Urine NGAL and IL-18 are predictive biomarkers for delayed graft function following kidney transplantation

Insights into IL-1 family cytokines in kidney allograft transplantation: IL-18BP and free IL-18 as emerging biomarkers

Proinflammatory cytokines and their inhibitors are involved in the regulation of multiple immune reactions including response to transplanted organs. In this prospective study, we evaluated changes in serum concentrations of six IL-1 family cytokines (IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-1RA, IL-18, IL-18BP, and IL-36 beta) in 138 kidney allograft recipients and 48 healthy donors. Samples were collected before transplantation and then after one week, three months and one year, additional sera were obtained at the day of biopsy positive for acute rejection. We have shown, that concentrations of proinflammatory members of the IL-1 family (IL-1β, IL-18, IL-36 β) and anti-inflammatory IL-18BP decreased immediately after the transplantation. The decline of serum IL-1RA and IL-1α was not observed in subjects with acute rejection. IL-18, including specifically its free form, is the only cytokine which increase serum concentrations in the period between one week and three months in both groups of patients without upregulation of its inhibitor, IL-18BP. Serum concentrations of calculated free IL-18 were upregulated in the acute rejection group at the time of acute rejection. We conclude that IL-1 family cytokines are involved mainly in early phases of the response to kidney allograft. Serum concentrations of free IL-18 and IL-18BP represent possible biomarkers of acute rejection, and targeting IL-18 might be of therapeutic value.

Potential Utility of Urinary Follistatin as a Non-Invasive Indicator of Acute Tubular Damage in Patients with Acute Kidney Injury

Activin A is known to impede tubular repair following renal ischemia, whereas exogenous follistatin, an activin A antagonist, has been shown to ameliorate kidney damage in rats. Despite these findings, the precise role of endogenous follistatin in the kidney has yet to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the localization of follistatin in the normal human kidney and its potential utility as a marker for acute kidney injury (AKI). In a total of 118 AKI patients and 16 healthy adults, follistatin levels in serum and urine were quantified using ELISA, and correlations with clinical parameters were analyzed. Follistatin-producing cells were positive for Na-Cl co-transporter and uromodulin, but negative for aquaporin 1 and aquaporin 2. Unlike healthy adults, urinary follistatin significantly increased in AKI patients, correlating positively with AKI severity. Urinary follistatin levels were notably higher in patients needing renal replacement therapy. Significant correlations were observed with urinary protein, α1 microglobulin, and urinary NGAL, but not with urinary KIM-1, urinary L-FABP, urinary NAG, urinary β2 microglobulin, or serum creatinine. Interestingly, no correlation between urinary and serum follistatin levels was identified, indicating a renal origin for urinary follistatin. In conclusion, follistatin, produced by distal tubules, is detectable in the urine of AKI patients, suggesting its potential as a valuable marker for monitoring acute tubular damage severity in AKI.

Plasma NGAL levels in stable kidney transplant recipients and the risk of allograft loss

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to investigate the utility of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) and calprotectin (CPT) to predict long-term graft survival in stable kidney transplant recipients (KTR).

METHODS

A total of 709 stable outpatient KTR were enrolled >2 months post-transplant. The utility of plasma and urinary NGAL (pNGAL, uNGAL) and plasma and urinary CPT at enrollment to predict death-censored graft loss was evaluated during a 58-month follow-up.

RESULTS

Among biomarkers, pNGAL showed the best predictive ability for graft loss and was the only biomarker with an area under the curve (AUC) > 0.7 for graft loss within 5 years. Patients with graft loss within 5 years (n = 49) had a median pNGAL of 304 [interquartile range (IQR) 235-358] versus 182 (IQR 128-246) ng/mL with surviving grafts (P < .001). Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic analyses at 58 months indicated an AUC for pNGAL of 0.795, serum creatinine-based Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) had an AUC of 0.866. pNGAL added to a model based on conventional risk factors for graft loss with death as competing risk (age, transplant age, presence of donor-specific antibodies, presence of proteinuria, history of delayed graft function) had a strong independent association with graft loss {subdistribution hazard ratio (sHR) for binary log-transformed pNGAL [log2(pNGAL)] 3.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.24-5.15, P < .0001}. This association was substantially attenuated when eGFR was added to the model [sHR for log2(pNGAL) 1.63, 95% CI 0.92-2.88, P = .095]. Category-free net reclassification improvement of a risk model including log2(pNGAL) in addition to conventional risk factors and eGFR was 54.3% (95% CI 9.2%-99.3%) but C-statistic did not improve significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

pNGAL was an independent predictor of renal allograft loss in stable KTR from one transplant center but did not show consistent added value when compared with baseline predictors including the conventional marker eGFR. Future studies in larger cohorts are warranted.

Association Between First Post-operative Day Urine Output Following Kidney Transplantation and Short-Term and Long-Term Outcomes: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Background

The relationship between post-operative urine output (UO) following kidney transplantation and long-term graft function has not been well described.

Objective

In this study, we examined the association between decreased UO on post-operative day 1 (POD1) and post-transplant outcomes.

Design

This is a retrospective cohort study.

Setting

Atlantic Canada.

Patients

Patients from the 4 Atlantic Canadian provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island) who received a live or deceased donor kidney transplant from 2006 through 2019 through the multiorgan transplant program at the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre (QEII) hospital in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Measurements

Using multivariable Cox proportional hazards models, we assessed the association of low POD1 UO (defined as ≤1000 mL) with death-censored graft loss (DCGL). In secondary analyses, we used adjusted logistic regression or Cox models as appropriate to assess the impact of UO on delayed graft function (DGF), prolonged length of stay (greater than the median for the entire cohort), and death.

Results

Of the 991 patients included, 151 (15.2%) had a UO ≤1000 mL on POD1. Low UO was independently associated with DCGL (hazard ratio [HR] = 4.00, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 95% CI = 1.55-10.32), DGF (odds ratio [OR] = 45.25, 95% CI = 23.00-89.02), and prolonged length of stay (OR = 5.06, 95% CI = 2.95-8.69), but not death (HR = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.31-2.09).

Limitations

This was a single-center, retrospective, observational study and therefore has inherent limitations of generalizability, data collection, and residual confounding.

Conclusions

Overall, reduced post-operative UO following kidney transplantation is associated with an increased risk of DCGL, DGF, and prolonged hospital length of stay.

Impact of suboptimal donor to suboptimal recipient kidney transplant on delayed graft function and outcome

Introduction

The demographics of donor and recipient candidates for kidney transplantation (KT) have substantially changed. Recipients tend to be older and polymorbid and KT to suboptimal recipients is associated with delayed graft function (DGF), prolonged hospitalization, inferior long-term allograft function, and poorer patient survival. In parallel, donors are also older, suffer from several comorbidities, and donations coming from circulatory death (DCD) predominate, which in turn leads to early and late complications. However, it is unclear how donor and recipient risk factors interact.

Methods

In this retrospective cohort study, we assess the impact of a KT from suboptimal donors to suboptimal recipients. We focused on: 1) DGF; 2) hospital stay and number of dialysis days after KT and 3) allograft function at 12 months.

Results and discussion

Among the 369 KT included, the overall DGF rate was 25% (n = 92) and median time from reperfusion to DGF resolution was 7.8 days (IQR: 3.0-13.8 days). Overall, patients received four dialysis sessions (IQR: 2-8). The combination of pre-KT anuria (<200 ml/24 h, 32%) and DCD procurement (14%) was significantly associated with DGF, length of hospital stay, and severe perioperative complications, predominantly in recipients 50 years and older.

Urinary Biomarkers in a Living Donor Kidney Transplantation Cohort—Predictive Value on Graft Function

Early non-invasive detection and prediction of graft function after kidney transplantation is essential since interventions might prevent further deterioration. The aim of this study was to analyze the dynamics and predictive value of four urinary biomarkers: kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP), N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in a living donor kidney transplantation (LDKT) cohort. Biomarkers were measured up to 9 days after the transplantation of 57 recipients participating in the VAPOR-1 trial. Dynamics of KIM-1, NAG, NGAL, and H-FABP significantly changed over the course of 9 days after transplantation. KIM-1 at day 1 and NAG at day 2 after transplantation were significant predictors for the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at various timepoints after transplantation with a positive estimate (p < 0.05), whereas NGAL and NAG at day 1 after transplantation were negative significant predictors (p < 0.05). Multivariable analysis models for eGFR outcome improved after the addition of these biomarker levels. Several donor, recipient and transplantation factors significantly affected the baseline of urinary biomarkers. In conclusion, urinary biomarkers are of added value for the prediction of graft outcome, but influencing factors such as the timing of measurement and transplantation factors need to be considered.

Early effects of bone marrow-derived mononuclear cells on lung and kidney in experimental sepsis

BACKGROUND

In experimental sepsis, functional and morphological effects of bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell (BMDMC) administration in lung tissue have been evaluated 1 and 7 days after therapy. However, to date no study has evaluated the early effects of BMDMCs in both lung and kidney in experimental polymicrobial sepsis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-five female C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the following groups: 1) cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis; and 2) Sham (surgical procedure without CLP). After 1 h, CLP animals received saline (NaCl 0.9%) (CLP-Saline) or 10⁶ BMDMCs (CLP-Cell) via the jugular vein. At 6, 12, and 24 h after saline or BMDMC administration, lungs and kidneys were removed for histology and molecular biology analysis.

RESULTS

In lungs, CLP-Saline, compared to Sham, was associated with increased lung injury score (LIS) and keratinocyte chemoattractant (KC) mRNA expression at 6, 12, and 24 h. BMDMCs were associated with reduced LIS and KC mRNA expression regardless of the time point of analysis. Interleukin (IL)- 10 mRNA content was higher in CLP-Cell than CLP-Saline at 6 and 24 h. In kidney tissue, CLP-Saline, compared to Sham, was associated with tubular cell injury and increased neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) levels, which were reduced after BMDMC therapy at all time points. Surface high-mobility-group-box (HMGB)- 1 levels were higher in CLP-Saline than Sham at 6, 12, and 24 h, whereas nuclear HMGB-1 levels were increased only at 24 h. BMDMCs were associated with decreased surface HMGB-1 and increased nuclear HMGB-1 levels. Kidney injury molecule (KIM)- 1 and IL-18 gene expressions were reduced in CLP-Cell compared to CLP-Saline at 12 and 24 h.

CONCLUSION

In the present experimental polymicrobial sepsis, early intravenous therapy with BMDMCs was able to reduce lung and kidney damage in a time-dependent manner. BMDMCs thus represent a potential therapy in well-known scenarios of sepsis induction.

PURPOSE

To evaluate early bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell (BMDMC) therapy on lung and kidney in experimental polymicrobial sepsis.

METHODS

Twenty-five female C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the following groups: cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis; and sham (surgical procedure without CLP). After 1 h, CLP animals received saline (CLP-saline) or 10⁶ BMDMCs (CLP-cell) via the jugular vein. Lungs and kidneys were evaluated for histology and molecular biology after 6, 12, and 24 h.

RESULTS

In lungs, BMDMCs reduced the lung injury score and keratinocyte chemoattractant mRNA expression regardless of the time point of analysis; interleukin-10 mRNA content was higher in CLP-cell than CLP-saline at 6 and 24 h. In kidneys, BMDMCs reduced neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin levels at all time points. BMDMCs decreased surface high mobility group box (HMGB)- 1 but increased nuclear HMGB-1 levels.

CONCLUSION

Early BMDMC therapy reduced lung and kidney damage in a time-dependent manner.

Establishment and evaluation of an early prediction model of hepatorenal syndrome in patients with decompensated hepatitis B cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

In China, hepatorenal syndrome is a serious complication in the decompensated stage of hepatitis B cirrhosis, which requires early clinical intervention, so the early diagnosis of hepatorenal syndrome is crucial. This study establishes a new predictive model based on serum biomarkers for the early diagnosis of hepatorenal syndrome.

METHODS

Patients with decompensated hepatitis B cirrhosis who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria were retrospectively enrolled. Patients were randomly assigned to the training dataset and validation dataset at a 7:3 ratio. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to screen the risk factors for hepatorenal syndrome. The identified risk factors were used to establish and verify a model.

RESULTS

This study included 255 patients with decompensated hepatitis B cirrhosis, including 184 in the training group and 71 in the validation group. The multivariate logistic regression model was established in the training group and verified in the validation group. Logistic regression showed that hemoglobin (OR 0.938, 95% CI 0.908-0.969), total bilirubin (OR 1.014, 95% CI 1.008-1.021) and creatinine (OR 1.079, 95% CI 1.043-1.117) were independent risk factors for hepatorenal syndrome (P < 0.05). These were used to establish the model. In the training group and the validation group, the area under the ROC curve of the nomogram for the diagnosis of hepatorenal syndrome was 0.968 and 0.980, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The three serum biomarkers, including hemoglobin, total bilirubin and creatinine, can be used as independent early predictors of hepatorenal syndrome in patients with decompensated hepatitis B cirrhosis.

Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin as a Predictor of Acute Kidney Injury in Children With Shock: A Prospective Study

BACKGROUND

The current definition of acute kidney injury (AKI) is based on serum creatinine (SrCr) and urine output, limited by delayed identification of such patients. Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) is considered an early diagnostic and highly predictive biomarker of AKI.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the diagnostic accuracy of NGAL for AKI compared with creatinine clearance for early detection of AKI in children with shock receiving inotropic support.

METHODS

Critically ill children requiring inotropic support in the pediatric intensive care unit were enrolled prospectively. SrCr and NGAL values were obtained three times at six, 12, and 48 hours after vasopressor initiation. Patients with AKI were defined as having loss of >25% renal function based on creatinine clearance within 48 hours. NGAL level of more than 150 ng/dl was suggestive of the diagnosis of AKI. Receiver operator characteristic curves were generated for NGAL and SrCr to compare the predictive ability of both at 0, 12, and 48 hours of starting vasopressor support.  Results: A total of 94 patients were enrolled. The mean age was 43±50.95 months. Most common primary diagnoses were related to the cardiovascular system (46%). Twenty-nine patients (31%) died during the hospital stay. Thirty-four patients (36%) developed AKI within 48 hours following shock. The area under the curve (AUC) for NGAL at a cutoff of 150 ng/ml was 0.70, 0.74, and 0.73 at six-hour, 12-hour, and 48-hour follow-up, respectively. NGAL had a sensitivity of 85.3% and specificity of 50% at 0 hours of follow-up for diagnosis of AKI.

CONCLUSION

Serum NGAL has better sensitivity and AUC compared to SrCr for early diagnosis of AKI in children admitted with shock.

The Utility of Novel Kidney Injury Biomarkers in Early Detection of CSA-AKI

Cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury (CSA-AKI) is one of the most common complications of cardiac surgery procedures. In this study, the authors attempt to provide new data regarding the application of novel kidney injury biomarkers in the early diagnostics of CSA-AKI. 128 adult patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery procedures with the use of cardiopulmonary by-pass (CPB) were enrolled in this study. Novel kidney injury biomarkers were marked in the plasma and urine 6 h after weaning from the CPB. A significant difference in the postoperative biomarkers' concentration between the AKI and no-AKI group was found, regarding plasma IL-8, plasma TNF-α and urine NGAL, normalized for creatinine excretion (NGAL/Cr). These were also independent predictors of CSA-AKI. An independent risk factor for CSA-AKI proved to be preoperative CKD. Plasma IL-8 and TNF-α, as well as urine NGAL/Cr, are independent early indicators of CSA-AKI and pose a promising alternative for creatinine measurements. The cut-off points for these biomarkers proposed in this investigation should be confronted with more data and revised to achieve a suitable diagnostic value.

Urinary Proteomics in Kidney Transplantation

Although kidney transplantation is the best treatment option for end stage kidney disease, it is still associated with long-term graft failure. One of the greater challenges for transplant professionals is the ability to identify grafts with a high risk of failure before initial decline of eGFR with irreversible graft changes. Transplantation medicine is facing an emerging need for novel disease end point-specific biomarkers, with practical application in preventive screening, early diagnostic, and improved prognostic and therapeutic utility. The aim of our review was to evaluate the clinical application of urinary proteomics in kidney transplant recipients at risk for any type of future graft failure.

Association of Postoperative Urinary Output in the First 24 Hours with Delayed Graft Function After Living and Deceased Donor Kidney Transplant: A Systematic Review

Context: Delayed graft function (DGF) is an important clinical outcome following renal transplantation; therefore, it is important to be correctly diagnosed. The DGF is thought to correlate with the first 24-hour urine output (UOP1), and this clinical sign is expected to predict DGF. Objectives: This study aimed to discover whether the UOP1 correlates significantly to the DGF incidence and can be a DGF predicting factor. Data Sources: This study compared the incidence of DGF with the UOP1 reported by studies obtained from the electronic databases, namely MEDLINE, Cochrane, and EBSCO. Studies that performed multivariate or bivariate analysis and/or reported sensitivity and specificity were included in this review. Results: A total of 1719 studies were obtained from the database search, and 2 studies were enrolled from other sources. Out of 1721 studies, 9 studies were recruited in this review, 5 of which reported sensitivity and specificity. Overall, nine of these studies had a low to moderate risk of bias. Almost all studies reported a significant relationship between the UOP1 and DGF. All studies agreed that the UOP1 is a sensitive predictive factor in predicting DGF. The specificity reported by the studies examined in this review varied greatly. The use of optimum cut-off in each study is considered to be the cause of this variability. Conclusions: The UOP1 is significantly related to the incidence of DGF and is a proper parameter for the prediction of DGF events.

Biomarkers as diagnostic tests for delayed graft function in kidney transplantation

Delayed graft function (DGF) after kidney transplantation is associated with inferior outcomes and higher healthcare costs. DGF is currently defined as the requirement for dialysis within seven days post-transplant; however, this definition is subjective and nonspecific. Novel biomarkers have potential to improve objectivity and enable earlier diagnosis of DGF. We reviewed the literature to describe the range of novel biomarkers previously studied to predict DGF. We identified marked heterogeneity and low reporting quality of published studies. Among the novel biomarkers, serum NGAL had the greatest potential as a biomarker to predict DGF, but requires further assessment and validation through larger scale studies of diagnostic test performance. Given inadequacies in the dialysis-based definition, coupled with the high incidence and impact of DGF, such studies should be pursued.

Plasma Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor Predicts Graft Function Following Kidney Transplantation: A Prospective Cohort Study

Background: Delayed graft function (DGF) is a common complication after kidney transplantation (KT) with a poor clinical outcome. There are no accurate biomarkers for the early prediction of DGF. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) release during surgery plays a key role in protecting the kidney, and may be a potential biomarker for predicting post-transplant renal allograft recovery.

Methods: Recipients who underwent KT between July 2020 and December 2020 were enrolled in the study. Plasma MIF levels were tested in recipients at different time points, and the correlation between plasma MIF and DGF in recipients was evaluated. This study was registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR2000035596).

Results: Intraoperative MIF levels were different between immediate, slowed, and delayed graft function groups (7.26 vs. 6.49 and 5.59, P < 0.001). Plasma MIF was an independent protective factor of DGF (odds ratio = 0.447, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.264–0.754, P = 0.003). Combining plasma MIF level and donor terminal serum creatinine provided the best predictive power for DGF (0.872; 95%CI 0.795–0.949). Furthermore, plasma MIF was significantly associated with allograft function at 1-month post-transplant (R² = 0.42, P < 0.001).

Conclusion: Intraoperative MIF, as an independent protective factor for DGF, has excellent diagnostic performance for predicting DGF and is worthy of further exploration.

Current and Evolving Indications for Simultaneous Liver Kidney Transplantation

This review will discuss the etiologies of kidney disease in liver transplant candidates, provide a historical background of the prior evolution of simultaneous liver-kidney (SLK) transplant indications, discuss the current indications for SLK including Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network policies and Model for End Stage Liver Disease exception points, as well as provide an overview of the safety net kidney transplant policy. Finally, the authors explore unanswered questions and future research needed in SLK transplantation.

Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin as an Early Predictor of Contrast-Induced Nephropathy Following Endovascular Aortic Repair for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm

To investigate serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (sNGAL) and urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (uNGAL) as early predictors of contrast-associated acute kidney injury(contrast-induced nephropathy)following endovascular aortic repair for abdominal aortic aneurysm. Prospective cohort study. Subjects included 202 consecutive patients with abdominal aortic aneurysm diagnosed between February 2016 and October 2018. We divided the patients into 2 groups: contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) (n = 26) and non-CIN (n = 176). We assessed correlations between sNGAL and uNGAL concentrations and standard renal markers at baseline, 6, 24, and 48 hours post-procedure. We constructed conventional receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and calculated the area under the curve to assess SCr, eGFR, sNGAL, and uNGAL performance. We derived biomarker cutoff levels from ROC analysis results to maximize sensitivity and specificity values. The CIN incidence within our cohort was 12.9%. sNGAL levels correlated significantly with SCr and eGFR at baseline, 6, and 24 hours post-contrast medium exposure. Similarly, uNGAL levels correlated with SCr and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at baseline, 6, and 24 hours post-exposure. sNGAL and uNGAL were significantly elevated as early as 6 hours post-endotherapy in the CIN group; there were only minor changes in the non-CIN group. SCr was also significantly elevated in the CIN group, but not until 48 hours post-catheterization. Both sNGAL and uNGAL may be more accurate than SCr and eGFR as early biomarkers of CIN in patients with abdominal aortic aneurysm undergoing endovascular therapy.

A novel genomic model for predicting the likelihood of delayed graft function in DCD kidney transplantation

Background

The high incidence of delayed graft function (DGF) following kidney transplantation with donation after cardiac death allografts (DCD-KT) poses great challenges to transplant clinicians. This study aimed to explore the DGF-related biomarkers and establish a genomic model for DGF prediction specific to DCD KT.

Methods

By data mining a public dataset (GSE43974), the key DGF-related genes in DCD kidney biopsies taken after short-time reperfusion (45–60 min) were identified by differential expression analysis and a LASSO-penalized logistic regression model. Their coefficients for modeling were calculated by multivariate logistic regression. Receiver operating characteristic curves and a nomogram were generated to evaluate its predictive ability for DGF occurrence. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to explore biological pathways underlying DGF in DCD KT.

Results

Five key DGF-related genes (CHST3, GOLPH3, ZBED5, AKR1C4, and ERRFI1) were first identified, all of which displayed good discrimination for DGF occurrence after DCD KT (all P<0.05). A five-mRNA-based risk score was further established and showed excellent predictive ability (AUC =0.9708, P<0.0001), which was obviously higher than that of the five genes alone. Eight DGF-related biological pathways in DCD kidneys, such as “arachidonic acid metabolism”, “lysosome”, “proximal tubule bicarbonate reclamation”, “glutathione metabolism”, were identified by GSEA (all P<0.05). Moreover, a convenient and visual nomogram based on the genomic risk score was also constructed and displayed high accuracy for DGF prediction specific to DCD KT.

Conclusions

The novel genomic model may effectively predict the likelihood of DGF immediately after DCD KT or even prior to transplantation in the context of normothermic machine perfusion in the future.

Interleukin-18 in Inflammatory Kidney Disease

Interleukin (IL)-18, a member of the IL-1 superfamily, is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is structurally similar to IL-1β. IL-18 promotes the production of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and strongly induces a Th1 response. IL-18 drives the same myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway as IL-1β. In physiological conditions, IL-18 is regulated by the endogenous inhibitor IL-18 binding protein (IL-18BP), and the activity of IL-18 is balanced. It is reported that in several inflammatory diseases, the IL-18 activity is unbalanced, and IL-18 neutralization by IL-18BP is insufficient. IL-18 acts synergistically with IL-12 to induce the production of IFN-γ as a Th1 cytokine, and IL-18 acts alone to induce the production of Th2 cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-13. In addition, IL-18 alone enhances natural killer (NK) cell activity and FAS ligand expression. The biological and pathological roles of IL-18 have been studied in many diseases. Here we review the knowledge regarding IL-18 signaling and the role of IL-18 in inflammatory kidney diseases. Findings on renal injury in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its association with IL-18 will also be presented.

Urinary NGAL Measured after the First Year Post Kidney Transplantation Predicts Changes in Glomerular Filtration over One-Year Follow-Up

Currently, serum creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) together with albuminuria or proteinuria are laboratory markers used in long-term monitoring of kidney transplant recipients. There is a need for more sensitive markers that could serve as early warning signs of graft dysfunction. Our aim was to assess the urinary concentrations of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a predictor of changes in kidney transplant function after the first year post-transplantation. We prospectively recruited 109 patients with functioning graft at least one year after the transplantation, with no acute conditions over the past three months, during their control visits in kidney transplant ambulatory. Urinary NGAL measured on recruitment was twice higher in patients with at least 10% decrease in eGFR over 1-year follow-up compared to those with stable or improving transplant function. Baseline NGAL significantly predicted the relative and absolute changes in eGFR and the mean eGFR during the follow-up independently of baseline eGFR and albuminuria. Moreover, baseline NGAL significantly predicted urinary tract infections during the follow-up, although the infections were not associated with decreasing eGFR. Additionally, we assessed urinary concentrations of matrix metalloproteinase 9-NGAL complex in a subgroup of 77 patients and found higher levels in patients who developed urinary tract infections during the follow-up but not in those with decreasing eGFR. High urinary NGAL in clinically stable kidney transplant recipients beyond the first year after transplantation may be interpreted as a warning and trigger the search for transient or chronic causes of graft dysfunction, or urinary tract infection.

Kinetic GFR Outperforms CKD-EPI for Slow Graft Function Prediction in the Immediate Postoperative Period Following Kidney Transplantation

Background: Rapid identification of patients at high risk for slow graft function (SGF) is of major importance in the immediate period following renal graft transplantation, both for early therapeutic decisions and long-term prognosis. Due to the high variability of serum creatinine levels after surgery, glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimation is challenging. In this situation, kinetic estimated GFR (KeGFR) equations are interesting tools but have never been assessed for the identification of SGF patients. Methods: We conducted a single-center retrospective cohort study, including all consecutive kidney allograft recipients in the University Hospitals of Geneva from 2008 to 2016. GFR was estimated using both CKD-EPI and KeGFR formulae. Their accuracies for SGF prediction were compared. Patients were followed up for one year after transplantation. Results: A total of 326 kidney recipients were analyzed. SGF occurred in 76 (23%) patients. KeGFR estimation stabilized from the day following kidney transplantation, more rapidly than CKD-EPI. Discrimination ability for SGF prediction was better for KeGFR than CKD-EPI (AUC 0.82 and 0.66, p < 0.001, respectively). Conclusion: KeGFR computed from the first day after renal transplantation was able to predict SGF with good discrimination, outperforming CKD-EPI estimation. SGF patients had lower renal graft function overall at the one-year follow up.

A long journey for acute kidney injury biomarkers

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a life-threatening illness that continues to have an in-hospital mortality rate of patients with AKI ranges from 20% to 50% or greater, depending on underlying conditions. However, it has only marginally declined over the past 25 years. Previous authoritative publications have been pointed out that the lack of useful biomarkers for AKI has limited progress in improving the outcomes of this disorder. The purpose of this paper is to review the recent biomarkers involved in the early detection of AKI and main reasons for the failure to identify new AKI biomarkers. So far, several new AKI biomarkers have been discovered and validated to improve early diagnosis, degree of severity, pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, prediction for major kidney adverse events (MAKE, risk groups for progressive renal failure, need for renal replacement therapy [RRT], or death). These biomarkers can be classified into functional, damage and pre-injury phase biomarkers. However, the clinical use of the studied biomarkers in AKI prediction remains unclear because large prospective multicenter trials have failed to demonstrate troponin-like diagnostic performance. Reasons for the failure to identify AKI biomarkers are the heterogeneity of AKI itself, biomarker limitations and long roads to the validation of candidates for new AKI biomarkers. In an effort to overcome these barriers to identifying new AKI biomarkers, kidney biopsy specimens should be obtained and assessed in human AKI populations. Research in this field should be carried out in a pan-social approach rather than conducted by just a few medical institutions.

Heparin-binding protein as a novel biomarker for sepsis-related acute kidney injury

Background

Sepsis-related acute kidney injury (AKI) is associated with high morbidity and mortality among patients. Underlying pathomechanisms include capillary leakage and fluid loss into the interstitial tissue and constant exposure to pathogens results in activation of inflammatory cascades, organ dysfunction and subsequently organ damage.

Methods

To identify novel factors that trigger sepsis-related acute kidney injury, plasma levels of Granzyme A, as representative of a lymphocyte-derived protease, and heparin-binding protein as indicator for neutrophil-derived mediators, were investigated retrospectively in 60 sepsis patients.

Results

While no association was found between plasma levels of lymphocyte-derived Granzyme A and the incidence of sepsis-related AKI, sepsis patients with AKI had significantly higher plasma levels of heparin-binding protein compared to those without AKI. This applies both to heparin-binding protein peak values (43.30 ±  23.34 vs. 30.25 ±  15.63 pg/mL; p = 0.005) as well as mean values (27.93 ±  14.39 vs. 22.02 ±  7.65 pg/mL; p = 0.021). Furthermore, a heparin-binding protein cut-off value of 23.89 pg/mL was established for AKI diagnosis.

Conclusion

This study identifies the neutrophil-derived heparin-binding protein as a valuable new biomarker for AKI in sepsis. Beyond the diagnostic perspective, this offers prospect for further research on pathogenesis of AKI and novel therapeutic approaches.

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin as an early predictor of contrast-induced nephropathy following endovascular therapy for arteriosclerosis obliterans

Serum creatinine (SCr) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) are standard biomarkers of contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN). However, recent studies suggest that serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (sNGAL) and urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (uNGAL) may be better predictors, particularly within 24 hours of contrast medium exposure.We conducted a prospective, observational cohort study of 107 consecutive patients diagnosed with arteriosclerosis obliterans between February 2016 and October 2018. We divided the patients into 2 groups: CIN (n = 22) and non-CIN (n = 85). We assessed the correlation between sNGAL and uNGAL concentrations and standard renal markers at baseline, 6, 24, and 48 hours post-procedure. We constructed conventional receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and calculated the area under the curve to assess the performance of SCr, eGFR, sNGAL, and uNGAL. We derived biomarker cutoff levels from ROC analysis to maximize sensitivity and specificity.The incidence of CIN within our cohort was 20.6%. sNGAL levels correlated significantly with SCr and eGFR at baseline, 6, 24, and 48 hours post-contrast medium exposure. Similarly, uNGAL levels correlated with SCr and eGFR at baseline, 24, and 48 hours post-exposure. sNGAL and uNGAL were significantly elevated as early as 6 hours post-catheterization in the CIN group, whereas only minor changes were observed in the non-CIN group. SCr was also significantly elevated in the CIN group, but not until 24 hours post-catheterization.Both sNGAL and uNGAL may be superior to SCr and eGFR as early biomarkers of CIN in patients with peripheral vascular disease undergoing endovascular therapy.

Peri-transplant aminophylline in pediatric kidney transplant recipients of donation after brain death: a double-blinded placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

During kidney transplantation, the transplanted kidney undergoes ischemia reperfusion injury, with adenosine being a major mediator. This study aimed to assess whether aminophylline, an adenosine receptor antagonist, improves early graft function and reduces incidence of delayed graft function (DGF) and slow graft function (SGF).

METHODS

Single center, double-blinded, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial. Pediatric patients admitted for renal transplantation from donation after brain death donors were randomized into a treatment arm receiving aminophylline and a placebo arm receiving normal saline infusions. Primary outcome was estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at 5 days post-transplant. Secondary outcomes were rates of DGF/SGF and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) levels.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients were randomized to aminophylline and 27 to placebo. There was no difference in day 5 eGFR, rate of DGF/SGF, or urine NGAL/Creatinine level between aminophylline vs. placebo arm (eGFR 67.39 ± 38.9 ml/min/1.73m² vs. 80.48 ± 52.1 ml/min/1.73m²p = 0.32; DGF/SGF 5/23 (21.7%) vs. 3/27 (11.1%) p = 0.31; urine NGAL/creatinine 300.5 ng/mg IQR 105.5-1464.5 ng/mg vs. 425.4 ng/mg IQR 140.3-1126.2 ng/mg, p = 0.95; respectively). At 12 months, there was 100% patient survival and 98% graft survival. eGFR at 12 months was similar between the two arms.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no benefit in peri-transplant aminophylline administration. Our results are limited by small sample size, since sample calculations were based on primary outcome of day 5 eGFR and low rate of DGF/SGF, which may have precluded us from demonstrating efficacy. Further clinical studies are necessary to determine any benefit of aminophylline in kidney transplant recipients, particularly from high-risk donors.

Mannitol and renal graft injury in patients undergoing deceased donor renal transplantation - a randomized controlled clinical trial

Background

Ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is associated with renal tissue damage during deceased donor renal transplantation. The effect of mannitol to reduce I/R injury during graft reperfusion in renal transplant recipients is based on weak evidence. We evaluated the effect of mannitol to reduce renal graft injury represented by 16 serum biomarkers, which are indicators for different important pathophysiological pathways. Our primary outcome were differences in biomarker concentrations between the mannitol and the placebo group 24 h after graft reperfusion. Additionally, we performed a linear mixed linear model to account biomarker concentrations before renal transplantation.

Methods

Thirty-four patients undergoing deceased donor renal transplantation were randomly assigned to receive either 20% mannitol or 0.9% NaCl placebo solution before, during, and after graft reperfusion. Sixteen serum biomarkers (MMP1, CHI3L1, CCL2, MMP8, HGF, GH, FGF23, Tie2, VCAM1, TNFR1, IGFBP7, IL18, NGAL, Endostatin, CystC, KIM1) were measured preoperatively and 24 h after graft reperfusion using Luminex assays and ELISA.

Results

Sixteen patients in each group were analysed. Tie2 differed 24 h after graft reperfusion between both groups (p = 0.011). Change of log2 transformed concentration levels over time differed significantly in four biomarkers (VCAM1,Endostatin, KIM1, GH; p = 0.007; p = 0.013; p = 0.004; p = 0.033; respectively) out of 16 between both groups.

Conclusion

This study showed no effect of mannitol on I/R injury in patients undergoing deceased renal transplantation. Thus, we do not support the routinely use of mannitol to attenuate I/R injury.

Trial registration

NCT02705573. Registered on 10th March 2016.

Endothelial Cell-Derived Interleukin-18 Released During Ischemia Reperfusion Injury Selectively Expands T Peripheral Helper Cells to Promote Alloantibody Production

BACKGROUND

Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) predisposes to the formation of donor-specific antibodies, a factor contributing to chronic rejection and late allograft loss.

METHODS

We describe a mechanism underlying the correlative association between IRI and donor-specific antibodies by using humanized models and patient specimens.

RESULTS

IRI induces immunoglobulin M-dependent complement activation on endothelial cells that assembles an NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3) inflammasome via a Rab5-ZFYVE21-NIK axis and upregulates ICOS-L (inducible costimulator ligand) and PD-L2 (programmed death ligand 2). Endothelial cell-derived interleukin-18 (IL-18) selectively expands a T-cell population (CD4+CD45RO+PD-1^hiICOS+CCR2+CXCR5-) displaying features of recently described T peripheral helper cells. This population highly expressed IL-18R1 and promoted donor-specific antibodies in response to IL-18 in vivo. In patients with delayed graft function, a clinical manifestation of IRI, these cells were Ki-67+IL-18R1+ and could be expanded ex vivo in response to IL-18.

CONCLUSIONS

IRI promotes elaboration of IL-18 from endothelial cells to selectively expand alloreactive IL-18R1+ T peripheral helper cells in allograft tissues to promote donor-specific antibody formation.

Inflammation in Renal Diseases: New and Old Players

Inflammation, a process intimately linked to renal disease, can be defined as a complex network of interactions between renal parenchymal cells and resident immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, coupled with recruitment of circulating monocytes, lymphocytes, and neutrophils. Once stimulated, these cells activate specialized structures such as Toll-like receptor and Nod-like receptor (NLR). By detecting danger-associated molecules, these receptors can set in motion major innate immunity pathways such as nuclear factor ĸB (NF-ĸB) and NLRP3 inflammasome, causing metabolic reprogramming and phenotype changes of immune and parenchymal cells and triggering the secretion of a number of inflammatory mediators that can cause irreversible tissue damage and functional loss. Growing evidence suggests that this response can be deeply impacted by the crosstalk between the kidneys and other organs, such as the gut. Changes in the composition and/or metabolite production of the gut microbiota can influence inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis, thus offering opportunities to positively manipulate the composition and/or functionality of gut microbiota and, consequentially, ameliorate deleterious consequences of renal diseases. In this review, we summarize the most recent evidence that renal inflammation can be ameliorated by interfering with the gut microbiota through the administration of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics. In addition to these innovative approaches, we address the recent discovery of new targets for drugs long in use in clinical practice. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists, NF-ĸB inhibitors, thiazide diuretics, and antimetabolic drugs can reduce renal macrophage infiltration and slow down the progression of renal disease by mechanisms independent of those usually attributed to these compounds. Allopurinol, an inhibitor of uric acid production, has been shown to decrease renal inflammation by limiting activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. So far, these protective effects have been shown in experimental studies only. Clinical studies will establish whether these novel strategies can be incorporated into the arsenal of treatments intended to prevent the progression of human disease.

Perfusion of Porcine Kidneys With Macromolecular Heparin Reduces Early Ischemia Reperfusion Injury

BACKGROUND

Previously, we have been able to demonstrate the possibility of coating the inner surface of the renal arteries in porcine kidneys with a heparin conjugate during hypothermic machine perfusion (HMP). The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of this treatment in reducing early ischemia-reperfusion injury.

METHOD

Brain death was induced in male landrace pigs by stepwise volume expansion of an epidural balloon catheter until negative cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) was obtained. Both kidneys (matched pairs; n = 6 + 6) were preserved for 20 hours by HMP during which 50 mg heparin conjugate was added to one of the HMP systems (treated group). A customized ex vivo normothermic oxygenated perfusion (NP) system with added exogenous creatinine was used to evaluate early kidney function. Blood, urine and histological samples were collected during the subsequent 3 hours of NP.

RESULTS

Kidney weight was lower at the end of NP (P = 0.017) in the treated group compared with control kidneys. The rate of decline in creatinine level was faster (P = 0.024), total urinary volume was higher (P = 0.031), and the level of urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) was lower (P = 0.031) in the treated group. Histologically, less tubular changes were seen (P = 0.046). During NP intrarenal resistance remained lower (P < 0.0001) in the treated group.

CONCLUSIONS

Perfusion of porcine kidneys with heparin conjugate during HMP reduces preservation injury and improves organ function shortly after reperfusion. No increased risk of bleeding was seen in this setup. This protective strategy may potentially improve the quality of transplanted kidneys in the clinical setting.

Comparison of urine and blood NGAL for early prediction of delayed graft function in adult kidney transplant recipients: a meta-analysis of observational studies

Background

Neutrophil gelatinase-assoicated lipocalin (NGAL) appears to be a promising proximal tubular injury biomarker for early prediction of delayed graft function (DGF) in kidney transplant recipients. However, its predictive values in urine and blood were varied among different studies. Here, we performed the meta-analysis to compare the predictive values of urine NGAL (uNGAL) and blood NGAL (bNGAL) for DGF in adult kidney transplant recipients.

Methods

We systematically searched Medline, Cochrane library and Embase for relevant studies from inception to May 2018. The summary receiver operating characteristic (SROC) curves, the pooled sensitivity, specificity and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) were used to evaluate the prognostic performance of uNGAL and bNGAL for the identification of DGF.

Results

A total of 1036 patients from 14 eligible studies were included in the analysis. 8 studies focused on NGAL in urine and 6 reported NGAL in serum or plasma. The composite area under the ROC (AUC) for 24 h uNGAL was 0.91 (95% CI, 0.89–0.94) and the overall DOR for 24 h uNGAL was 24.17(95% CI, 9.94–58.75) with a sensitivity of 0.88 (95% CI, 0.75–0.94) and a specificity of 0.81 (95% CI, 0.68–0.89). The composite AUC for 24 h bNGAL was 0.95 (95% CI, 0.93–0.97) and the overall DOR for 24 h bNGAL was 43.11 (95% CI, 16.43–113.12) with a sensitivity of 0.91 (95% CI, 0.81–0.96) and a specificity of 0.86 (95% CI, 0.78–0.92).

Conclusions

Urine and serum/plasma NGAL were valuable biomarkers for early identification of DGF in kidney transplantation. In addition, the bNGAL was superior to uNGAL in early prediction of DGF.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12882-019-1491-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Urinary and Serum Biomarkers for Prediction of Acute Kidney Injury in Patients Undergoing Liver Transplantation

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a frequent and serious complication of orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT), with a significant impact on mortality, graft survival, and chronic kidney disease. Currently, the diagnosis of AKI is based on changes in serum creatinine, which is a late marker, usually rising when there is already significant damage to the renal parenchyma. During the last 2 decades, various biomarkers have been studied in many clinical situations, mostly after cardiac surgery, in drug-induced AKI, or in sepsis. The present article summarizes the data on those biomarkers that have been evaluated for the prediction of AKI in patients undergoing OLT.

Does Whole-Blood Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin Stratify Acute Kidney Injury in Critically Ill Patients?

Purpose

To analyse the capacity of whole-blood NGAL (wbNGAL) to stratify AKI in critically ill patients with and without sepsis.

Methods

Whole-blood NGAL was measured with a point-of-care device at admission and 48 hours later in patients admitted to a general ICU. Patients were classified by the AKIN and KDIGO classifications at admission and 24 and 48 hours. We performed an ROC curve analysis. wbNGAL values at admission were compared in patients with sepsis and septic shock.

Results

The study included 100 consecutively admitted patients (40 female) with mean age 59.1 ± 17.8 years. Thirty-three patients presented AKI at admission, and 10 more developed it in the next 48 h. Eighteen patients had AKI stage 3, 14 of them at admission. Nine patients required renal replacement therapy. According to KDIGO at admission, wbNGAL values were 78 μg/L (60-187) in stage 0 (n = 67), 263 μg/L (89-314) in stage 1 (n = 8), 484 μg/L (333-708) in stage 2 (n = 11), and 623 μg/L (231-911) in stage 3 (n = 14), p = 0.0001 for trend. Ten patients did not complete 48 hours of study: 6 of 10 were discharged (initial wbNGAL 130 μg/L (60-514)) and 4 died (773 μg/L (311-1010)). The AUROC curve of wbNGAL to predict AKI was 0.838 (95% confidence interval 0.76-0.92, p = 0.0001), with optimal cut-off value of 178 μg/L (sensitivity 76.7%, specificity 78.9%, p < 0.0001). At admission, twenty-nine patients had sepsis, of whom 20 were in septic shock. wbNGAL concentrations were 81 μg/L (60-187) in patients without sepsis, 481 (247-687) in those with sepsis, and 623.5 μg/L (361-798) in the subgroup of septic shock (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

Whole-blood NGAL concentration at ICU admission was a good stratifier of AKI in critically ill patients. However, wbNGAL concentrations were higher in septic patients irrespective of AKI occurrence.

Urinary Biomarkers of Tubular Damage Are Associated with Mortality but Not Cardiovascular Risk among Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial Participants with Chronic Kidney Disease

BACKGROUND

Kidney tubulointerstitial fibrosis on biopsy is a strong predictor of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression, and CKD is associated with elevated risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Tubular health is poorly quantified by traditional kidney function measures, including estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and albuminuria. We hypothesized that urinary biomarkers of tubular injury, inflammation, and repair would be associated with higher risk of CVD and mortality in persons with CKD.

METHODS

We measured urinary concentrations of interleukin-18 (IL-18), kidney injury molecule-1, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and chitinase-3-like protein-1 (YKL-40) at baseline among 2,377 participants of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial who had an eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. We used Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate biomarker associations with CVD events and all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

At baseline, the mean age of participants was 72 ± 9 years, and eGFR was 48 ± 11 mL/min/1.73 m2. Over a median follow-up of 3.8 years, 305 CVD events (3.6% per year) and 233 all-cause deaths (2.6% per year) occurred. After multivariable adjustment including eGFR, albuminuria, and urinary creatinine, none of the biomarkers showed statistically significant associations with CVD risk. Urinary IL-18 (hazard ratio [HR] per 2-fold higher value, 1.14; 95% CI 1.01-1.29) and YKL-40 (HR per 2-fold higher value, 1.08; 95% CI 1.02-1.14) concentrations were each incrementally associated with higher mortality risk. Associations were similar when stratified by randomized blood pressure arm.

CONCLUSIONS

Among hypertensive trial participants with CKD, higher urinary IL-18 and YKL-40 were associated with higher risk of mortality, but not CVD.

Comparative Assessment of uNGAL, uNAG and Cystatin C As Early Biomarkers in Renal Post-Transplant Patients

Urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (uNGAL), urinary N-acetyl-bd-glucosaminidase (NAG), urinary α1-microglobulin/creatinine ratio and cystatin C have been suggested as potential early markers of delayed graft function (DGF) following kidney transplantation. We conducted a prospective study in 50 consecutive kidney transplant recipients to evaluate serial changes of these biomarkers within the first week after transplantation and assess their performance in predicting DGF (dialysis requirement during initial post-transplant week) and graft function throughout the first year. Urine samples were collected on post-transplantation days 0, 1, 2, 4, and 7. Statistical analysis: Linear mixed and multivariable regression models, receiver-operating characteristic (ROC), and areas under ROC curves were used. At all-time points, mean urinary NGAL levels were significantly higher in patients developing DGF. Shortly after transplantation (3-6 h), uNGAL and uNAG values were higher in DGF recipients (on average +242 ng/mL; NAG – 6.8 U/mmol creatinine, considering mean dialysis time of 4.1 years) and rose further in the following days, contrasting with prompt function recipients. On Day-1 uNGAL levels accurately predicted DGF (AUC-ROC = 0.93), with a performance higher than serum creatinine (AUC-ROC = 0.76), and similar to cystatin C (AUC-ROC = 0.95). Multivariable analyses revealed that uNGAL levels at days 4 and 7 were strongly associated with one-year serum creatinine level. Urinary NGAL, serum cystatin C is an early marker of graft injury and is independently associated with dialysis requirement within one week after transplantation and one-year graft function.

Validation of an ELISA for detection of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in equine serum

BACKGROUND

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) has been shown to be a useful marker of kidney injury in people and dogs, but has not been described in horses.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to validate a commercially available porcine-specific ELISA to measure serum concentrations of equine NGAL.

METHODS

Intra- and interassay imprecisions were evaluated by multiple measurements on equine serum pools. Assay inaccuracy was determined by the linearity under dilution. Overlapping performance was assessed by measuring NGAL concentrations in horses with normal and elevated serum creatinine levels.

RESULTS

Intra- and interassay imprecision (coefficient of variation) ranged from 5.35% to 28.39%. The ELISA showed no signs of inaccuracy. Overlapping performance was acceptable, as the assay was able to detect the expected differences of NGAL levels in horses with normal and elevated serum creatinine concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Equine serum NGAL concentrations could be quantified reliably using the porcine-specific ELISA.

Effects of Intensive Blood Pressure Lowering on Kidney Tubule Injury in CKD: A Longitudinal Subgroup Analysis in SPRINT

BACKGROUND

Random assignment to the intensive systolic blood pressure (SBP) arm (<120mmHg) in the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) resulted in more rapid declines in estimated glomerular filtration rates (eGFRs) than in the standard arm (SBP<140mmHg). Whether this change reflects hemodynamic effects or accelerated intrinsic kidney damage is unknown.

STUDY DESIGN

Longitudinal subgroup analysis of clinical trial participants.

SETTINGS & PARTICIPANTS

Random sample of SPRINT participants with prevalent chronic kidney disease (CKD) defined as eGFR<60mL/min/1.73m² by the CKD-EPI (CKD Epidemiology Collaboration) creatinine-cystatin C equation at baseline.

OUTCOMES & MEASUREMENTS

Urine biomarkers of tubule function (β₂-microglobulin [B2M], α₁-microglobulin [A1M]), and uromodulin), injury (interleukin 18, kidney injury molecule 1, and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin), inflammation (monocyte chemoattractant protein 1), and repair (human cartilage glycoprotein 40) at baseline, year 1, and year 4. Biomarkers were indexed to urine creatinine concentration and changes between arms were evaluated using mixed-effects linear models and an intention-to-treat approach.

RESULTS

978 SPRINT participants (519 in the intensive and 459 in the standard arm) with prevalent CKD were included. Mean age was 72±9 years and eGFR was 46.1±9.4mL/min/1.73m² at baseline. Clinical characteristics, eGFR, urinary albumin-creatinine ratio, and all 8 biomarker values were similar across arms at baseline. Compared to the standard arm, eGFR was lower by 2.9 and 3.3mL/min/1.73m² in the intensive arm at year 1 and year 4. None of the 8 tubule marker levels was higher in the intensive arm compared to the standard arm at year 1 or year 4. Two tubule function markers (B2M and A1M) were 29% (95% CI, 10%-43%) and 24% (95% CI, 10%-36%) lower at year 1 in the intensive versus standard arm, respectively.

LIMITATIONS

Exclusion of persons with diabetes, and few participants had advanced CKD.

CONCLUSIONS

Among participants with CKD in SPRINT, random assignment to the intensive SBP arm did not increase any levels of 8 urine biomarkers of tubule cell damage despite loss of eGFR. These findings support the hypothesis that eGFR declines in the intensive arm of SPRINT predominantly reflect hemodynamic changes rather than intrinsic damage to kidney tubule cells.

Urinary biomarkers for early detection of platinum based drugs induced nephrotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Nephrotoxicity is a major hazard complicating the use of platinum based drugs (PBD), which can hinder using higher doses protocols to maximize the therapeutic gain. Shortage of serum creatinine level as an accurate biomarker for acute kidney injuries (AKI) necessitates searching for novel biomarkers with better sensitivity and specificity in patients on PBD.

METHODS

In a prospective cohort design, 132 patients receiving PBD were selected for the study. AKI was diagnosed by continuous follow up of serum creatinine level according to Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) guidelines 2012. Serum creatinine and urinary biomarkers (KIM-1, NGAL and cystatin C) was measured in the day of treatment and for 3 days after PBD cycle.

RESULTS

AKI occurred in 35 patients (26.52% of patients). KIM-1, Cystatin C, and NGAL showed significant increase in samples collected in the day of AKI in comparison to their corresponding basal levels (P <  0.0001). In addition, significant increase in urinary levels of the biomarkers in samples collected 1 day before AKI in comparison to their basal levels (P <  0.0001, P <  0.0001, and P = 0.013 for KIM-1, NGAL and Cystatin C respectively). Furthermore KIM-1 data showed a significant increase 2 days before serum creatinine rise in comparison to the corresponding KIM-1 levels in patients who developed AKI (P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Urinary KIM-1, Cystatin C and NGAL can predict PBD induced AKI in earlier stages than serum createnine. KIM-1 is the most sensitive biomarker for early detection of AKI in patients receiving PBD.

Biomarkers and Pharmacogenomics in Kidney Transplantation

This review is focused on present and future biomarkers, along with pharmacogenomics used in clinical practice for kidney transplantation. It aims to highlight biomarkers that could potentially be used to improve kidney transplant early and long-term graft survival, but also potentially patient co-morbidity. Future directions for improving outcomes are discussed, which include immune tolerance and personalising immunosuppression regimens.

Serial measurements of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin: prognostic value in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction treated with a primary percutaneous coronary intervention

BACKGROUND

There are no previous data on serial changes in neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) levels in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients before and after a primary percutaneous coronary intervention (pPCI). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prognostic value of serial NGAL measurements in patients with STEMI treated by pPCI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We identified 169 STEMI patients who underwent pPCI within 12 h of symptom onset and had plasma NGAL measurements before (pre-NGAL) and 6 h after (post-NGAL) pPCI. The primary endpoint was 30-day all-cause mortality, including cardiac death, whereas the secondary endpoint was the change in NGAL levels from before to after pPCI.

RESULTS

The mean pre-NGAL and post-NGAL levels were 109.2±76.1 and 93.3±83.8 ng/ml, respectively. Thirty-day mortality occurred in 12 (7.1%) patients. In terms of changes in serial NGAL levels, post-NGAL levels were decreased in 132 (79%) patients. Patients with elevated post-NGAL levels showed increased mortality compared with patients with decreased post-NGAL levels (P=0.005). Multivariate analyses indicated that old age and high post-NGAL levels were independent risk factors for 30-day mortality.

CONCLUSION

In a large percentage of STEMI patients, plasma post-pPCI NGAL levels were decreased compared with pre-pPCI NGAL levels, even with the administration of potentially nephrotoxic contrast medium. Post-NGAL levels seemed to be superior to pre-NGAL levels for the prediction of 30-day mortality outcome.

N-acetylcysteine decreases urinary level of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin in deceased-donor renal transplant recipients: a randomized clinical trial

CONTEXT

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common complication after kidney transplantation (KT), especially in recipients from deceased donors. Urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (u-NGAL) is an early and sensitive marker of AKI after transplantation.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the renoprotective effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on u-NGAL levels as an early prognostic marker of graft function immediately after transplantation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial was conducted on 70 deceased-donor KT recipients ( www.irct.ir , trial registration number: IRCT2014090214693N4). Patients received 600 mg oral NAC or placebo twice daily from day 0 to 5 and urine samples were taken before, and on the first and fifth days after transplantation. U-NGAL and early graft function were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

NAC significantly reduced u-NGAL levels compared to placebo (p value = 0.02), while improvement in early graft function with NAC did not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that NAC administration in deceased-donor KT recipients can reduce tubular kidney injury, evidenced by u-NGAL measurements. Improvement in early graft function needs a larger sample size to reach a statistical conclusion.

Serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and cystatin C are diagnostic markers of renal dysfunction in older patients with coronary artery disease

Objective

This study aimed to assess the diagnostic value of serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) and cystatin C for renal dysfunction in older patients with coronary disease.

Methods

A total of 84 older patients with coronary artery disease were included in this study. Serum NGAL and cystatin C levels were analysed using commercially available kits. Medical data of all patients were recorded and analysed.

Results

NGAL and cystatin C levels were significantly positively correlated with N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide levels and negatively correlated with the estimated glomerular filtration rate. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves of serum NGAL and cystatin C levels for diagnosing early renal dysfunction were 0.884 and 0.744, respectively.

Conclusion

Serum NGAL and cystatin C are potential early and sensitive markers of renal dysfunction in older patients with coronary artery disease.

Urinary Biomarkers of Kidney Tubular Damage and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality in Elders

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE

Novel urinary biomarkers have enabled earlier detection of kidney tubular damage, but their prognostic value for adverse cardiovascular outcomes is uncertain. We hypothesized that tubular damage, measured by urine α₁-microglobulin (A1M), amino-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen (PIIINP), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), would be associated with higher risks for cardiovascular events and mortality among elders.

STUDY DESIGN

Case-cohort study.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

This study included a randomly selected subcohort (n=502), cardiovascular disease (CVD) cases (n=245), and heart failure cases (n=220) from the Health, Aging, and Body Composition (Health ABC) Study.

PREDICTORS

Baseline urine A1M, PIIINP, and NGAL concentrations.

OUTCOMES

Incident CVD, heart failure, and all-cause mortality.

ANALYTICAL APPROACH

Cox proportional hazards models were used to evaluate biomarker associations with each outcome.

RESULTS

At baseline, mean age was 74 years and estimated glomerular filtration rate was 73mL/min/1.73m². After adjustment for demographics, estimated glomerular filtration rate, albumin-creatinine ratio, and other cardiovascular risk factors, each doubling in biomarker concentration was associated with the following adjusted HRs for CVD: A1M, 1.51 (95% CI, 1.16-1.96); PIIINP, 1.21 (95% CI, 1.00-1.46); and NGAL, 1.12 (95% CI, 1.05-1.20). There were 248 deaths in the subcohort during a median follow-up of 12.4 years. Adjusted associations of each biomarker (HR per doubling) with all-cause mortality were: A1M, 1.29 (95% CI, 1.10-1.51); PIIINP, 1.05 (95%, 0.94-1.18); and NGAL, 1.07 (95% CI, 1.02-1.12). Biomarker concentrations did not have statistically significant associations with heart failure after multivariable adjustment.

LIMITATIONS

Urine biomarkers were measured at a single time point; no validation cohort available.

CONCLUSIONS

Kidney tubular damage is an independent risk factor for CVD and death among elders. Future studies should investigate mechanisms by which kidney tubular damage may adversely affect cardiovascular risk.

Prediction of delayed graft function and long-term graft survival by serum and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin during the early postoperative phase after kidney transplantation

Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) has emerged as an early marker protein for kidney dysfunction in various clinical settings. In this prospective study we evaluated serial changes of serum and urinary NGAL within the first 7 days after kidney transplantation in 170 consecutive recipients. The main focus of this study was to assess the performance of serum and urinary NGAL in the prediction of delayed graft function (DGF) and two-year graft and patient survival. Serum and urine samples of 170 patients undergoing primary kidney transplantation from October 2010 to December 2012 were prospectively collected from day 0 to 7. NGAL was analyzed by ELISA. Multivariate regression models, receiver-operating characteristics (ROC), and areas under ROC curves (AUC) were used to identify predictors of DGF. DGF occurred in 52 patients (30.6%). Serum (AUC = 0.869) and urinary NGAL (AUC = 0.872) on postoperative day (POD) 2 could accurately predict DGF compared to serum creatinine (AUC = 0.619). Multivariate analyses revealed donor age, serum and urinary NGAL significantly associated with DGF (p<0.001). Recipient age was the only significant factor in a cox regression model influencing two-year graft and patient survival. In conclusion, serum and urinary NGAL are early predictors of DGF after kidney transplantation.

Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin as a Biomarker of Allograft Function After Renal Transplantation: Evaluation of the Current Status and Future Insights

Neutrophil gelatinase‐associated lipocalin (NGAL), a protein belonging to the lipocalin superfamily initially found in activated neutrophils, is expressed by several cell types, including kidney tubule. The increase in NGAL production and release from tubular cells in response to various insults has been proven to predict acute kidney injury (AKI). For this reason, it has emerged as a valuable noninvasive biomarker of AKI in clinical nephrology. Also in the renal transplant setting, different studies have indicated NGAL as a valuable tool, especially in the early postoperative period, since the currently available clinical and laboratory parameters remain poorly sensitive to monitor immediate posttransplant graft function. This is an analysis of the recent literature to assess the utility of plasma and urinary NGAL, exosomal mRNA for NGAL, and NGAL levels in the perfusate of machine‐perfused kidneys for the prediction of graft function recovery in the early postsurgery phase after renal transplantation. We found that NGAL appears as a promising troponin‐like biomarker to detect short‐term impairment of graft function after renal transplant, but there are still some limitations in its clinical application, essentially related to its low specificity. Moreover, comparing NGAL assayed in serum, urine, machine‐perfusate, or as exosomal mRNA, each one has shown limitations and benefits in terms of predictive performance for DGF, according to various existing studies, feasibly due to different cut‐off levels, designs and patient sample sizes.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering analysis of urine from deceased donors as a prognostic tool for kidney transplant outcome

We report the utility of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) analysis of urine from deceased donors for prognosis of kidney transplant outcomes. Iodide-modified silver nanoparticles were used as the enabler for sensitive measurements of urine proteins. Principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were employed for the statistical analysis of the SERS data. Thirty urine samples in three classes were analysed. The ATN class consists of donors whose kidneys had acute tubular necrosis (ATN), the most common type of acute kidney injury (AKI) with high risk of poor graft performance in recipients, yet yielded acceptable transplant outcome. The DGF class is comprised of donors whose kidney had delayed graft function (DGF) in recipients. The control class includes donors whose kidneys did not have donor ATN or recipient DGF. We show a sensitivity of more than 90 % in differentiating the ATN class from the DGF and control classes. Our methodology can thus help clinicians choose kidneys in the high-risk ATN category for transplant which would otherwise be discarded. Our research is impactful in that it could serve as a valuable guidance to expand the deceased donor pool to include those perceived as high-risk AKI type based on common urinary biomarkers. Picutre: Scheme of SERS analysis of urine samples from deceased donors for kidney transplant outcome indication.

Role of kidney biomarkers [Kidney injury molecule-1, Calbindin, Interleukin-18 and Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1] in HIV associated pre-eclampsia

OBJECTIVE

Both HIV infection and pre-eclampsia (PE) are associated with considerable maternal mortality in South Africa. This study was designed to compare the urinary levels of kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), calbindin, interleukin-18 (IL-18), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in HIV associated normotensive and preeclamptic pregnancies.

METHODS

Following ethical approval and written consent, urine samples were collected from HIV negative (HIV -ve) normotensive pregnant (n = 19), HIV positive (HIV +ve) normotensive pregnant (n = 19), HIV -ve pre-eclamptic (n = 19) and HIV +ve pre-eclamptic (n = 19) women. The concentrations of KIM-1, calbindin, IL-18 and MCP-1 were assessed using the Bioplex technology.

RESULTS

In contrast to IL-18 (p > 0.05) and MCP-1 (p > 0.05), the concentrations of KIM-1 (p = 0.02) and calbindin (p = 0.02) were significantly higher in PE compared to normotensive pregnancies, irrespective of HIV status. Based on HIV status, all 4 analytes were similar between HIV+ve and HIV-ve groups. Urinary KIM-1 levels in the HIV -ve pre-eclamptics were significantly higher than those in the HIV -ve women with normal pregnancies (p = 0.007). The maternal hypertension and/or HIV profile has no marked impact on the fetal weight.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate an increase in the urinary level of kidney injury molecule-1 and calbindin in PE, implicating their possible value as biomarkers of kidney injury. We observed no differences in the levels of KIM-1, IL-18, MCP-1 and calbindin based on HIV status. We propose that studies with larger sample sizes using these markers be conducted to establish their use as markers of diagnosing kidney injury in PE.

Cytokines of the IL-1 family: recognized targets in chronic inflammation underrated in organ transplantations

Interleukin 1 (IL-1) family is a group of cytokines with multiple local and systemic effects, which regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses. Generally, most IL-1 family cytokines express prevailing pro-inflammatory activities (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-18, IL-33, IL-36 α, β, γ), whereas others are anti-inflammatory (IL-1Ra (IL-1 receptor antagonist), IL-36Ra, IL-38, IL-37). In addition to their immunomodulatory roles, some of them are also involved in the physiological modulation of homeostatic processes and directly affect mRNA transcription. IL-1 family cytokines bind to specific receptors composed of a ligand-binding chain and an accessory chain. The pro-inflammatory effects of IL-1 family cytokines are regulated on the level of transcription, enzymatic processing of precursors, release of soluble antagonists, and expression of decoy receptors. Members of the IL-1 family regulate the recruitment and activation of effector cells involved in innate and adaptive immunity, but they are also involved in the pathogenesis of chronic disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and various autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. There are only limited data regarding the role of IL-1 cytokines in transplantation. In recent years, targeted therapeutics affecting IL-1 have been used in multiple clinical studies. In addition to the recombinant IL-1Ra, anakinra (highly effective in autoinflammatory diseases and tested for other chronic diseases), the monoclonal antibodies canakinumab, gevokizumab, and rilonacept (a long-acting IL-1 receptor fusion protein) provide further options to block IL-1 activity. Furthermore, new inhibitors of IL-18 (GSK 1070806, ABT-325, rIL-18BP (IL-18 binding protein)) and IL-33 (CNTO-7160) are presently under clinical studies and other molecules are being developed to target IL-1 family cytokines.