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Kipp M. Astrocytes: Lessons Learned from the Cuprizone Model. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16420. [PMID: 38003609 PMCID: PMC10671869 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A diverse array of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia, exhibit distinct myelin abnormalities at both the molecular and histological levels. These aberrations are closely linked to dysfunction of oligodendrocytes and alterations in myelin structure, which may be pivotal factors contributing to the disconnection of brain regions and the resulting characteristic clinical impairments observed in these conditions. Astrocytes, which significantly outnumber neurons in the central nervous system by a five-to-one ratio, play indispensable roles in the development, maintenance, and overall well-being of neurons and oligodendrocytes. Consequently, they emerge as potential key players in the onset and progression of a myriad of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, targeting astrocytes represents a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention in such disorders. To gain deeper insights into the functions of astrocytes in the context of myelin-related disorders, it is imperative to employ appropriate in vivo models that faithfully recapitulate specific aspects of complex human diseases in a reliable and reproducible manner. One such model is the cuprizone model, wherein metabolic dysfunction in oligodendrocytes initiates an early response involving microglia and astrocyte activation, culminating in multifocal demyelination. Remarkably, following the cessation of cuprizone intoxication, a spontaneous process of endogenous remyelination occurs. In this review article, we provide a historical overview of studies investigating the responses and putative functions of astrocytes in the cuprizone model. Following that, we list previously published works that illuminate various aspects of the biology and function of astrocytes in this multiple sclerosis model. Some of the studies are discussed in more detail in the context of astrocyte biology and pathology. Our objective is twofold: to provide an invaluable overview of this burgeoning field, and, more importantly, to inspire fellow researchers to embark on experimental investigations to elucidate the multifaceted functions of this pivotal glial cell subpopulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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2
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Yamamoto S, Iwasa K, Yamagishi A, Haruta C, Maruyama K, Yoshikawa K. Microglial depletion exacerbates axonal damage and motor dysfunction in mice with cuprizone-induced demyelination. J Pharmacol Sci 2023; 153:94-103. [PMID: 37770161 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2023.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination model, an animal model of Multiple sclerosis (MS), is characterized by demyelination and motor dysfunction due to microglial-mediated neuroinflammation. To determine the contribution of microglia to motor function during CPZ-induced demyelination, the microglia of mice in the CPZ-model were depleted using PLX3397 (PLX), an orally bioavailable selective colony stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor. PLX treatment aggravated motor dysfunction as shown by the pole, beam walk, ladder walk, and rotarod tests. PLX treatment removed microglia from the superior cerebellar peduncle (SCP), but not from the corpus callosum (CC). Although PLX treatment did not affect the degree of demyelination in both of CC and SCP, the expression of axonal damage marker APP (amyloid precursor protein) was increased. Increased TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS expressions were observed in PLX-treated mice. These results suggest that microglial depletion exacerbates axonal damage and motor dysfunction in CPZ model mice. In this study, we found that microglia contribute to motor function and axon-protective effects in CPZ-induced demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Yamamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, 38 Moro-hongo, Moroyama-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan; School of Medical Technology, Faculty of Health and Medical Care, Saitama Medical University, 1397-1 Yamane, Hidaka-shi, Saitama 350-1241, Japan
| | - Kensuke Iwasa
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, 38 Moro-hongo, Moroyama-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan
| | - Anzu Yamagishi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, 38 Moro-hongo, Moroyama-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan; School of Medical Technology, Faculty of Health and Medical Care, Saitama Medical University, 1397-1 Yamane, Hidaka-shi, Saitama 350-1241, Japan
| | - Chikara Haruta
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, 38 Moro-hongo, Moroyama-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan
| | - Kei Maruyama
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, 38 Moro-hongo, Moroyama-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan
| | - Keisuke Yoshikawa
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, 38 Moro-hongo, Moroyama-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan.
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3
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Clawson ED, Radecki DZ, Samanta J. Immunofluorescence assay for demyelination, remyelination, and proliferation in an acute cuprizone mouse model. STAR Protoc 2023; 4:102072. [PMID: 36853716 PMCID: PMC9918794 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Here, we present a protocol to assess demyelination in the corpus callosum of an acute cuprizone mouse model, which is routinely used to induce demyelination for studying myelin regeneration in the rodent brain. We describe the tracing of neural stem cells via intraperitoneal injection of tamoxifen into adult Gli1CreERT2;Ai9 mice and the induction of demyelination with cuprizone diet. We also detail EdU administration, cryosectioning of the mouse brain, EdU labeling, and immunofluorescence staining to examine proliferation and myelination. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Radecki et al. (2020).1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth D Clawson
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - Daniel Z Radecki
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jayshree Samanta
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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4
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Buttigieg E, Scheller A, El Waly B, Kirchhoff F, Debarbieux F. Contribution of Intravital Neuroimaging to Study Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:22-38. [PMID: 36653665 PMCID: PMC10119369 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-022-01324-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex and long-lasting neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by the loss of myelin within the white matter and cortical fibers, axonopathy, and inflammatory responses leading to consequent sensory-motor and cognitive deficits of patients. While complete resolution of the disease is not yet a reality, partial tissue repair has been observed in patients which offers hope for therapeutic strategies. To address the molecular and cellular events of the pathomechanisms, a variety of animal models have been developed to investigate distinct aspects of MS disease. Recent advances of multiscale intravital imaging facilitated the direct in vivo analysis of MS in the animal models with perspective of clinical transfer to patients. This review gives an overview of MS animal models, focusing on the current imaging modalities at the microscopic and macroscopic levels and emphasizing the importance of multimodal approaches to improve our understanding of the disease and minimize the use of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeline Buttigieg
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone (INT), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR7289, 13005, Marseille, France
- Centre Européen de Recherche en Imagerie Médicale (CERIMED), Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Anja Scheller
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Bilal El Waly
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone (INT), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR7289, 13005, Marseille, France
- Centre Européen de Recherche en Imagerie Médicale (CERIMED), Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine (CIPMM), University of Saarland, 66421, Homburg, Germany
| | - Franck Debarbieux
- Institut des Neurosciences de la Timone (INT), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR7289, 13005, Marseille, France.
- Centre Européen de Recherche en Imagerie Médicale (CERIMED), Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France.
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France.
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Noori T, Dehpour AR, Alavi SD, Hosseini SZ, Korani S, Sureda A, Esmaeili J, Shirooie S. Synthesis and evaluation of the effects of solid lipid nanoparticles of ivermectin and ivermectin on cuprizone-induced demyelination via targeting the TRPA1/NF-kB/GFAP signaling pathway. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES 2023; 26:1272-1282. [PMID: 37886003 PMCID: PMC10598811 DOI: 10.22038/ijbms.2023.71309.15493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Objectives Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease of the central nervous system (CNS) and its cause is unknown. Several environmental and genetic factors may have roles in the pathogenesis of MS. The synthesis of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for ivermectin (IVM) loading was performed to increase its efficiency and bioavailability and evaluate its ability in improving the behavioral and histopathological changes induced by cuprizone (CPZ) in the male C57BL/6 mice. Materials and Methods Four groups of 7 adult C57BL/6 mice including control (normal diet), CPZ, IVM, and nano-IVM groups were chosen. After synthesis of nano-ivermectin, demyelination was induced by adding 0.2% CPZ to animal feed for 6 weeks. IVM and nano-IVM (1 mg/kg/day, IP) were given for the final 14 days of the study. At last, behavioral tests, histochemical assays, and immunohistochemistry of TRPA1, NF-kB p65, and GFAP were done. Results The time of immobility of mice in the IVM and nano-IVM groups was reduced compared to the CPZ group. Histopathological examination revealed demyelination in the CPZ group, which was ameliorated by IVM and nano-IVM administration. In IVM and nano-IVM groups corpus callosum levels of TRPA1, NF-kB p65, and GFAP were decreased compared to the CPZ group. In the IVM and nano-IVM groups, the levels of MBP were significantly higher than in the CPZ group. Conclusion The results evidenced that IVM and nano-IVM administration is capable of reducing demyelination in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tayebeh Noori
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Ahmad Reza Dehpour
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Experimental medicine research center, Tehran University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyede Darya Alavi
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Seyede Zahra Hosseini
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Sina Korani
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Antoni Sureda
- Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress (NUCOX) and Health Research Institute of Balearic Islands (IdISBa), University of Balearic Islands-IUNICS, Palma de Mallorca E-07122, Balearic Islands, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jamileh Esmaeili
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samira Shirooie
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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Zhang H, Wang D, Sun J, Wang Y, Wu S, Wang J. Huperzine-A Improved Animal Behavior in Cuprizone-Induced Mouse Model by Alleviating Demyelination and Neuroinflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232416182. [PMID: 36555825 PMCID: PMC9785798 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Huperzine A (HupA) is a natural acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AChEI) with the advantages of high efficiency, selectivity as well as reversibility and can exhibit significant therapeutic effects against certain neurodegenerative diseases. It is also beneficial in reducing the neurological impairment and neuroinflammation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a classic model for multiple sclerosis (MS). However, whether HupA can directly regulate oligodendrocyte differentiation and maturation and promote remyelination has not been investigated previously. In this study, we have analyzed the potential protective effects of HupA on the demylination model of MS induced by cuprizone (CPZ). It was found that HupA significantly attenuated anxiety-like behavior, as well as augmented motor and cognitive functions in CPZ mice. It also decreased demyelination and axonal injury in CPZ mice. Moreover, in CPZ mice, HupA increased mRNA levels of the various anti-inflammatory cytokines (Arg1, CD206) while reducing the levels of different pro-inflammatory cytokines (iNOS, IL-1β, IL-18, CD16, and TNF-α). Mecamylamine, a nicotinic acetylcholinergic receptor antagonist, could effectively reverse the effects of HupA. Therefore, we concluded that HupA primarily exerts its therapeutic effects on multiple sclerosis through alleviating demyelination and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyu Zhang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Danjie Wang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jingxian Sun
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yumeng Wang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shuai Wu
- Department of Neurology, Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
- Correspondence: (S.W.); (J.W.); Tel.: +86-15921977760 (S.W.); +86-17721371757 (J.W.)
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
- Correspondence: (S.W.); (J.W.); Tel.: +86-15921977760 (S.W.); +86-17721371757 (J.W.)
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7
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Roczkowsky A, Doan MAL, Hlavay BA, Mamik MK, Branton WG, McKenzie BA, Saito LB, Schmitt L, Eitzen G, Di Cara F, Wuest M, Wuest F, Rachubinski R, Power C. Peroxisome Injury in Multiple Sclerosis: Protective Effects of 4-Phenylbutyrate in CNS-Associated Macrophages. J Neurosci 2022; 42:7152-7165. [PMID: 35940876 PMCID: PMC9480879 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0312-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive and inflammatory demyelinating disease of the CNS. Peroxisomes perform critical functions that contribute to CNS homeostasis. We investigated peroxisome injury and mitigating effects of peroxisome-restorative therapy on inflammatory demyelination in models of MS. Human autopsied CNS tissues (male and female), human cell cultures, and cuprizone-mediated demyelination mice (female) were examined by RT-PCR, Western blotting, and immunolabeling. The therapeutic peroxisome proliferator, 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA) was investigated in vitro and in vivo White matter from MS patients showed reduced peroxisomal transcript and protein levels, including PMP70, compared with non-MS controls. Cultured human neural cells revealed that human microglia contained abundant peroxisomal proteins. TNF-α-exposed microglia displayed reduced immunolabeling of peroxisomal proteins, PMP70 and PEX11β, which was prevented with 4-PBA. In human myeloid cells exposed to TNF-α or nigericin, suppression of PEX11β and catalase protein levels were observed to be dependent on NLRP3 expression. Hindbrains from cuprizone-exposed mice showed reduced Abcd1, Cat, and Pex5l transcript levels, with concurrent increased Nlrp3 and Il1b transcript levels, which was abrogated by 4-PBA. In the central corpus callosum, Iba-1 in CNS-associated macrophages and peroxisomal thiolase immunostaining after cuprizone exposure was increased by 4-PBA. 4-PBA prevented decreased myelin basic protein and neurofilament heavy chain immunoreactivity caused by cuprizone exposure. Cuprizone-induced neurobehavioral deficits were improved by 4-PBA treatment. Peroxisome injury in CNS-associated macrophages contributed to neuroinflammation and demyelination that was prevented by 4-PBA treatment. A peroxisome-targeted therapy might be valuable for treating inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration in MS.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common and disabling disorder of the CNS with no curative therapies for its progressive form. The present studies implicate peroxisome impairment in CNS-associated macrophages (CAMs), which include resident microglia and blood-derived macrophages, as an important contributor to inflammatory demyelination and neuroaxonal injury in MS. We also show that the inflammasome molecule NLRP3 is associated with peroxisome injury in vitro and in vivo, especially in CAMs. Treatment with the peroxisome proliferator 4-phenylbutyrate exerted protective effects with improved molecular, morphologic, and neurobehavioral outcomes that were associated with a neuroprotective CAM phenotype. These findings offer novel insights into the contribution of peroxisome injury in MS together with preclinical testing of a rational therapy for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew A L Doan
- The Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Francesca Di Cara
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Christopher Power
- Departments of Medicine
- Medical Microbiology & Immunology
- The Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada
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8
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Zhai Y, Wang Q, Zhu Z, Hao Y, Han F, Hong J, Zheng W, Ma S, Yang L, Cheng G. High-efficiency brain-targeted intranasal delivery of BDNF mediated by engineered exosomes to promote remyelination. Biomater Sci 2022; 10:5707-5718. [PMID: 36039673 DOI: 10.1039/d2bm00518b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The regeneration of myelin sheaths is the ultimate goal of the treatment of demyelination disease, including multiple sclerosis (MS). However, current drugs for MS mainly target the immune system and can only slow down the disease development and do not promote the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) abundant in the myelin injury region into mature oligodendrocytes to form a new myelin sheath. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in the regulation of OPC proliferation and differentiation into mature oligodendrocytes. Exosomes, a kind of nanoscale membrane vesicle secreted by cells, can be used as potential therapeutic drug delivery vectors for central nervous system diseases. Here, brain-targeted modification and BDNF intracellular-loaded exosomes were produced through engineering HEK293T cells, which can promote the differentiation of OPCs into mature oligodendrocytes in vitro. The intranasal administration of the brain-targeted engineered exosome-mediated BDNF was a highly effective delivery route to the brain and had a significant therapeutic effect on remyelination and motor coordination ability improvement in demyelination model mice. The combination of intranasal administration with brain-targeted and BDNF-loaded designed exosomes provides a strategy for efficient drug delivery and treatment of central nervous system diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxin Zhai
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Quanwei Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Zhanchi Zhu
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Ying Hao
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China.,Guangdong Institute of Semiconductor Micro-Nano Manufacturing Technology, Guangdong 528200, China
| | - Fang Han
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Jing Hong
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Wenlong Zheng
- Suzhou Kowloon Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University Medical School, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China.
| | - Sancheng Ma
- Suzhou Kowloon Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University Medical School, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China.
| | - Lingyan Yang
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China.,Guangdong Institute of Semiconductor Micro-Nano Manufacturing Technology, Guangdong 528200, China
| | - Guosheng Cheng
- School of Nano-Tech and Nano Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, China. .,CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Jiangsu 215123, China.,Guangdong Institute of Semiconductor Micro-Nano Manufacturing Technology, Guangdong 528200, China
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9
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Huang L, Fung E, Bose S, Popp A, Böser P, Memmott J, Kutskova YA, Miller R, Tarcsa E, Klein C, Veldman GM, Mueller BK, Cui YF. Elezanumab, a clinical stage human monoclonal antibody that selectively targets repulsive guidance molecule A to promote neuroregeneration and neuroprotection in neuronal injury and demyelination models. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 159:105492. [PMID: 34478849 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Repulsive guidance molecule A (RGMa) is a potent inhibitor of axonal growth and a regulator of neuronal cell death. It is up-regulated following neuronal injury and accumulates in chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Neutralizing RGMa has the potential to promote neuroregeneration and neuroprotection. Previously we reported that a rat anti-N terminal RGMa (N-RGMa) antibody r5F9 and its humanized version h5F9 (ABT-207) promote neuroprotection and neuroregeneration in preclinical neurodegenerative disease models. However, due to its cross-reactivity to RGMc/hemojuvelin, ABT-207 causes iron accumulation in vivo, which could present a safety liability. Here we report the generation and characterization of a novel RGMa-selective anti-N-RGMa antibody elezanumab, which is currently under Phase 2 clinical evaluation in multiple disease indications. Elezanumab, a human monoclonal antibody generated by in vitro PROfusion mRNA display technology, competes with ABT-207 in binding to N-RGMa but lacks RGMc cross-reactivity with no impact on iron metabolism. It neutralizes repulsive activity of soluble RGMa in vitro and blocks membrane RGMa mediated BMP signaling. In the optic nerve crush and optic neuritis models, elezanumab promotes axonal regeneration and prevents retinal nerve fiber layer degeneration. In the spinal targeted experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, elezanumab promotes axonal regeneration and remyelination, decreases inflammatory lesion area and improves functional recovery. Finally, in the mouse cuprizone model, elezanumab reduces demyelination, which is consistent with its inhibitory effect on BMP signaling. Taken together, these preclinical data demonstrate that elezanumab has neuroregenerative and neuroprotective activities without impact on iron metabolism, thus providing a compelling rationale for its clinical development in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Huang
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Emma Fung
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Sahana Bose
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Andreas Popp
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany.
| | - Preethne Böser
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany.
| | - John Memmott
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Yuliya A Kutskova
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Renee Miller
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Edit Tarcsa
- AbbVie Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
| | - Corinna Klein
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany.
| | | | - Bernhard K Mueller
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany.
| | - Yi-Fang Cui
- AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany.
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Untargeted Metabolomic Profiling of Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination in Mouse Corpus Callosum by UPLC-Orbitrap/MS Reveals Potential Metabolic Biomarkers of CNS Demyelination Disorders. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:7093844. [PMID: 34567412 PMCID: PMC8457991 DOI: 10.1155/2021/7093844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by periodic neuronal demyelination, which leads to a range of symptoms and eventually to disability. The goal of this research was to use UPLC-Orbitrap/MS to identify validated biomarkers and explore the metabolic mechanisms of MS in mice. Thirty-two C57BL/6 male mice were randomized into two groups that were fed either normal food or 0.2% CPZ for 11 weeks. The mouse demyelination model was assessed by LFB and the expression of MBP by immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry. The metabolites of the corpus callosum were quantified using UPLC-Orbitrap/MS. The mouse pole climbing experiment was used to assess coordination ability. Multivariate statistical analysis was adopted for screening differential metabolites, and the ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) was used to reveal the metabolite interaction network. We successfully established the demyelination model. The CPZ group slowly lost weight and showed an increased pole climbing time during feeding compared to the CON group. A total of 81 metabolites (VIP > 1 and P < 0.05) were determined to be enriched in 24 metabolic pathways; 41 metabolites were markedly increased, while 40 metabolites were markedly decreased in the CPZ group. The IPA results revealed that these 81 biomarker metabolites were associated with neuregulin signaling, PI3K-AKT signaling, mTOR signaling, and ERK/MAPK signaling. KEGG pathway analysis showed that two significantly different metabolic pathways were enriched, namely, the glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid metabolic pathways, comprising a total of nine biomarkers. Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that the metabolites (e.g., PE (16 : 0/22 : 6(4Z, 7Z, 10Z, 13Z, 16Z, 19Z)), PC (18 : 0/22 : 4(7Z, 10Z, 13Z, 16Z)), cytidine 5′-diphosphocholine, PS (18 : 0/22 : 6(4Z, 7Z, 10Z, 13Z, 16Z, 19Z)), glycerol 3-phosphate, SM (d18 : 0/16 : 1(9Z)), Cer (d18:1/18 : 0), galabiosylceramide (d18:1/18 : 0), and GlcCer (d18:1/18 : 0)) have good discrimination ability for the CPZ group. In conclusion, the differential metabolites have great potential to serve as biomarkers of demyelinating diseases. In addition, we identified metabolic pathways associated with CPZ-induced demyelination pathogenesis, which provided a new perspective for understanding the relationship between metabolites and CNS demyelination pathogenesis.
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Valproic acid suppresses cuprizone-induced hippocampal demyelination and anxiety-like behavior by promoting cholesterol biosynthesis. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 158:105489. [PMID: 34461265 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin consists of several layers of tightly compacted membranes that form an insulating sheath around axons. These membranes are highly enriched in cholesterol, which is essential for the myelination process. Proper myelination is crucial for various neurophysiological functions while demyelination may cause CNS disease, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent studies demonstrated that demyelination occurs not only in the white matter but also in the grey matter, such as the hippocampus, which may cause cognitive deficits and mental disorders. Valproic acid (VPA) is an anticonvulsant agent prescribed for the treatment of epilepsy and seizure. Recently, VPA was reported to alter cholesterol metabolism in neural cells, suggesting that it may play an important role in myelin biogenesis. Here in this study, we found significant demyelination in the hippocampus of the mouse cuprizone model, which is accompanied by reduced cholesterol biosynthesis and increased anxiety-like behavior. VPA treatment, however, suppressed cuprizone-induced hippocampal demyelination and anxiety-like behavior by promoting cholesterol biosynthesis. These data identify an important role of VPA in the hippocampal demyelination process and the hippocampal demyelination-related behavior deficit via regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis, which provides new insights into the mechanisms of VPA as a protective agent against CNS demyelination.
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Saitta KS, Lercher LD, Sainato DM, Patel A, Huang Y, McAuliffe WG, Dreyfus CF. CHPG enhances BDNF and myelination in cuprizone-treated mice through astrocytic metabotropic glutamate receptor 5. Glia 2021; 69:1950-1965. [PMID: 33811383 PMCID: PMC9847144 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
It is well recognized that astrocytes can produce factors known to affect the myelination process. One such factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), can enhance the differentiation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells following a demyelinating lesion. Our previous work indicated that enhancing astrocyte-derived BDNF via injection of a general agonist of Group I/II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) into the lesion increased myelin proteins in the cuprizone model of demyelination after 4 hr. To determine if this observation has potential therapeutic significance, we now use a more specific mGluR agonist, 2-chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine (CHPG), which binds to mGluR5, to examine effects on myelination through the clinically relevant approach of a peripheral injection. In initial studies, intraperitoneal injection of CHPG resulted in an increase in myelin proteins within the lesioned corpus callosum. These effects were blocked when either BDNF or the CHPG receptor, mGluR5, was deleted from glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ astrocytes or when the BDNF receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), was deleted from proteolipid protein (PLP)+ oligodendrocytes. Moreover, injection of CHPG over 2 weeks not only elevated BDNF and myelin proteins, but also enhanced myelination and reversed behavioral deficits. Interestingly, effects on myelin and myelin proteins were not seen in the control animals, indicating that a lesion is critical in eliciting effects. Taken together, the data suggest that the mGluR agonist CHPG may be a potential therapeutic strategy for treating demyelinating diseases and that it works by enhancing the release of BDNF from astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S. Saitta
- Joint Graduate Program in Toxicology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854,Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Lauren D. Lercher
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Danielle M. Sainato
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Ashish Patel
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Yangyang Huang
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - W. Geoffrey McAuliffe
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
| | - Cheryl F. Dreyfus
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854
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13
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Proteomics of Multiple Sclerosis: Inherent Issues in Defining the Pathoetiology and Identifying (Early) Biomarkers. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147377. [PMID: 34298997 PMCID: PMC8306353 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of the human central nervous system having an unconfirmed pathoetiology. Although animal models are used to mimic the pathology and clinical symptoms, no single model successfully replicates the full complexity of MS from its initial clinical identification through disease progression. Most importantly, a lack of preclinical biomarkers is hampering the earliest possible diagnosis and treatment. Notably, the development of rationally targeted therapeutics enabling pre-emptive treatment to halt the disease is also delayed without such biomarkers. Using literature mining and bioinformatic analyses, this review assessed the available proteomic studies of MS patients and animal models to discern (1) whether the models effectively mimic MS; and (2) whether reasonable biomarker candidates have been identified. The implication and necessity of assessing proteoforms and the critical importance of this to identifying rational biomarkers are discussed. Moreover, the challenges of using different proteomic analytical approaches and biological samples are also addressed.
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Abd El Aziz AE, Sayed RH, Sallam NA, El Sayed NS. Neuroprotective Effects of Telmisartan and Nifedipine Against Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination and Behavioral Dysfunction in Mice: Roles of NF-κB and Nrf2. Inflammation 2021; 44:1629-1642. [PMID: 33709265 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-021-01447-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system which injures the myelin sheath. Telmisartan and nifedipine are antihypertensive drugs that recently showed neuroprotective properties against neurodegenerative diseases. This study evaluated the neuroprotective effect of telmisartan or nifedipine in cuprizone-induced demyelination in mice by examining the underlying mechanisms. C57BL/6 mice received a diet containing 0.7% (w/w) cuprizone for 7 days followed by 3 weeks on a 0.2% cuprizone diet. Telmisartan (5 mg/kg/day, p.o.) or nifedipine (5 mg/kg/day, p.o.) was administered for 3 weeks starting from the second week. Telmisartan or nifedipine improved locomotor activity and enhanced motor coordination as demonstrated by open field, rotarod, and grip strength tests. Furthermore, telmisartan or nifedipine restored myelin basic protein mRNA and protein expression and increased luxol fast blue-staining intensity. Telmisartan or nifedipine attenuated cuprizone-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis by decreasing brain malondialdehyde and caspase-3 along with restoring reduced glutathione and brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels. Telmisartan or nifedipine exerted an anti-inflammatory effect by reducing the expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB p65) as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines and elevating the expression of IκB-α. In parallel, telmisartan or nifedipine upregulated the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the levels of heme oxygenase-1 and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase 1 enzymes. In conclusion, the current study provides evidence for the protective effect of telmisartan and nifedipine in cuprizone-induced demyelination and behavioral dysfunction in mice possibly by modulating NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira E Abd El Aziz
- Center of Excellence, Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Rabab Hamed Sayed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El Aini St, Cairo, 11562, Egypt.
| | - Nada A Sallam
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El Aini St, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
| | - Nesrine S El Sayed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El Aini St, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
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15
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Sen MK, Almuslehi MSM, Coorssen JR, Mahns DA, Shortland PJ. Behavioural and histological changes in cuprizone-fed mice. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 87:508-523. [PMID: 32014578 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Feeding cuprizone (CPZ) to mice causes demyelination and reactive gliosis in the central nervous system (CNS), hallmarks of some neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis. However, relatively little is known regarding the behavioural deficits associated with CPZ-feeding and much of what is known is contradictory. This study investigated whether 37 days oral feeding of 0.2% CPZ to young adult mice evoked sensorimotor behavioural changes. Behavioural tests included measurements of nociceptive withdrawal reflex responses and locomotor tests. Additionally, these were compared to histological analysis of the relevant CNS regions by analysis of neuronal and glial cell components. CPZ-fed mice exhibited more foot slips in walking ladder and beam tests compared to controls. In contrast, no changes in nociceptive thresholds to thermal or mechanical stimuli occurred between groups. Histological analysis showed demyelination throughout the CNS, which was most prominent in white matter tracts in the cerebrum but was also elevated in areas such as the hippocampus, basal ganglia and diencephalon. Profound demyelination and gliosis was seen in the deep cerebellar nuclei and brain stem regions associated with the vestibular system. However, in the spinal cord changes were minimal. No loss of oligodendrocytes, neurons or motoneurons occurred but a significant increase in astrocyte staining ensued throughout the white matter of the spinal cord. The results suggest that CPZ differentially affects oligodendrocytes throughout the CNS and induces subtle motor changes such as ataxia. This is associated with deficits in CNS regions associated with motor and balance functions such as the cerebellum and brain stem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mohammed S M Almuslehi
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia; Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Diyala University, Diyala, Iraq
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Departments of Health Sciences and Biological Sciences, Faculties of Applied Health Sciences and Mathematics & Science, Brock University, Ontario, Canada
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Peter J Shortland
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.
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16
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The Cuprizone Model: Dos and Do Nots. Cells 2020; 9:cells9040843. [PMID: 32244377 PMCID: PMC7226799 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Various pre-clinical models with different specific features of the disease are available to study MS pathogenesis and to develop new therapeutic options. During the last decade, the model of toxic demyelination induced by cuprizone has become more and more popular, and it has contributed substantially to our understanding of distinct yet important aspects of the MS pathology. Here, we aim to provide a practical guide on how to use the cuprizone model and which pitfalls should be avoided.
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Abstract
Microglia are resident macrophages of the CNS that are involved in its development, homeostasis and response to infection and damage. Microglial activation is a common feature of neurological disorders, and although in some instances this activation can be damaging, protective and regenerative functions of microglia have been revealed. The most prominent example of the regenerative functions is a role for microglia in supporting regeneration of myelin after injury, a process that is critical for axonal health and relevant to numerous disorders in which loss of myelin integrity is a prevalent feature, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer disease and motor neuron disease. Although drugs that are intended to promote remyelination are entering clinical trials, the mechanisms by which remyelination is controlled and how microglia are involved are not completely understood. In this Review, we discuss work that has identified novel regulators of microglial activation - including molecular drivers, population heterogeneity and turnover - that might influence their pro-remyelination capacity. We also discuss therapeutic targeting of microglia as a potential approach to promoting remyelination.
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18
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Differential Expression of miRNAs and Behavioral Change in the Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination Mouse Model. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020646. [PMID: 31963761 PMCID: PMC7014274 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system involve myelin abnormalities, oligodendrocyte damage, and consequent glia activation. Neurotoxicant cuprizone (CPZ) was used to establish a mouse model of demyelination. However, the effects of CPZ on microRNA (miRNA) expression and behavior have not been clearly reported. We analyzed the behavior of mice administered a diet containing 0.2% CPZ for 6 weeks, followed by 6 weeks of recovery. Rotarod analysis demonstrated that the treated group had poorer motor coordination than control animals. This effect was reversed after 6 weeks of CPZ withdrawal. Open-field tests showed that CPZ-treated mice exhibited significantly increased anxiety and decreased exploratory behavior. CPZ-induced demyelination was observed to be alleviated after 4 weeks of CPZ treatment, according to luxol fast blue (LFB) staining and myelin basic protein (MBP) expression. miRNA expression profiling showed that the expression of 240 miRNAs was significantly changed in CPZ-fed mice compared with controls. Furthermore, miR-155-5p and miR-20a-5p upregulations enhanced NgR induction through Smad 2 and Smad 4 suppression in demyelination. Taken together, our results demonstrate that CPZ-mediated demyelination induces behavioral deficits with apparent alterations in miRNA expression, suggesting that differences in miRNA expression in vivo may be new potential therapeutic targets for remyelination.
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19
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Diverse Gene Expressions in the Prediction of Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination. Neurotox Res 2020; 37:732-742. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-019-00154-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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20
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Guglielmetti C, Boucneau T, Cao P, Van der Linden A, Larson PEZ, Chaumeil MM. Longitudinal evaluation of demyelinated lesions in a multiple sclerosis model using ultrashort echo time magnetization transfer (UTE-MT) imaging. Neuroimage 2019; 208:116415. [PMID: 31811900 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in myelin integrity are involved in many neurological disorders and demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Although magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard method to diagnose and monitor MS patients, clinically available MRI protocols show limited specificity for myelin detection, notably in cerebral grey matter areas. Ultrashort echo time (UTE) MRI has shown great promise for direct imaging of lipids and myelin sheaths, and thus holds potential to improve lesion detection. In this study, we used a sequence combining magnetization transfer (MT) with UTE ("UTE-MT", TE = 76 μs) and with short TE ("STE-MT", TE = 3000 μs) to evaluate spatial and temporal changes in brain myelin content in the cuprizone mouse model for MS on a clinical 7 T scanner. During demyelination, UTE-MT ratio (UTE-MTR) and STE-MT ratio (STE-MTR) values were significantly decreased in most white matter and grey matter regions. However, only UTE-MTR detected cortical changes. After remyelination in subcortical and cortical areas, UTE-MTR values remained lower than baseline values, indicating that UTE-MT, but not STE-MT, imaging detected long-lasting changes following a demyelinating event. Next, we evaluated the potential correlations between imaging values and underlying histopathological markers. The strongest correlation was observed between UTE-MTR and percent coverage of myelin basic protein (MBP) immunostaining (r2 = 0.71). A significant, although lower, correlation was observed between STE-MTR and MBP (r2 = 0.48), and no correlation was found between UTE-MTR or STE-MTR and gliosis immunostaining. Interestingly, correlations varied across brain substructures. Altogether, our results demonstrate that UTE-MTR values significantly correlate with myelin content as measured by histopathology, not only in white matter, but also in subcortical and cortical grey matter regions in the cuprizone mouse model for MS. Readily implemented on a clinical 7 T system, this approach thus holds great potential for detecting demyelinating/remyelinating events in both white and grey matter areas in humans. When applied to patients with neurological disorders, including MS patient populations, UTE-MT methods may improve the non-invasive longitudinal monitoring of brain lesions, not only during disease progression but also in response to next generation remyelinating therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Guglielmetti
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Bio-Imaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Tanguy Boucneau
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Peng Cao
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Annemie Van der Linden
- Bio-Imaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peder E Z Larson
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, Berkeley and University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Myriam M Chaumeil
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, Berkeley and University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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21
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Varhaug KN, Kråkenes T, Alme MN, Vedeler CA, Bindoff LA. Mitochondrial complex IV is lost in neurons in the cuprizone mouse model. Mitochondrion 2019; 50:58-62. [PMID: 31678601 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2019.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cuprizone administration in mice leads to oligodendrocyte death and demyelination. The effect is thought to reflect copper-chelation that leads to inhibition of complex IV of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The effects this drug has on neurons are less well known. OBJECTIVE To investigate the toxic effects of cuprizone on mitochondria in neurons. METHODS Male c57Bl/6 mice were fed 0.2% cuprizone for up to 5 weeks. Cuprizone-fed and control mice were examined at week 1, 3, 5 and 4 weeks after cessation of cuprizone exposure. The brain was examined for myelin, complex I, complex IV and for COX/SDH activities. Mitochondrial-DNA was investigated for deletions and copy number variation. RESULTS We found decreased levels of complex IV in the cerebellar Purkinje neurons of mice exposed to cuprizone. This decrease was not related to a general decrease in mitochondrial volume or mass, as there were no differences in the levels of complex I or TOMM20. CONCLUSION Neurons are affected by cuprizone-treatment. Whether this mitochondrial dysfunction acts as a subclinical trigger for demyelination and the long-term axonal degeneration that proceeds after cuprizone treatment stops remains unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin N Varhaug
- Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway; Department of Clinical Medicine (K1), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Torbjørn Kråkenes
- Department of Clinical Medicine (K1), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Maria N Alme
- Department of Clinical Medicine (K1), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Health and Functioning, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway
| | - Christian A Vedeler
- Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway; Department of Clinical Medicine (K1), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Laurence A Bindoff
- Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway; Department of Clinical Medicine (K1), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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22
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Wu Y, Dong L, Huang Q, Sun L, Liao Y, Tang Y, Wu Y. Multiple functional therapeutic effects of DL-3-n-butylphthalide in the cuprizone model of demyelination. Life Sci 2019; 232:116501. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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23
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Sen MK, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR, Shortland PJ. Behavioural phenotypes in the cuprizone model of central nervous system demyelination. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:23-46. [PMID: 31442519 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The feeding of cuprizone (CPZ) to animals has been extensively used to model the processes of demyelination and remyelination, with many papers adopting a narrative linked to demyelinating conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS), the aetiology of which is unknown. However, no current animal model faithfully replicates the myriad of symptoms seen in the clinical condition of MS. CPZ ingestion causes mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum stress and subsequent apoptosis of oligodendrocytes leads to central nervous system demyelination and glial cell activation. Although there are a wide variety of behavioural tests available for characterizing the functional deficits in animal models of disease, including that of CPZ-induced deficits, they have focused on a narrow subset of outcomes such as motor performance, cognition, and anxiety. The literature has not been systematically reviewed in relation to these or other symptoms associated with clinical MS. This paper reviews these tests and makes recommendations as to which are the most important in order to better understand the role of this model in examining aspects of demyelinating diseases like MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Departments of Health Sciences and Biological Sciences, Faculties of Applied Health Sciences and Mathematics & Science, Brock University, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Peter J Shortland
- Science and Health, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia.
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Yazdi A, Ghasemi‐Kasman M, Javan M. Possible regenerative effects of fingolimod (FTY720) in multiple sclerosis disease: An overview on remyelination process. J Neurosci Res 2019; 98:524-536. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Yazdi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine Isfahan University of Medical Sciences Isfahan Iran
| | - Maryam Ghasemi‐Kasman
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences Babol Iran
- Neuroscience Research Center Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences Babol Iran
| | - Mohammad Javan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences Tarbiat Modares University Tehran Iran
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR Tehran Iran
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25
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Ohgomori T, Jinno S. Cuprizone-induced demyelination in the mouse hippocampus is alleviated by phytoestrogen genistein. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2019; 363:98-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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26
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Omotoso GO, Gbadamosi IT, Afolabi TT, Abdulwahab AB, Akinlolu AA. Ameliorative effects of Moringa on cuprizone-induced memory decline in rat model of multiple sclerosis. Anat Cell Biol 2018; 51:119-127. [PMID: 29984057 PMCID: PMC6026826 DOI: 10.5115/acb.2018.51.2.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cuprizone is a neurotoxin with copper-chelating ability used in animal model of multiple sclerosis in which oxidative stress has been documented as one of the cascade in the pathogenesis. Moringa oleifera is a phytomedicinal plant with antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. This study aimed at evaluating the ameliorative capability of M. oleifera in cuprizone-induced behavioral and histopathological alterations in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of Wistar rats. Four groups of rats were treated with normal saline, cuprizone, M. oleifera and a combination of M. oleifera and cuprizone, for five weeks. The rats were subjected to Morris water maze and Y-maze to assess long and short-term memory respectively. The animals were sacrificed, and brain tissues were removed for histochemical and enzyme lysate immunosorbent assay for catalase, superoxide dismutase, and nitric oxide. Cuprizone significantly induced oxidative and nitrosative stress coupled with memory decline and cortico-hippocampal neuronal deficits; however, administration of M. oleifera significantly reversed the neuropathological deficits induced by cuprizone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Olaiya Omotoso
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Ismail Temitayo Gbadamosi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Theresa Titilayo Afolabi
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Ahmad Bolakale Abdulwahab
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Adelaja Abdulazeez Akinlolu
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
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Wolf Y, Shemer A, Levy-Efrati L, Gross M, Kim JS, Engel A, David E, Chappell-Maor L, Grozovski J, Rotkopf R, Biton I, Eilam-Altstadter R, Jung S. Microglial MHC class II is dispensable for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and cuprizone-induced demyelination. Eur J Immunol 2018; 48:1308-1318. [PMID: 29697861 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201847540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are resident immune cells in the CNS, strategically positioned to clear dead cells and debris, and orchestrate CNS inflammation and immune defense. In steady state, these macrophages lack MHC class II (MHCII) expression, but microglia activation can be associated with MHCII induction. Whether microglial MHCII serves antigen presentation for critical local T-cell restimulation in CNS auto-immune disorders or modulates microglial signaling output remains under debate. To probe for such scenarios, we generated mice harboring an MHCII deficiency in microglia, but not peripheral myeloid cells. Using the CX3 CR1CreER -based approach we report that microglial antigen presentation is obsolete for the establishment of EAE, with disease onset, progression, and severity unaltered in mutant mice. Antigen presentation-independent roles of microglial MHCII were explored using a demyelination model induced by the copper chelator cuprizone. Absence of microglial I-Ab did not affect the extent of these chemically induced white matter alterations, nor did it affect microglial proliferation or gene expression associated with locally restricted de- and remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yochai Wolf
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Anat Shemer
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Liron Levy-Efrati
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Mor Gross
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jung-Seok Kim
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Adrien Engel
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Eyal David
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - Jonathan Grozovski
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ron Rotkopf
- Departments of Life Science Core facilities, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Inbal Biton
- Departments of Veterinary Resources, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - Steffen Jung
- Departments of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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28
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Bölcskei K, Kriszta G, Sághy É, Payrits M, Sipos É, Vranesics A, Berente Z, Ábrahám H, Ács P, Komoly S, Pintér E. Behavioural alterations and morphological changes are attenuated by the lack of TRPA1 receptors in the cuprizone-induced demyelination model in mice. J Neuroimmunol 2018; 320:1-10. [PMID: 29759134 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported that the Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) receptor deficiency significantly attenuated cuprizone-induced demyelination by reducing the apoptosis of mature oligodendrocytes. The aim of the present study was to gather additional data on the role of TRPA1 by investigating the time course of behavioural alterations and morphological changes in cuprizone-treated TRPA1 receptor gene-deficient mice. Demyelination was induced by feeding male wild-type (WT) and TRPA1 gene-deleted (TRPA1 KO) mice with 0.2% cuprizone for 6 weeks. Behavioural tests were performed once per week to follow cuprizone-induced functional changes. Mechanonociceptive thresholds were investigated by a dynamic plantar aesthesiometer and von Frey filaments. Motor performance was assessed by accelerating RotaRod and horizontal grid tests. For the study of spontaneous activity, the open field test was used. The time course of corpus callosum demyelination was also followed weekly by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Histological analysis of myelin loss was performed with Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) staining at week 3 and electron microscopy (EM) at week 6. Astrocyte and microglia accumulation at week 3 was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Cuprizone treatment induced no changes in mechanonociception or motor performance. In the open arena, cuprizone-treated mice spent more time with locomotion, their mean velocity was significantly higher and the distance they travelled was longer than untreated mice. No statistical difference was detected between WT and TRPA1 KO mice in these parameters. On the other hand, significantly increased rearing behaviour was induced in WT mice compared to TRPA1 KO animals. Morphological changes detected with MRI, LFB, IHC and EM analysis revealed reduced damage of the myelin and attenuated accumulation of astrocytes and microglia in cuprizone-treated TRPA1 KO animals, at each examined time point. Our recent data further suggest that inhibition of TRPA1 receptors could be a promising therapeutic approach to limit central nervous system damage in demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kata Bölcskei
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Kriszta
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Éva Sághy
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Maja Payrits
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Éva Sipos
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Anett Vranesics
- Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Berente
- Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Hajnalka Ábrahám
- Department of Medical Biology and Central Electron Microscopy Laboratory, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Ács
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Sámuel Komoly
- Department of Neurology, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Erika Pintér
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary; Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
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29
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Rüther BJ, Scheld M, Dreymueller D, Clarner T, Kress E, Brandenburg LO, Swartenbroekx T, Hoornaert C, Ponsaerts P, Fallier-Becker P, Beyer C, Rohr SO, Schmitz C, Chrzanowski U, Hochstrasser T, Nyamoya S, Kipp M. Combination of cuprizone and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis to study inflammatory brain lesion formation and progression. Glia 2017; 65:1900-1913. [PMID: 28836302 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Brain-intrinsic degenerative cascades are a proposed factor driving inflammatory lesion formation in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. We recently described a model combining noninflammatory cytodegeneration (via cuprizone) with the classic active experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (Cup/EAE model), which exhibits inflammatory forebrain lesions. Here, we describe the histopathological characteristics and progression of these Cup/EAE lesions. We show that inflammatory lesions develop at various topographical sites in the forebrain, including white matter tracts and cortical and subcortical grey matter areas. The lesions are characterized by focal demyelination, discontinuation of the perivascular glia limitans, focal axonal damage, and neutrophil granulocyte extravasation. Transgenic mice with enhanced green fluorescent protein-expressing microglia and red fluorescent protein-expressing monocytes reveal that both myeloid cell populations contribute to forebrain inflammatory infiltrates. EAE-triggered inflammatory cerebellar lesions were augmented in mice pre-intoxicated with cuprizone. Gene expression studies suggest roles of the chemokines Cxcl10, Ccl2, and Ccl3 in inflammatory lesion formation. Finally, follow-up experiments in Cup/EAE mice with chronic disease revealed that forebrain, but not spinal cord, lesions undergo spontaneous reorganization and repair. This study underpins the significance of brain-intrinsic degenerative cascades for immune cell recruitment and, in consequence, MS lesion formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Josef Rüther
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Miriam Scheld
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Daniela Dreymueller
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Tim Clarner
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Eugenia Kress
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Lars-Ove Brandenburg
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Tine Swartenbroekx
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, 2610, Belgium
| | - Chloé Hoornaert
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, 2610, Belgium
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, 2610, Belgium
| | - Petra Fallier-Becker
- Institute of Pathology and Neuropathology, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Cordian Beyer
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany
| | - Sven Olaf Rohr
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Christoph Schmitz
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Uta Chrzanowski
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Tanja Hochstrasser
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Stella Nyamoya
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 52074, Germany.,Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, 80336, Germany
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30
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Bonetto G, Charalampopoulos I, Gravanis A, Karagogeos D. The novel synthetic microneurotrophin BNN27 protects mature oligodendrocytes against cuprizone-induced death, through the NGF receptor TrkA. Glia 2017; 65:1376-1394. [PMID: 28567989 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BNN27, a member of a chemical library of C17-spiroepoxy derivatives of the neurosteroid DHEA, has been shown to regulate neuronal survival through its selective interaction with NGF receptors (TrkA and p75NTR ), but its role on glial populations has not been studied. Here, we present evidence that BNN27 provides trophic action (rescue from apoptosis), in a TrkA-dependent manner, to mature oligodendrocytes when they are challenged with the cuprizone toxin in culture. BNN27 treatment also increases oligodendrocyte maturation and diminishes microglia activation in vitro. The effect of BNN27 in the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination in vivo has also been investigated. In this model, that does not directly involve the adaptive immune system, BNN27 can protect from demyelination without affecting the remyelinating process. BNN27 preserves mature oligodendrocyte during demyelination, while reducing microgliosis and astrogliosis. Our findings suggest that BNN27 may serve as a lead molecule to develop neurotrophin-like blood-brain barrier (BBB)-permeable protective agents of oligodendrocyte populations and myelin, with potential applications in the treatment of demyelinating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Bonetto
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Crete, Greece
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology - FoRTH, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | | | - Achille Gravanis
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology - FoRTH, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Crete, Greece
| | - Domna Karagogeos
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Crete, Greece
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology - FoRTH, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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31
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Petković F, Campbell IL, Gonzalez B, Castellano B. Reduced cuprizone-induced cerebellar demyelination in mice with astrocyte-targeted production of IL-6 is associated with chronically activated, but less responsive microglia. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 310:97-102. [PMID: 28778453 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebellar pathology is a frequent feature of multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating and neuroinflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Interleukin (IL)-6 is a multifunctional cytokine with a potential role in MS. Here we studied cuprizone-induced cerebellar pathology in transgenic mice with astrocyte-targeted production of IL-6 (GFAP-IL6), specifically focusing on demyelination, oligodendrocyte depletion and microglial cell response. RESULTS Over the course of cuprizone treatment, when compared with WT mice, GFAP-IL6Tg showed a reduced demyelination in the deep lateral cerebellar nuclei (LCN). The oligodendrocyte numbers in the LCN were comparable between WT and GFAP-IL6Tg mice after 4-6weeks of cuprizone treatment, however after the chronic cuprizone treatment (12weeks) we detected higher numbers of oligodendrocytes in GFAP-IL6Tg mice. Contrary to strong cuprizone-induced microglial activation in the LCN of WT mice, GFAP-IL6Tg mice had minimal cuprizone-induced microglial changes, despite an already existing reactive microgliosis in control GFAP-IL6Tg not present in control WT mice. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that chronic transgenic production of IL-6 reduced cuprizone-induced cerebellar demyelination and induced a specific activation state of the resident microglia population (Iba1+, CD11b+, MHCII+, CD68-), likely rendering them less responsive to subsequent injury signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Petković
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain; Department of Immunology, Institute for Biological Research "Sinisa Stankovic", 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Iain L Campbell
- School of Molecular Bioscience, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Berta Gonzalez
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain.
| | - Bernardo Castellano
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain.
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32
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Hamada MS, Popovic MA, Kole MHP. Loss of Saltation and Presynaptic Action Potential Failure in Demyelinated Axons. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:45. [PMID: 28289377 PMCID: PMC5326753 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In cortical pyramidal neurons the presynaptic terminals controlling transmitter release are located along unmyelinated axon collaterals, far from the original action potential (AP) initiation site, the axon initial segment (AIS). Once initiated, APs will need to reliably propagate over long distances and regions of geometrical inhomogeneity like branch points (BPs) to rapidly depolarize the presynaptic terminals and confer temporally precise synaptic transmission. While axon pathologies such as demyelinating diseases are well established to impede the fidelity of AP propagation along internodes, to which extent myelin loss affects propagation along BPs and axon collaterals is not well understood. Here, using the cuprizone demyelination model, we performed optical voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging from control and demyelinated layer 5 pyramidal neuron axons. In the main axon, we find that myelin loss switches the modality of AP propagation from rapid saltation towards a slow continuous wave. The duration of single AP waveforms at BPs or nodes was, however, only slightly briefer. In contrast, by using two-photon microscopy-guided loose-seal patch recordings from axon collaterals we revealed a presynaptic AP broadening in combination with a reduced velocity and frequency-dependent failure. Finally, internodal myelin loss was also associated with de novo sprouting of axon collaterals starting from the primary (demyelinated) axon. Thus, the loss of oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths bears functional consequences beyond the main axon, impeding the temporal fidelity of presynaptic APs and affecting the functional and structural organization of synaptic connectivity within the neocortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa S Hamada
- Department of Axonal Signaling, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and SciencesAmsterdam, Netherlands; Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Marko A Popovic
- Department of Axonal Signaling, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Maarten H P Kole
- Department of Axonal Signaling, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and SciencesAmsterdam, Netherlands; Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
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33
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Cuprizone-Containing Pellets Are Less Potent to Induce Consistent Demyelination in the Corpus Callosum of C57BL/6 Mice. J Mol Neurosci 2017; 61:617-624. [PMID: 28238065 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-017-0903-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The chopper chelator cuprizone serves as a valuable chemical tool to induce consistent and reproducible demyelination in the central nervous system. However, the daily preparation of fresh cuprizone powder mixed in finely ground rodent chow might well be a particular health problem. Alternative methods, such as the fabrication of cuprizone-containing pellets, are available. The effectiveness of this method is, however, not known. In the present study, we compared whether intoxication of C57BL/6 mice with 0.25% cuprizone mixed into ground rodent chow does induce demyelination to a similar extent compared to a cuprizone-pellet intoxication protocol. We found that feeding of 0.25% cuprizone in ground chow provides a strong, well-defined, and reproducible demyelination along with increased accumulation of microglia and axonal damage in the corpus callosum, whereas all analyzed parameters were significantly less distinct in mice fed with cuprizone-containing pellets at an equivalent concentration of cuprizone at week 5. Even a higher concentration of cuprizone in pellet formulation was less potent compared to do so. This study illustrates that the established protocol of cuprizone intoxication (i.e., mixed in ground rodent chow) is the gold standard method to achieve consistent and reproducible demyelination. Why cuprizone loses its effectiveness in pellet formulation needs to be addressed in subsequent studies.
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34
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Gudi V, Gai L, Herder V, Tejedor LS, Kipp M, Amor S, Sühs KW, Hansmann F, Beineke A, Baumgärtner W, Stangel M, Skripuletz T. Synaptophysin Is a Reliable Marker for Axonal Damage. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2017; 76:109-125. [PMID: 28177496 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlw114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptophysin is an abundant membrane protein of synaptic vesicles. The objective of this study was to determine the utility of identifying synaptophysin accumulations (spheroids/ovoids/bulbs) in CNS white matter as an immunohistochemical marker of axonal damage in demyelinating and neuroinflammatory conditions. We studied the cuprizone toxicity and Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection models of demyelination and analyzed CNS tissue from patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Synaptophysin colocalized with the amyloid precursor protein (APP), a well-known marker of axonal damage. In the cuprizone model, numerous pathological synaptophysin/APP-positive spheroids/ovoids were identified in the corpus callosum at the onset of demyelination; the extent of synaptophysin/APP-positive vesicle aggregates correlated with identified reactive microglia; during late and chronic demyelination, the majority of synaptophysin/APP-positive spheroids/ovoids resolved but a few remained, indicating persistent axonal damage; in the remyelination phase, scattered large synaptophysin/APP-positive bulbs persisted. In the TMEV model, only a few large- to medium-sized synaptophysin/APP-positive bulbs were found in demyelinated areas. In MS patient tissue samples, the bulbs appeared exclusively at the inflammatory edges of lesions. In conclusion, our data suggest that synaptophysin as a reliable marker of axonal damage in the CNS in inflammatory/demyelinating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Gudi
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lijie Gai
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Vanessa Herder
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Laura Salinas Tejedor
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sandra Amor
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kurt-Wolfram Sühs
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Florian Hansmann
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Beineke
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Stangel
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Skripuletz
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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35
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Heckers S, Held N, Kronenberg J, Skripuletz T, Bleich A, Gudi V, Stangel M. Investigation of Cuprizone Inactivation by Temperature. Neurotox Res 2017; 31:570-577. [PMID: 28124768 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-017-9704-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Animal models, such as cuprizone (bis-cyclohexanone oxaldihydrazone) feeding, are helpful to study experimental demyelination and remyelination in the context of diseases like multiple sclerosis. Cuprizone is a copper chelator, which when supplemented to the normal food of C57BL/6J mice in a concentration of 0.2% leads to oligodendroglial loss, subsequent microglia and astrocyte activation, resulting in demyelination. Termination of the cuprizone diet results in remyelination, promoted by newly formed mature oligodendrocytes. The exact mode of cuprizone's action is not well understood, and information about its inactivation and cleavage are still not available. The knowledge of these processes could lead to a better understanding of cuprizone's mode of action, as well as a safer handling of this toxin. We therefore performed experiments with the aim to inactivate cuprizone by thermal heating, since it was suggested in the past that cuprizone is heat sensitive. C57BL/6J mice were fed for 4 weeks with 0.2% cuprizone, either thermally pretreated (60, 80, 105, 121 °C) or not heated. In addition, primary rat oligodendrocytes, as a known selective toxic target of cuprizone, were incubated with 350 μM cuprizone solutions, which were either thermally pretreated or not. Our results demonstrate that none of the tested thermal pretreatment conditions could abrogate or restrict the toxic and demyelinating effects of cuprizone, neither in vitro nor in vivo. In conclusion, the current study rebuts the hypothesis of cuprizone as a heat-sensitive compound, as well as the assumption that heat exposure is a reason for an insufficient demyelination of cuprizone-containing pellets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Heckers
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Nadine Held
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Central Animal Facility, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jessica Kronenberg
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Skripuletz
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andre Bleich
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Central Animal Facility, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Viktoria Gudi
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Stangel
- Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neurochemistry, Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany. .,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany. .,Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
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Ornelas IM, McLane LE, Saliu A, Evangelou AV, Khandker L, Wood TL. Heterogeneity in oligodendroglia: Is it relevant to mouse models and human disease? J Neurosci Res 2016; 94:1421-1433. [PMID: 27557736 PMCID: PMC5513674 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
There are many lines of evidence indicating that oligodendrocyte progenitor cells and oligodendrocyte populations in the central nervous system (CNS) are heterogeneous based on their developmental origins as well as from morphological and molecular criteria. Whether these distinctions reflect functional heterogeneity is less clear and has been the subject of considerable debate. Recent findings, particularly from knockout mouse models, have provided new evidence for regional variations in myelination phenotypes, particularly between brain and spinal cord. These data raise the possibility that oligodendrocytes in these regions have different functional capacities and/or ability to compensate for loss of a specific gene. The goal of this review is to briefly revisit the evidence for oligodendrocyte heterogeneity and then to present data from transgenic and demyelinating mouse models suggesting functional heterogeneity in myelination, demyelination, and remyelination in the CNS and, finally, to discuss the implications of these findings for human diseases. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isis M Ornelas
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Lauren E McLane
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Aminat Saliu
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Angelina V Evangelou
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Luipa Khandker
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Teresa L Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey.
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Wood TC, Simmons C, Hurley SA, Vernon AC, Torres J, Dell’Acqua F, Williams SC, Cash D. Whole-brain ex-vivo quantitative MRI of the cuprizone mouse model. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2632. [PMID: 27833805 PMCID: PMC5101606 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin is a critical component of the nervous system and a major contributor to contrast in Magnetic Resonance (MR) images. However, the precise contribution of myelination to multiple MR modalities is still under debate. The cuprizone mouse is a well-established model of demyelination that has been used in several MR studies, but these have often imaged only a single slice and analysed a small region of interest in the corpus callosum. We imaged and analyzed the whole brain of the cuprizone mouse ex-vivo using high-resolution quantitative MR methods (multi-component relaxometry, Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) and morphometry) and found changes in multiple regions, including the corpus callosum, cerebellum, thalamus and hippocampus. The presence of inflammation, confirmed with histology, presents difficulties in isolating the sensitivity and specificity of these MR methods to demyelination using this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias C. Wood
- Department of Neuroimaging, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Camilla Simmons
- Department of Neuroimaging, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Samuel A. Hurley
- FMRIB Centre, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
- Synaptive Medical, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anthony C. Vernon
- Cells and Behaviour Unit, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joel Torres
- Department of Neuroimaging, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Flavio Dell’Acqua
- Department of Neuroimaging, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- NatBrainLab, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Steve C.R. Williams
- Department of Neuroimaging, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Diana Cash
- Department of Neuroimaging, IOPPN, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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Chew LJ, DeBoy CA. Pharmacological approaches to intervention in hypomyelinating and demyelinating white matter pathology. Neuropharmacology 2016; 110:605-625. [PMID: 26116759 PMCID: PMC4690794 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
White matter disease afflicts both developing and mature central nervous systems. Both cell intrinsic and extrinsic dysregulation result in profound changes in cell survival, axonal metabolism and functional performance. Experimental models of developmental white matter (WM) injury and demyelination have not only delineated mechanisms of signaling and inflammation, but have also paved the way for the discovery of pharmacological approaches to intervention. These reagents have been shown to enhance protection of the mature oligodendrocyte cell, accelerate progenitor cell recruitment and/or differentiation, or attenuate pathological stimuli arising from the inflammatory response to injury. Here we highlight reports of studies in the CNS in which compounds, namely peptides, hormones, and small molecule agonists/antagonists, have been used in experimental animal models of demyelination and neonatal brain injury that affect aspects of excitotoxicity, oligodendrocyte development and survival, and progenitor cell function, and which have been demonstrated to attenuate damage and improve WM protection in experimental models of injury. The molecular targets of these agents include growth factor and neurotransmitter receptors, morphogens and their signaling components, nuclear receptors, as well as the processes of iron transport and actin binding. By surveying the current evidence in non-immune targets of both the immature and mature WM, we aim to better understand pharmacological approaches modulating endogenous oligodendroglia that show potential for success in the contexts of developmental and adult WM pathology. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Oligodendrocytes in Health and Disease'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Jin Chew
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's Research Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Cynthia A DeBoy
- Biology Department, Trinity Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
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Petiet A, Aigrot MS, Stankoff B. Gray and White Matter Demyelination and Remyelination Detected with Multimodal Quantitative MRI Analysis at 11.7T in a Chronic Mouse Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:491. [PMID: 27833528 PMCID: PMC5081351 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin is a component of the nervous system that is disrupted in multiple sclerosis, resulting in neuro-axonal degeneration. The longitudinal effect of chronic cuprizone-induced demyelination was investigated in the cerebral gray and white matter of treated mice and the spontaneous remyelination upon treatment interruption. Multimodal Magnetic Resonance Imaging and a Cryoprobe were used at 11.7T to measure signal intensity ratios, T2 values and diffusion metrics. The results showed significant and reversible modifications in white matter and gray matter regions such as in the rostral and caudal corpus callosum, the external capsule, the cerebellar peduncles, the caudate putamen, the thalamus, and the somatosensory cortex of treated mice. T2 and radial diffusivity metrics appeared to be more sensitive than fractional anisotropy, axial diffusivity or mean diffusivity to detect those cuprizone-induced changes. In the gray matter, only signal and T2 metrics and not diffusion metrics were sensitive to detect any changes. Immunohistochemical qualitative assessments in the same regions confirmed demyelination and remyelination processes. These multimodal data will provide better understanding of the dynamics of cuprizone-induced de- and remyelination in white and gray matter structures, and will be the basis to test therapies in experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Petiet
- Center for Neuroimaging Research, Brain and Spine Institute Paris, France
| | - Marie-Stéphane Aigrot
- Pierre and Marie Curie University/INSERM UMR975, Brain and Spine Institute Paris, France
| | - Bruno Stankoff
- Pierre and Marie Curie University/INSERM UMR975, Brain and Spine InstituteParis, France; Department of Neurology, Saint-Antoine Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP)Paris, France
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Sühs KW, Gudi V, Eckermann N, Fairless R, Pul R, Skripuletz T, Stangel M. Cytokine regulation by modulation of the NMDA receptor on astrocytes. Neurosci Lett 2016; 629:227-233. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Duncan ID, Radcliff AB. Inherited and acquired disorders of myelin: The underlying myelin pathology. Exp Neurol 2016; 283:452-75. [PMID: 27068622 PMCID: PMC5010953 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Remyelination is a major therapeutic goal in human myelin disorders, serving to restore function to demyelinated axons and providing neuroprotection. The target disorders that might be amenable to the promotion of this repair process are diverse and increasing in number. They range primarily from those of genetic, inflammatory to toxic origin. In order to apply remyelinating strategies to these disorders, it is essential to know whether the myelin damage results from a primary attack on myelin or the oligodendrocyte or both, and whether indeed these lead to myelin breakdown and demyelination. In some disorders, myelin sheath abnormalities are prominent but demyelination does not occur. This review explores the range of human and animal disorders where myelin pathology exists and focusses on defining the myelin changes in each and their cause, to help define whether they are targets for myelin repair therapy. We reviewed myelin disorders of the CNS in humans and animals. Myelin damage results from primary attack on the oligodendrocyte or myelin sheath. All major categories of disease can affect CNS myelin. Myelin vacuolation is common, yet does not always result in demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian D Duncan
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.
| | - Abigail B Radcliff
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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Tagge I, O’Connor A, Chaudhary P, Pollaro J, Berlow Y, Chalupsky M, Bourdette D, Woltjer R, Johnson M, Rooney W. Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Demyelination and Remyelination in the Cuprizone Mouse Model. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152480. [PMID: 27054832 PMCID: PMC4824475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cuprizone administration in mice provides a reproducible model of demyelination and spontaneous remyelination, and has been useful in understanding important aspects of human disease, including multiple sclerosis. In this study, we apply high spatial resolution quantitative MRI techniques to establish the spatio-temporal patterns of acute demyelination in C57BL/6 mice after 6 weeks of cuprizone administration, and subsequent remyelination after 6 weeks of post-cuprizone recovery. MRI measurements were complemented with Black Gold II stain for myelin and immunohistochemical stains for associated tissue changes. Gene expression was evaluated using the Allen Gene Expression Atlas. Twenty-five C57BL/6 male mice were split into control and cuprizone groups; MRI data were obtained at baseline, after 6 weeks of cuprizone, and 6 weeks post-cuprizone. High-resolution (100 μm isotropic) whole-brain coverage magnetization transfer ratio (MTR) parametric maps demonstrated concurrent caudal-to-rostral and medial-to-lateral gradients of MTR decrease within corpus callosum (CC) that correlated well with demyelination assessed histologically. Our results show that demyelination was not limited to the midsagittal line of the corpus callosum, and also that opposing gradients of demyelination occur in the lateral and medial CC. T2-weighted MRI gray/white matter contrast was strong at baseline, weak after 6 weeks of cuprizone treatment, and returned to a limited extent after recovery. MTR decreases during demyelination were observed throughout the brain, most clearly in callosal white matter. Myelin damage and repair appear to be influenced by proximity to oligodendrocyte progenitor cell populations and exhibit an inverse correlation with myelin basic protein gene expression. These findings suggest that susceptibility to injury and ability to repair vary across the brain, and whole-brain analysis is necessary to accurately characterize this model. Whole-brain parametric mapping across time is essential for gaining a real understanding of disease processes in-vivo. MTR increases in healthy mice throughout adolescence and adulthood were observed, illustrating the need for appropriate age-matched controls. Elucidating the unique and site-specific demyelination in the cuprizone model may offer new insights into in mechanisms of both damage and repair in human demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Tagge
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
- Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Audrey O’Connor
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Priya Chaudhary
- Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Jim Pollaro
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Yosef Berlow
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Megan Chalupsky
- Pathology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Dennis Bourdette
- Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
- Portland VA Medical Center, 3710 SW US Veterans Hospital Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Randy Woltjer
- Pathology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
| | - Mac Johnson
- Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated, 50 Northern Ave, Boston, MA 02210, United States of America
| | - William Rooney
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
- Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
- Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, Portland, OR 97239, United States of America
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Pringproa K, Sathanawongs A, Khamphilai C, Sukkarinprom S, Oranratnachai A. Intravenous transplantation of mouse embryonic stem cells attenuates demyelination in an ICR outbred mouse model of demyelinating diseases. Neural Regen Res 2016; 11:1603-1609. [PMID: 27904491 PMCID: PMC5116839 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.193239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Induction of demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS) of experimental mice using cuprizone is widely used as an animal model for studying the pathogenesis and treatment of demyelination. However, different mouse strains used result in different pathological outcomes. Moreover, because current medicinal treatments are not always effective in multiple sclerosis patients, so the study of exogenous cell transplantation in an animal model is of great importance. The aims of the present study were to establish an alternative ICR outbred mouse model for studying demyelination and to evaluate the effects of intravenous cell transplantation in the present developed mouse model. Two sets of experiments were conducted. Firstly, ICR outbred and BALB/c inbred mice were fed with 0.2% cuprizone for 6 consecutive weeks; then demyelinating scores determined by luxol fast blue stain or immunolabeling with CNPase were evaluated. Secondly, attenuation of demyelination in ICR mice by intravenous injection of mES cells was studied. Scores for demyelination in the brains of ICR mice receiving cell injection (mES cells-injected group) and vehicle (sham-inoculated group) were assessed and compared. The results showed that cuprizone significantly induced demyelination in the cerebral cortex and corpus callosum of both ICR and BALB/c mice. Additionally, intravenous transplantation of mES cells potentially attenuated demyelination in ICR mice compared with sham-inoculated groups. The present study is among the earliest reports to describe the cuprizone-induced demyelination in ICR outbred mice. Although it remains unclear whether mES cells or trophic effects from mES cells are the cause of enhanced remyelination, the results of the present study may shed some light on exogenous cell therapy in central nervous system demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Heath, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Anucha Sathanawongs
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Heath, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chananthida Khamphilai
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Heath, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Sarocha Sukkarinprom
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Heath, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Apichart Oranratnachai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Abe H, Tanaka T, Kimura M, Mizukami S, Saito F, Imatanaka N, Akahori Y, Yoshida T, Shibutani M. Cuprizone decreases intermediate and late-stage progenitor cells in hippocampal neurogenesis of rats in a framework of 28-day oral dose toxicity study. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 287:210-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 05/31/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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The Effect of Melatonin on Behavioral, Molecular, and Histopathological Changes in Cuprizone Model of Demyelination. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:4675-84. [PMID: 26310973 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9404-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune, demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. The protective effects of melatonin (MLT) on various neurodegenerative diseases, including MS, have been suggested. In the present study, we examined the effect of MLT on demyelination, apoptosis, inflammation, and behavioral dysfunctions in the cuprizone toxic model of demyelination. C57BL/6J mice were fed a chaw containing 0.2 % cuprizone for 5 weeks and received two doses of MLT (50 and 100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for the last 7 days of cuprizone diet. Administration of MLT improved motor behavior deficits induced by cuprizone diet. MLT dose-dependently decreased the mean number of apoptotic cells via decreasing caspase-3 and Bax as well as increasing Bcl-2 levels. In addition, MLT significantly enhanced nuclear factor-κB activation and decreased heme oxygenase-1 level. However, MLT had no effect on interleukin-6 and myelin protein production. Our data revealed that MLT improved neurological deficits and enhanced cell survival but was not able to initiate myelin production in the cuprizone model of demyelination. These findings may be important for the design of potential MLT therapy in demyelinating disorders, such as MS.
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46
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Remyelination After Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination Is Accelerated in Juvenile Mice. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2015; 74:756-66. [DOI: 10.1097/nen.0000000000000214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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47
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Alme MN, Nystad AE, Bø L, Myhr KM, Vedeler CA, Wergeland S, Torkildsen Ø. Fingolimod does not enhance cerebellar remyelination in the cuprizone model. J Neuroimmunol 2015. [PMID: 26198937 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2015.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Fingolimod (FTY720) is approved for treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. In vitro studies have found that fingolimod stimulates remyelination in cerebellar slices, but in vivo animal studies have not detected any positive effect on cerebral remyelination. The discrepant findings could be a result of different mechanisms underlying cerebral and cerebellar remyelination. The cuprizone model for de- and remyelination was used to evaluate whether fingolimod had an impact on cerebellar remyelination in vivo. We found that fingolimod did not have any effect on cerebellar remyelination, number of mature oligodendrocytes, microglia or astrocytes when fed after cuprizone exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nordheim Alme
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Agnes E Nystad
- Norwegian Multiple Sclerosis Competence Centre, Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Haukelandsveien 22, 5021 Bergen, Norway; Kristian Gerhard Jebsen MS Research Centre, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Lars Bø
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway; Norwegian Multiple Sclerosis Competence Centre, Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Haukelandsveien 22, 5021 Bergen, Norway; Kristian Gerhard Jebsen MS Research Centre, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Kjell-Morten Myhr
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway; Norwegian Multiple Sclerosis Competence Centre, Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Haukelandsveien 22, 5021 Bergen, Norway; Kristian Gerhard Jebsen MS Research Centre, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Christian A Vedeler
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway; Kristian Gerhard Jebsen MS Research Centre, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway; Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Haukelandsveien 22, 5021 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Stig Wergeland
- Norwegian Multiple Sclerosis Competence Centre, Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Haukelandsveien 22, 5021 Bergen, Norway; Kristian Gerhard Jebsen MS Research Centre, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Øivind Torkildsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway; Norwegian Multiple Sclerosis Competence Centre, Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Haukelandsveien 22, 5021 Bergen, Norway; Kristian Gerhard Jebsen MS Research Centre, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Pb 7804, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
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48
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Anatomical Distribution of Cuprizone-Induced Lesions in C57BL6 Mice. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 57:166-75. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0595-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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49
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Abe H, Tanaka T, Kimura M, Mizukami S, Imatanaka N, Akahori Y, Yoshida T, Shibutani M. Developmental exposure to cuprizone reduces intermediate-stage progenitor cells and cholinergic signals in the hippocampal neurogenesis in rat offspring. Toxicol Lett 2015; 234:180-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2014] [Revised: 01/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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50
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Moldovan N, Al-Ebraheem A, Lobo L, Park R, Farquharson MJ, Bock NA. Altered transition metal homeostasis in the cuprizone model of demyelination. Neurotoxicology 2015; 48:1-8. [PMID: 25749275 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In the cuprizone model of demyelination, the neurotoxin cuprizone is fed to mice to induce a reproducible pattern of demyelination in the brain. Cuprizone is a copper chelator and it has been hypothesized that it induces a copper deficiency in the brain, which leads to demyelination. To test this hypothesis and investigate the possible role of other transition metals in the model, we fed C57Bl/6 mice a standard dose of cuprizone (0.2% dry chemical to dry food weight) for 6 weeks then measured levels of copper, manganese, iron, and zinc in regions of the brain and visceral organs. As expected, this treatment induced demyelination in the mice. We found, however, that while the treatment significantly reduced copper concentrations in the blood and liver in treated animals, there was no significant difference in concentrations in brain regions relative to control. Interestingly, cuprizone disrupted concentrations of the other transition metals in the visceral organs, with the most notable changes being decreased manganese and increased iron in the liver. In the brain, manganese concentrations were also significantly reduced in the cerebellum and striatum. These data suggest a possible role of manganese deficiency in the brain in the cuprizone model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Moldovan
- Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alia Al-Ebraheem
- Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lianne Lobo
- Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Raina Park
- Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael J Farquharson
- Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicholas A Bock
- Department of Medical Physics and Applied Radiation Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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