social abilities in addition to language-specific skills. We hypothesized that executive function (EF) may assist language development by enabling children to revise misinterpretations during online processing, encode language input more accurately and/or learn non-canonical sentence structures like the passive better over time. One hundred and twenty Dutch preschoolers each completed three sessions of testing (pre-test, exposure and post-test). During pre-test and post-test, we measured their comprehension of passive sentences and performance in three EF tasks. In the exposure session, we tracked children's eye movements as they listened to passive (and other) sentences. Each child was also assessed for short-term memory and receptive language. Multiple regression evaluated the relationship between EF and online processing and longer-term learning. EF predicted online revision accuracy, while controlling for receptive language, prior passive knowledge and short-term memory, consistent with theories linking EF to the revision of misinterpretations. EF was also associated with longer-term learning, but the results could not disentangle EF from receptive language. These findings broadly support a role for EF in language acquisition, including a specific role in revision during sentence processing and potentially other roles that depend on reciprocal interaction between EF and receptive language.

The limitations and challenges in the assessment of executive dysfunction associated with real-world functioning: The opportunity of serious games

Nowadays, there is a broad range of methods for detecting and evaluating executive dysfunction ranging from clinical interview to neuropsychological evaluation. Nevertheless, a critical issue of these assessments is the lack of correspondence of the neuropsychological test's results with real-world functioning. This paper proposes serious games as a new framework to improve the neuropsychological assessment of real-world functioning. We briefly discuss the contribution and limitations of current methods of evaluation of executive dysfunction (paper-and-pencil tests, naturalistic observation methods, and Information and Communications Technologies) to inform on daily life functioning. Then, we analyze what are the limitations of these methods to predict real-world performance: (1) A lack of appropriate instruments to investigate the complexity of real-world functioning, (2) the vast majority of neuropsychological tests assess well-structured tasks, and (3) measurement of behaviors are based on simplistic data collection and statistical analysis. This work shows how serious games offer an opportunity to develop more efficient tools to detect executive dysfunction in everyday life contexts. Serious games provide meaningful narrative stories and virtual or real environments that immerse the user in natural and social environments with social interactions. In those highly interactive game environments, the player needs to adapt his/her behavioral performance to novel and ill-structured tasks which are suited for collecting user interaction evidence. Serious games offer a novel opportunity to develop better tools to improve diagnosis of the executive dysfunction in everyday life contexts. However, more research is still needed to implement serious games in everyday clinical practice.

The impact of gestational age on executive function in infancy and early-to-middle childhood following preterm birth: a systematic review

Lower gestational age (GA) is a risk factor for cognitive and developmental concerns following preterm birth. However, its impact on executive function (EF) is unclear based on conflicting conclusions across the literature. Moreover, as children below 4 years have largely been neglected from previous reviews, the impact of GA on EF within this early developmental period remains unclear. Hence, this systematic review investigated the impact of GA on EF following preterm birth in infancy and early-to-middle childhood. PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycInfo were searched for articles investigating the impact of GA on EF (inhibition, working memory, shifting) in preterm-born (<37 week gestation) and term-born participants aged 0-10 years. Eighteen studies were included. Most of the studies (n = 10) found no significant association between EF and GA. However, several limitations hindered conclusions to be drawn about the strength of this interpretation. Examples include inconsistencies in the theoretical underpinnings and operationalisations of EF, discrepancies in the reporting and measurement of GA, recruitment biases, and a paucity of infant or longitudinal studies available. Consequently, these issues may have contributed to inconsistent or null findings, and they must be addressed in future research to better clarify the impact of GA on EF in preterm-born infants and children.

How Do Components of Executive Function Relate to Taiwanese Sixth Graders' Mathematical Skills?

Executive functions are crucially important for helping to explain children's mathematical performances. We investigated the relationships between components of executive functions and different aspects of mathematical ability in young school-aged Taiwanese children. In a cross-sectional design, a typically developing group of 122 sixth-grade students completed tests battery of working memory (WM), inhibition, and set-shifting tests, and a measure of achievement competence in mathematical concepts, computation, and applied problems. We found significant associations between general intellectual ability, working memory, inhibition, and set-shifting, and between these abilities and different mathematical skills. Verbal and spatial WM was positively correlated with different mathematical skills, and inhibition and set-shifting were positively correlated with mathematical performance to a lesser extent. We conducted partial correlation analyses to control for participants' age, socioeconomic status, and processing speed, and we then found that verbal and spatial WM was related to the math domains of concepts, computation, and applied problems. Meanwhile, inhibition was correlated with the domain of applied problems. Regression analyses revealed that varied domains of mathematical skills were best predicted by a general intelligence index (GAI) and verbal working memory (WM). Inhibition predicted better performance in applied problems. We discuss the limitations and implications of these findings, as they provide important information about the specific associations between aspects of executive function and components of mathematics performance in middle childhood.

Motor activities and executive functions in early adolescence after hypothermia-treated neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy

AIM

To explore the relationship between motor activities and executive functions (EF) in children (aged 10-12 years) with a history of neonatal hypothermia-treated hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Forty-five children (mean age 11 years) with a history of neonatal hypothermia-treated HIE in Stockholm (2007-2009) were included in this cross-sectional study. The children were assessed with Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-V (WISC-V). Their parents completed Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2 (BRIEF-2), Five to Fifteen-R, and MABC-2 Checklist.

RESULTS

Associations between motor capacity and EF, specifically Processing Speed, Working Memory, Flexibility, and Inhibition, were detected. Children scoring below the 15th percentile on MABC-2 had weaker EF, evident in Cognitive Proficiency Index from WISC-V (t43 = 2.515, p = 0.016) and a higher mean Global Executive Composition Score from BRIEF-2 (t43 = -2.890, p = 0.006). Children with stronger EF exhibited better motor capacity. Parental questionnaires indicated everyday difficulties in 52% of the children.

CONCLUSIONS

Weaker EF were associated with difficulties in motor activities in early adolescence following hypothermia-treated HIE. These results highlight the importance of evaluating both motor activities and EF to understand children's everyday challenges.

Increasing specificity in ADHD genetic association studies during childhood: use of the oxytocin-vasopressin pathway in attentional processes suggests specific mechanism for endophenotypes in the 2004 Pelotas birth (Brazil) cohort

Attentional executive functions, representing a set of self-regulatory cognitive skills, can be a potential Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) endophenotype useful for exploring the huge heterogeneity associated to the disorder. Specific biological pathways like the oxytocin-vasopressin pathway (OT-AVP) can unreel ADHD polygenicity. Here, we test the association between genome-wide ADHD polygenic score (PGS) (ADHD-PGS) and both ADHD symptoms and attentional executive functions in the participants of the 2004 Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort study (N = 4231). We also investigated whether the OT-AVP genomic pathway (OT/AVPADHD-PGS) is involved in the etiology of ADHD and whether it influences the specificity of attentional functions. ADHD symptoms were assessed through the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the attentional executive functions were evaluated by the Test-of-Everyday-Attention-for-Children (TEA-Ch) at 11 years follow-up. The ADHD-PGS and OT/AVPADHD-PGS were constructed based on the most recent ADHD GWAS meta-analytic statistics. The OT/AVPADHD-PGS included only functional relevant genes for the pathway using KEGG repository. ADHD-PGS was associated with ADHD symptoms and attentional control/switching domain. OT/AVPADHD-PGS showed an enrichment for selective attention domain [number of targets (β = - 0.09, 95% CI = - 0.17; - 0.02, competitive-P = 0.025); attention score (β = 0.11, 95% CI = 0.001; 0.23, competitive-P = 0.050), and in attentional control/switching domain [verbal processing speed (β = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.05; 0.50, competitive-P = 0.041); attentional control (β = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.12; 0.73, competitive-P = 0.033). Our results show a specific role of the OT/AVP pathway in attentional executive functions and suggest that increasing both phenotypic and genetic specificity is of great value. These findings have clinical relevance since OT/AVP have a role in attention toward social cues and shared attentions, which are impaired in children with ADHD.

Validity and reliability of the executive function scale in Cuban university student

Introduction

Executive functions are higher cognitive skills involved in planning, organization, decision-making, impulse control, and working memory. It is essential to have tools that allow for the accurate and reliable assessment of this construct in university students. This study aims to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Executive Functions Scale for University Students (UEF-1) in the Cuban population.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in which an online survey was administered to 1,092 Cuban university students representing 14 of the country's 16 provinces. Descriptive analyses, confirmatory factor analyses, and Pearson correlation analyses were used to assess the psychometric properties of the scale.

Results

Significant correlations were obtained between the scale factors, and the original seven-factor structure was confirmed. The scale demonstrated good internal consistency and overall reliability (α = 0.91, ω = 0.91).

Conclusion

The study provided evidence that the UEF-1 is a reliable and valid tool for assessing executive functions in Cuban university students. This measure provides a comprehensive understanding of the cognitive abilities and functioning of Cuban university students, allowing for the identification of specific areas of executive functioning that may benefit from additional support or intervention.

The prediction of emotional decision making from working memory and inhibitory control in preschool children: using decision tree model

While there is a theoretical distinction between cool (cognitive) and hot (emotional) executive functions, potential relationships can be identified between tasks associated with these two aspects. A decision tree serves as a model for training and analyzing data, predicting the target variable based on independent variables in a hierarchical fashion. In contrast to other predictive methods, this model doesn't necessitate statistical expertise and makes decisions akin to human decision-making through hierarchical "if" and "then" rules, providing an easily interpretable framework. To date, no studies have explored the relationship between cool and hot executive functions using decision tree models. In this study, preschool children specifically Persian-speaking Iranian children aged 4 to 5 years (N = 71, M age = 59.07; SD = 6.03), participated in cool (Forward Digit Span, Backward Digit Span, Day-Night inhibitory control, and Happy-Sad Inhibitory control) and hot (Children Gambling Task) executive function tasks. Analyses were performed using MATLAB programming software. The C4.5 version of the decision tree was employed to predict the final CGT blocks' scores using scores from cool executive function tasks as inputs. By employing this method, a minimal prediction error (approaching zero) was achieved, significantly showing the robust predictive capability of cool executive function in anticipating hot executive function. This outcome suggests potential relationships between the cognitive and emotional aspects of executive function.

The Impact of Physical Activity and Screen Time on Motor Creativity in Kindergarteners

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Motor creativity and physical activity are essential to early childhood development, impacting physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. This study investigates the relationships among motor creativity, motor working memory (MSTM), screen time, and physical activity (PA) in kindergarten children, focusing on the mediating roles of cognitive functions and screen time.

METHODS

Data were collected from 124 Arab Israeli kindergarten children through assessments of Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM) for motor creativity and the Hand Movement Test for MSTM. Parents reported the children's screen time and days engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).

RESULTS

The results show significant positive associations between motor creativity and both MSTM and PA, underscoring the role of cognitive processes in creative motor expression. Linear regression and mediation analyses showed that MSTM significantly mediates the relationship between PA and motor creativity. Conversely, screen time negatively correlates with PA and motor creativity, serving as a significant mediator that restricts opportunities for physical and creative activities.

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasizes the bidirectional relationship between PA and motor creativity, wherein diverse physical activities stimulate creativity, and creative movements encourage active participation. The combined mediating effects of MSTM and screen time highlight the complexity of these relationships, suggesting the need for integrated interventions. The findings inform early childhood education by advocating for strategies that promote physical activity, enhance cognitive functions, and limit excessive screen time, fostering holistic development in young children.

Factor structure and measurement invariance of the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) across parents and teachers in Portuguese children

The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) is a rating scale that evaluates everyday behaviors associated with executive functions in children. This study aimed to investigate the factor structure and the measurement invariance across parents and teachers of the CHEXI in a sample of 279 Portuguese typically developing children (6 to 12 years old, n = 160 girls and n = 119 boys). Most studies only analyzed the original two-factor model, and the few that investigated the four-factor model found a nearly identical fit between both factor structures. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test five competing factor models and the four-factor models (slightly better than the two-factor model) demonstrated the most adequate fit to the data for both parents and teachers. The CHEXI showed adequate reliability and convergent validity with the BRIEF2. The measurement invariance of the four-factor model across parents and teachers was fully supported (configural, metric, and scalar invariance). Overall, the CHEXI showed adequate psychometric properties, suggesting that is a useful instrument to assess executive functioning based on reports of behaviors observed by parents and teachers in Portuguese typically developing children.

Exploring the Needs of Young People Born With Cleft Lip and/or Palate Approaching End of Routine Care, in the UK

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to understand the needs of young people, aged 16 to 20 years, born with cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P) approaching end of routine care, in the United Kingdom (UK).

DESIGN

Nominal group technique was used during 2 online focus groups to identify priorities for cleft care at transition to adult care. Focus group discussions were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis.

PARTICIPANTS

Ten young people born with CL/P, 8 aged 18 to 20 years and 2 aged 16 to 17 years were recruited via the UK-based cleft charity, the Cleft Lip and Palate Association (CLAPA).

RESULTS

Three themes were identified from the analysis: Theme 1-Psychological well-being is not a constant. Theme 2-Asking and listening-the cleft clinic appointment. Theme 3-Approaching end of routine care and re-accessing cleft services.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that young people have ongoing needs in older adolescence. Psychological well-being, taking control of their own treatment and re-accessing the cleft team were highlighted as particular issues. Whilst further research with a larger and more representative sample is needed, these results support the need for continued access to and provision from the cleft team at this age.

Effects of music training on executive functions in preschool children aged 3-6 years: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Executive functions is a crucial ability in the early development of preschool children. While numerous studies have found that music training has a favorable effect on children's executive functions, there is a lack of a consistent perspective on this topic, particularly with regard to the dose-response relationship.

Methods

Systematic searches were conducted of Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to compute standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

In all, 10 studies were included in the meta-analysis, in which children's music training groups showed significantly improved inhibitory control (SMD = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.16-0.6), working memory (SMD = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54), and cognitive flexibility (SMD = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.04-0.42) in comparison with control groups. Subgroup analyses indicated significant improvements relative to the control groups for inhibitory control following music training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.22-0.8), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI: 0.2-0.75), and lasting 20-30 min per session (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.2-0.63). Significant improvements were seen for working memory following music training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.18-0.65), occurring <3 times per week (SMD = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.06-0.93), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.28, 95% CI:0.1-0.47), and lasting 20-30 min per session (SMD = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54). Music training significantly improved cognitive flexibility following training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.04-0.41), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.0-0.39), and lasting >40 min per session (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.22-1.26).

Conclusion

Music training has a positive effect on inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in preschool children aged 3-6 years. This effect is influenced by certain training factors, including the duration of the intervention period, frequency per week, and length of each session.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#aboutregpage, CRD42024513482.