Radical scavenging activity and LC-MS metabolic profiling of petals, stamens, and flowers of Crocus sativus L

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and Its By-Products: Healthy Effects in Internal Medicine

Crocus sativus L., commonly known as saffron, is a precious spice coming from Asia, in particular from Iran, the country leader in its production. The spice is derived exclusively from dried stigmas and it is the most expensive one in the world. The areas of application of saffron are multiple, in fact ranging across the food, drinks, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics sectors. As is the case with other phytochemicals, not only the final product but also saffron by-products are considered a valuable source of bioactive natural compounds. In fact, its healthy effects, especially as antioxidants and anti-inflammatories (via reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines), are well-recognized in internal medicine. In particular, its healthy effects are related to counteracting degenerative maculopathy, depression and anxiety, neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic syndrome, cancer and chronic kidney disease, by promoting glucose metabolism. In this review, we summarize the most important papers in which saffron has turned out to be a valuable ally in the prevention and treatment of these pathologies. Moreover, we would like to promote the use of saffron by-products as part of a bio-circular economy system, aimed at reducing wastes, at maximizing the use of resources and at promoting environmental and economic sustainability.

Comprehensive analysis of bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus stamens extracts by HPLC-DAD: investigating antidiabetic activity via in vitro, in vivo, and molecular docking simulation

Introduction: Medicinal herbs used in traditional diabetes treatment are a rich source of anti-diabetic compounds. Pancreatic α-amylase inhibitors offer an effective strategy to reduce postprandial hyperglycemic levels via control of starch degradation. In this context, our study for the first time investigates the effect of Crocus sativus stamens extracts on α-amylase inhibition. Material and methods: The hydromethanolic and hydroethanolic extracts were obtained by macerating the dried stamen powder with methanol/water or ethanol/water, respectively. The total phenolic content of the stamen extracts was assessed using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method, while the total flavonoid content was determined using the Aluminum Chloride method. Phytochemicals were further quantified and identified using HPLC-DAD. For evaluation of hypoglycemic activity, in vitro α-amylase enzyme inhibition was calculated. The results were confirmed in vivo using an oral starch tolerance test in both normal and diabetic rats. Results: Our findings demonstrated a higher level of polyphenols and flavonoids in the hydroethanolic extract. Important flavonoids found were kaempferol, rutin, and vanillic acid, while prominent carotenoids contained trans- and cis-crocins. The in vitro study showed that both hydromethanolic and hydroethanolic extracts had considerable inhibitory effects, with maximum inhibitions of approximately 83% and 89%, respectively. In vivo tests indicated that both extracts effectively lowered peak blood glucose and area under the curve in both normal and diabetic rats following oral starch treatment. The obtained results are also supported by a docking study. Conclusion: These findings imply that C. sativus stamens possess a distinctive capability to reduce postprandial blood glucose levels. This effect is likely mediated through the inhibition of α-amylase, presenting a novel dietary avenue for managing diabetes.

"Plant Golden" C. sativus: Qualitative and quantitative analysis of major components in stigmas and petals and their biological activity in vitro

Crocus sativus L. (C. sativus) has its stigma as the main valuable part used. With extremely low production and high prices, stigma is considered a scarce resource. As a result, its petals, considered as by-products, are often discarded, leading to significant waste. We developed a UPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS method for qualitative analysis of stigmas and petals and a UHPLC-QQQ-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of 9 characteristic active compounds for the first time, and compared their biological activity in vitro. The results indicated that a total of 63 compounds were identified in the petals and stigmas. The content of flavonoids in the petals was significantly superior to that in the stigma, and the content of quercetin in the petals was 50 times higher than that in the stigma. The results of the in vitro evaluation of biological activity indicated that both the petals （•OH: IC50=39.70 mg/mL; DPPH: IC50=28.37 mg/mL; ABTS: IC50=0.9868 mg/mL）and stigma （•OH: IC50=34.41 mg/mL; DPPH: IC50=38.99 mg/mL; ABTS: IC50=3.194 mg/mL）demonstrated comparable antioxidant activities. However, the tyrosinase inhibitory activity in petals （IC50=21.17 mg/mL） was weaker than that in stigma（IC50=1.488 mg/mL）. This study provides a fast, reliable, and efficient analytical method that can be used for the quality assessment of petals as a natural resource and its related products in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Saffron, a Potential Bridge between Nutrition and Disease Therapeutics: Global Health Challenges and Therapeutic Opportunities

Plants are an important source of essential bioactive compounds that not only have a beneficial role in human health and nutrition but also act as drivers for shaping gut microbiome. However, the mechanism of their functional attributes is not fully understood despite their significance. One such important plant is Crocus sativus, also known as saffron, which possesses huge medicinal, nutritional, and industrial applications like food and cosmetics. The importance of this plant is grossly attributed to its incredible bioactive constituents such as crocins, crocetin, safranal, picrocrocin, and glycosides. These bioactive compounds possess a wide range of therapeutic activities against multiple human ailments. Since a huge number of studies have revealed negative unwanted side effects of modern-day drugs, the scientific communities at the global level are investigating a large number of medicinal plants to explore natural products as the best alternatives. Taken into consideration, the available research findings indicate that saffron has a huge scope to be further explored to establish alternative natural-product-based drugs for health benefits. In this review, we are providing an update on the role of bioactive compounds of saffron as therapeutic agents (human disorders and antimicrobial activity) and its nutritional values. We also highlighted the role of omics and metabolic engineering tools for increasing the content of key saffron bioactive molecules for its mass production. Finally, pre-clinical and clinical studies seem to be necessary to establish its therapeutic potential against human diseases.

Bioactive Components and Biological Activities of Crocus sativus L. Byproducts: A Comprehensive Review

The production of saffron spice results in numerous byproducts, as only 15 g of spice can be produced from 1 kg of flowers, indicating that over 90% of the saffron flower material is eventually discarded as waste. In view of this, the paper reviews current knowledge on the natural active components in saffron byproducts and their biological activities, aiming to lay a theoretical and scientific foundation for the further utilization. Saffron byproducts contain a variety of phytochemical components, such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, phenolic acids, monoterpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, and saponins. The activities of saffron byproducts and their mechanisms are also discussed in detail here.

Saffron and Sleep Quality: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Sleep quality is defined as an individual's consent to sleep experience. Poor sleep quality has important adverse health outcomes. There are drugs to treat sleep disorders but consumption of these drugs is accompanied by adverse effects whereas herbal treatments have fewer side effects. Saffron is spice obtained from Crocus sativus flower. Several articles have been done on its effects on the quality of sleep and its safety. This review for the first time critically evaluates effect of saffron on sleep quality improvement.

Method

The search technique aims to get all related published data-based up to 2022 articles. PubMed, Central, Google Scholar, and Scopus were examined. Only full reports were evaluated (abstracts were excluded). The first screening was done by title and abstract. Then full text of articles was read and irrelevant articles were removed. Duplicate articles were also removed by Endnote. By using Cochrane risk of bias tool assessment, a quality score based on probability of bias was given. Methodological characteristics were also evaluated using the criteria of Stevinson and Ernst.

Result

In the systematic review, 5 randomized clinical trials with 379 participants from 3 countries were identified. In placebo-comparison trials, saffron contains a large treatment.

Conclusion

It seems that saffron has a beneficial influence on duration and quality of sleep. Saffron, crocin, and safranal induce hypnotic effects by increasing the duration of sleep. Research conducted so far provides initial support and safety for use of saffron to improve sleep quality.

Insights on the Hypoglycemic Potential of Crocus sativus Tepal Polyphenols: An In Vitro and In Silico Study

Post-prandial hyperglycemia typical of diabetes mellitus could be alleviated using plant-derived compounds such as polyphenols, which could influence the activities of enzymes involved in carbohydrate digestion and of intestinal glucose transporters. Here, we report on the potential anti-hyperglycemic effect of Crocus sativus tepals compared to stigmas, within the framework of valorizing these by-products of the saffron industry, since the anti-diabetic properties of saffron are well-known, but not those of its tepals. In vitro assays showed that tepal extracts (TE) had a greater inhibitory action than stigma extracts (SE) on α-amylase activity (IC50: TE = 0.60 ± 0.09 mg/mL; SE = 1.10 ± 0.08 mg/mL; acarbose = 0.051 ± 0.07) and on glucose absorption in Caco-2 differentiated cells (TE = 1.20 ± 0.02 mg/mL; SE = 2.30 ± 0.02 mg/mL; phlorizin = 0.23 ± 0.01). Virtual screening performed with principal compounds from stigma and tepals of C. sativus and human pancreatic α-amylase, glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) and sodium glucose co-transporter-1 (SGLT1) were validated via molecular docking, e.g., for human pancreatic α-amylase, epicatechin 3-o-gallate and catechin-3-o-gallate were the best scored ligands from tepals (-9.5 kcal/mol and -9.4 kcal/mol, respectively), while sesamin and episesamin were the best scored ones from stigmas (-10.1 kcal/mol). Overall, the results point to the potential of C. sativus tepal extracts in the prevention/management of diabetes, likely due to the rich pool of phytocompounds characterized using high-resolution mass spectrometry, some of which are capable of binding and interacting with proteins involved in starch digestion and intestinal glucose transport.

Bioactivity and applications of saffron floral bio-residues (tepals): a natural by-product for the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries

Saffron "Crocus sativus" is a plant of the Iridaceae family. Its therapeutic virtues have been known since antiquity; it is used in traditional medicine and culinary preparations. It is also known for its use in cosmetics because of its beneficial pharmacological activities for human skin. In particular, saffron tepals are the main by-product of saffron processing; they contain several bioactive compounds such as mineral agents, anthocyanins, monoterpenoids, carotenoids, flavonoids, and flavonols (kaempferol). This review aims to describe the different properties of saffron flower tepals, including their botanical characteristics, phytochemical composition, biological activities, and cosmetology and perfumery uses.

Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Digestive Enzymes of New Strawberry Tree Fruit/Apple Smoothies

In this study, original smoothies obtained with strawberry tree fruit puree and apple juice enriched with Diospyros kaki fruits, Myrtus communis purple berry extract, Acca sellowiana, and Crocus sativus petal juice were evaluated for their antioxidant activity and inhibition of targeted digestive enzymes. Values of CUPRAC, FRAP, ORAC, DPPH•, and ABTS•+ assays generally increased with plant enrichment, particularly for A. sellowiana addition (ABTS•+ 2.51 ± 0.01 mmol Trolox/100 g fw). The same trend was observed regarding the ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) tested in Caco-2 cell cultures. Inhibitory activity on α-amylase and α-glucosidase was increased by D. kaki, M. communis, and A. sellowiana. Total polyphenols evaluated by UPLC-PDA analysis ranged between 535.75 ± 3.11 and 635.96 ± 5.21 mg/100 g fw, and A. sellowiana provided the higher amount. Flavan-3-ols accounted for more than 70% of phenolic compounds, and only smoothies enriched with C. sativus showed a high amount of anthocyanins (25.12 ± 0.18 mg/100 g fw). The outcome of this study indicates these original smoothies as a possible ally in counteracting oxidative stress, as established by their favourable antioxidant compound profile, thus suggesting an interesting future application as nutraceuticals.

Starch-based sustainable hydrogel loaded with Crocus sativus petals extract: A new product for wound care

The aim of the present study was to valorize Crocus sativus petals, the main waste deriving from saffron stigma harvesting, as source of bioactive molecules to be used in health field. Three different dry extracts were prepared by eco-friendly methods (maceration and ultrasound bath assisted maceration) using saffron petals as raw material and ethanol 70 % either ethanol 96 % as extraction solvents. A preliminary evaluation of the antioxidant activity (measured by ABTS*⁺, DPPH* and FRAP) highlighted that the most suitable extraction solvent is represented by ethanol 70 %. By in vitro studies on keratinocytes emerged that the extract obtained by maceration (rich in gallic and chlorogenic acids) stimulates their growth in a safe concentration range (0.02-0.4 mg/mL) suggesting a potential application in skin diseases such as superficial wounds. Due to the low manageability, the extract was firstly supported on corn starch powder particles and then formulated as starch gel. The obtained formulation showed both suitable rheological properties and spreadability necessary for an easy and pain free application on damaged skin. Moreover, in vitro microbiological studies of starch gel demonstrated antimicrobial activity toward S. epidermidis and self-preserving capacity.

Phytochemical profiling, antibacterial and antioxidant properties of Crocus sativus flower: A comparison between tepals and stigmas

Several studies have demonstrated that stigmas of Crocus sativus contain several bioactive compounds with potential health-promoting properties. However, during the processing of stigmas, large amounts of floral bio-residues are normally discarded as by-products. In this study, using untargeted metabolomics, the comprehensive phytochemical composition of C. sativus stigma and tepals was investigated. Moreover, the antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties of the extracts of C. sativus stigmas and tepals were compared. The study was carried out using two methicillin-resistant staphylococcal reference strains (i.e., Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 43300 and Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 35984), representing important Gram-positive biofilm-forming human pathogens. The antibacterial properties were correlated with total polyphenol content, total terpenoid content, and in vitro antioxidant properties of tepals and stigmas. The results demonstrated that stigma and tepal extracts, at the sub-toxic concentrations, were able to interfere with biofilm formation by ATCC 43300 and ATCC 35984. Besides, the higher antibacterial activity of tepals than stigmas was associated with higher levels of phycompounds. Therefore, our results demonstrated that C. sativus stigmas and bio-residues, such as tepals, are potential antioxidant sources and good candidates as antibacterial agents to prevent biofilm formation. Taken together, these findings showed that C. sativus could be used as functional ingredient by the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Application of Quality by Design Approach to the Pharmaceutical Development of Anticancer Crude Extracts of Crocus sativus Perianth

The application of the Quality by Design (QbD) concept to extracts obtained from Crocus sativus perianth with potential anticancer activity will ensure the safety, efficiency, and quality control of the entire technological process, as well as determine the critical factors affecting the quality of extracts. Potentially critical points of the production of the plant extracts, including the cultivation and processing of the plant materials, the extraction process, and the choice of solvents, were identified using the Ishikawa diagram and FMEA risk assessment methods as well as the corrective actions proposed. The Herbal Chemical Marker Ranking System (HerbMars) approach was used to justify the Q-markers choice of Crocus, which takes into account bioavailability, pharmacological activity, and the presence of the selected standard. An experimental design (DoE) was used to assess the influence of potentially critical factors on the efficiency of the compound extraction from raw materials with water or ethanol. The presence of 16 compounds in Crocus perianth was determined by HPLC and their quantitative assessment was established. Selected compounds (ferulic acid, mangiferin, crocin, rutin, isoquercitrin) can be used for the quality control of Crocus perianth. In addition, the stigmas from the Volyn region met the requirements of ISO 3632 for saffron as a spice (category I). The cytotoxic activity against melanoma (IGR39) and triple-negative breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell lines of the hydroethanolic extract of C. sativus perianth was significantly more pronounced than the water extract, probably due to the chemical composition of the constituent components. The results show that the QbD approach is a powerful tool for process development for the production of quality herbal drugs.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Flower Water Extract Disrupts the Cecal Microbiome, Brush Border Membrane Functionality, and Morphology In Vivo (Gallus gallus)

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is known as the most expensive spice. C. sativus dried red stigmas, called threads, are used for culinary, cosmetic, and medicinal purposes. The rest of the flower is often discarded, but is now being used in teas, as coloring agents, and fodder. Previous studies have attributed antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-depressant, and anticancer properties to C. sativus floral bio-residues. The aim of this study is to assess C. sativus flower water extract (CFWE) for its effects on hemoglobin, brush boarder membrane (BBM) functionality, morphology, intestinal gene expression, and cecal microbiome in vivo (Gallus gallus), a clinically validated model. For this, Gallus gallus eggs were divided into six treatment groups (non-injected, 18 Ω H₂O, 1% CFWE, 2% CFWE, 5% CFWE, and 10% CFWE) with n~10 for each group. On day 17 of incubation, 1 mL of the extracts/control were administered in the amnion of the eggs. The amniotic fluid along with the administered extracts are orally consumed by the developing embryo over the course of the next few days. On day 21, the hatchlings were euthanized, the blood, duodenum, and cecum were harvested for assessment. The results showed a significant dose-dependent decrease in hemoglobin concentration, villus surface area, goblet cell number, and diameter. Furthermore, we observed a significant increase in Paneth cell number and Mucin 2 (MUC2) gene expression proportional to the increase in CFWE concentration. Additionally, the cecum microbiome analysis revealed C. sativus flower water extract altered the bacterial populations. There was a significant dose-dependent reduction in Lactobacillus and Clostridium sp., suggesting an antibacterial effect of the extract on the gut in the given model. These results suggest that the dietary consumption of C. sativus flower may have negative effects on BBM functionality, morphology, mineral absorption, microbial populations, and iron status.

Antimicrobial Activity and Chemical Characterization of a Non-Polar Extract of Saffron Stamens in Food Matrix

The production of saffron spice generates large quantities of plant by-products: over 90% of the plant material collected is discarded, and a consideration fraction of this waste is plant stamens. This work investigated the chemical composition and the antimicrobial activities of the non-polar fraction extracted from four different saffron flower stamens. The chemical composition of ethereal extracts of the saffron stamens was qualitatively assessed by means of gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. These analyses revealed ethereal extracts to possess a high polyunsaturated fatty acid content. In vitro antibacterial activity of stamen extracts showed no large differences between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in terms of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). In food matrix microbial analysis of the bacterial strains belonging to the main foodborne pathogen species, including Staphylococcus aureus DSM 20231, Escherichia coli DSM 30083, and Listeria monocytogenes DSM 20600, using low-fat UHT milk, revealed a statistically significant reduction in the number of cells (particularly for E. coli and S. aureus with a complete elimination of the population of the two target bacteria following incubation in diethyl ether extracts of saffron stamen (DES) at high concentrations tested, both at 37 °C and 6 °C (for 48 h and 7 days, respectively). A synergic effect was observed when the pathogens were incubated at 6 °C with DES. This work shows these by-products to be excellent sources of bioactive compounds, which could be exploited in high-added-value products, such as food, cosmetics, and drugs.

Nutritional and health beneficial properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L): a comprehensive review

Saffron (Crocus sativus L., family Iridaceae) is used traditionally for medicinal purpose in Chinese, Ayurvedic, Persian and Unani medicines. The bioactive constituents such as apocarotenoids, monoterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids and phytosterols are widely investigated in experimental and clinical studies for a wide range of therapeutic effects, especially on the nervous system. Some of the active constituents of saffron have high bioavailability and bioaccessibility and ability to pass the blood-brain barrier. Multiple preclinical and clinical studies have supported neuroprotective, anxiolytic, antidepressant, learning and memory-enhancing effect of saffron and its bioactive constituents (safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin). Thus, this plant and its active compounds could be a beneficial medicinal food ingredient in the formation of drugs targeting nervous system disorders. This review focuses on phytochemistry, bioaccessibility, bioavailability, and bioactivity of phytochemicals in saffron. Furthermore, the therapeutic effect of saffron against different nervous system disorders has also been discussed in detail.

Novel Insight into Utilization of Flavonoid Glycosides and Biological Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Flower Byproducts

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) byproducts are considered as a cheap source of bioactive polyphenolics endowed with potential antioxidant effects. The saffron biowaste is utilized for extraction of flavonoid glycosides and their potential biological properties. The total amount of polyphenolics and polysaccharides was found to be higher in the tepal than in the stamen. The bioactive compounds quercetin-3-O-sophoroside (Q-3-sop) and kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside (K-3-sop) were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photodiode array detector (HPLC-PDA) and identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The antioxidant effects were studied using 2,2 diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC); Q-3-sop showed stronger antioxidant effects compared to K-3-sop, crocin-I, and crocin-II. Furthermore, Q-3-sop also inhibited cell apoptosis caused by H₂O₂ by reducing the levels of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). In terms of cytogenetic effects, Q-3-sop revealed no cytogenic effects on onion root meristem cells but chromosomal aberration was observed at the highest dose (200 ppm). Thus, saffron byproducts and its flavonoids could be utilized as natural antioxidant agents with no cytogenetic effects.

Effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on cognitive function. A systematic review of RCTs

INTRODUCTION

Improvement of cognitive function may be desirable for healthy individuals and clinically beneficial for those with cognitive impairment such as from Alzheimer's disease (AD) or mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The aim of this systematic review is to investigate the cognitive effects of oral saffron intake, in patients with MCI/AD and/or in non-demented individuals, by following the PRISMA guidelines.

METHODS

We performed a literature search on MedLine, Cochrane library, and ClinicalTrials.gov to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of oral saffron administration in patients with MCI/AD and/or in non-demented individuals.

RESULTS

Five studies (enrolling 325 individuals) met our inclusion criteria. Four studies included patients with MCI/AD, and one study included cognitively normal individuals. Saffron was well-tolerated in all groups. Regarding cognitively impaired patients, scores on Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-cognitive subscale or Mini mental state examination were significantly better when saffron was compared with placebo and did not differ significantly when saffron was compared with donepezil or memantine. Saffron effects on functional status were similar with its effects on cognition.

CONCLUSIONS

Saffron was shown to be equally effective to common symptomatic drugs for MCI/AD and resulted in no difference in the incidence of side effects, when compared with placebo or drugs. The promising results should be seen cautiously, since the evidence was derived from studies with potentially high risk of bias (ROB). RCTs with larger sample sizes and low ROB are required to definitively assess the potential role of saffron as an MCI/AD treatment.

Comprehensive chemotaxonomic analysis of saffron crocus tepal and stamen samples, as raw materials with potential antidepressant activity

Saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) has been widely grown in Iran. Its stigma is considered as the most valuable spice for which several pharmacological activities have been reported in preclinical and clinical studies, the antidepressant effect being the most thoroughly studied and confirmed. This plant part contains several characteristic secondary metabolites, including the carotenoids crocetin and crocin, and the monoterpenoid glucoside picrocrocin, and safranal. Since only the stigma is utilized industrially, huge amount of saffron crocus by-product remains unused. Recently, the number of papers dealing with the chemical and pharmacological analysis of saffron is increasing; however, there are no systematic studies on the chemical variability of the major by-products. In the present study, we harvested saffron crocus flowers from 40 different locations of Iran. The tepals and stamens were separated and subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis by HPLC-DAD. The presence and amount of seven marker compounds, including crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, safranal, kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin-3-O-sophoroside were determined. The analytical method was validated for filter compatibility, stability, suitability, accuracy, precision, intermediate precision, and repeatability. Tepal and stamen samples contained three flavonol glycosides. The main constituent of the tepals was kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside (62.19-99.48 mg/g). In the stamen, the amount of flavonoids was lower than in the tepal. The amount of kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, as the most abundant compound, ranged between 1.72-7.44 mg/g. Crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal were not detected in any of the analysed samples. Our results point out that saffron crocus by-products, particularly tepals might be considered as rich sources of flavonol glucosides. The data presented here can be useful in setting quality standards for plant parts of C. sativus that are currently considered as by-products of saffron production.

Comparative Investigation of Amino Acids Content in the Dry Extracts of Juno bucharica, Gladiolus Hybrid Zefir, Iris Hungarica, Iris Variegata and Crocus Sativus Raw Materials of Ukrainian Flora

The aim of this research was the comparative study of the amino acids content in the dry extracts of Iridaceae plants of Ukrainian flora: Juno bucharica leaves and corms, Gladiolus hybrid Zefir leaves, Iris hungarica and Iris variegata rhizomes, and Crocus sativus stigmas, flowers, leaves and corms. A gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) method has been used. Separation of amino acids in the samples was carried out using a Shimadzu GC-MS-QP2010 equipped with an Rxi-5ms (Restek Corporation capillary column (30 m long, 0.25 mm outer diameter and 0.25 µm) with a liquid stationary phase (5% diphenyl and 95% polysiloxane) after derivatization with N-(t-butyldimethylsilyl)-N109 methyltrifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) reagent. The results obtained have shown that extracts from the aerial parts of plants investigated have a higher amino acid content and more diverse composition than the underground organs. Experimental data showed that Crocus leaves and Juno leaves extracts contain the highest general content of amino acids—31.99 mg/g and 14.65 mg/g respectively. All samples showed a high content of L-pyroglutamic acid (0.33–12.35 mg/g). Moreover, Crocus leaves and Juno leaves extracts had the most suitable amino acids composition and are prospective for further pharmacological studies.

Isolation, purification and characterization of naturally derived Crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester from Crocus sativus L. against breast cancer and its binding chemistry with ER-alpha/HDAC2

Saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.) is being used as a source of saffron spice and medicine to cure or prevent different types of diseases including cancers. We report the isolation, characterization of bioactive small molecule ([crocetin (β-d-glucosyl) ester] from the leaf biowastes of saffron plant of Kashmir, India. MTTC assay and Bio-autography aided approach were used to assess anti-oxidant activity and anti-cancer properties of crocin (s) against DPPH free radical and breast cancer cell line respectively. Crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester restrained proliferation of human breast adeno-carcinoma cell model (MCF-7) without significantly affecting normal cell line (L-6). Further studies involving molecular mechanics generalized born surface area and molecular docking showed that crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester exhibits strong affinity for estrogen receptor alpha and histone deacetylase 2 (crucial receptors involved in breast cancer signalling) as evidenced by the negative docking score and binding free energy (BFE) values. Therefore, crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester from Crocus sativus biowastes showed antiproliferative effect possibly by inhibiting estrogen receptor alpha and HDAC2 mediated signalling cascade.

Biologically active compounds and pharmacological activities of species of the genus Crocus: A review

The present article is the first comprehensive review on the chemical composition and pharmacological activities of the raw materials of Crocus species. In the present review, data on chemical constituents and pharmacological profile of Crocus sativus stigmas, as well as of other plant parts (perianth, stamens, leaves, corms) of different Crocus spp. are given. This review discusses all the classes of compounds (carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, terpenoids, phenol carboxylic acids, etc.) detected in raw materials of Crocus plants providing information on the current state of knowledge on phytochemicals of Crocus species. Almost all structural formulas of the compounds identified and isolated from Crocus species are given; all compounds are presented in accordance with the types of the studied raw materials. The latest hypotheses relating to the biosynthesis pathways of the main biologically active compounds of saffron (crocin, picrocrocin, safranal), as well as chemotaxonomy of Crocus genus are briefly summarized. The present review discusses the most thoroughly studied pharmacological activities (namely, antioxidant, antiparasitic, hypolipidemic, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antitumor, cytotoxic, antidepressant) of saffron stigmas extracts, of its individual phytochemicals (safranal, crocin, crocetin), as well as pharmacological activities of raw materials of other Crocus species. This comprehensive review will be informative for scientists searching for new properties of saffron stigmas, as well as for saffron producers, since the present review highlights the prospects for the use of waste products in the production of the expensive spice. In addition, the present review provides information on pharmacological properties and composition of other Crocus species as promising medicinal and food plants. In the present review the emphasis will be put on the chemical constituents of Crocus species and the intraspecies variation in phytochemicals and pharmacological activities.

Crocus sativus restores dopaminergic and noradrenergic damages induced by lead in Meriones shawi: A possible link with Parkinson's disease

Lead (Pb) is a metal element released into the atmosphere and a major source of environmental contamination. The accumulation and concentration of this metal in a food web may lead to the intoxication of the body, more precisely, the nervous system (NS). In addition, Pb-exposure can cause structural and functional disruption of the NS. Studies have shown that Pb-exposure could be a risk factor in the development of Parkinson's disease (PD). The latter is related to dopaminergic deficiency that may be triggered by genetic and environmental factors such as Pb intoxication. In this study, we have evaluated, in one hand, the neurotoxic effect of Pb (25 mg / kg B.W i.p) for three consecutive days on dopaminergic system and locomotor performance in Merione shawi. In the other hand, the possible restorative potential of C. sativus (CS) (50 mg / kg BW) by oral gavage. The immunohistochemical approach has revealed that Pb-intoxicated Meriones show a significant increase of Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) levels within the Substantia Nigra compacta (SNc), Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), Locus Coeruleus (LC), Dorsal Striatum (DS) and Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB), unlike the control meriones, a group intoxicated and treated with Crocus sativus hydroethanolic extract (CSHEE) and treated group by CSHEE. Treatment with CSHEE, has shown a real potential to prevent all Pb-induced damages. In fact, restores the TH levels by 92%, 90%, 88%, 90% and 93% in SNc, VTA, LC, DS and MFB respectively, similarly, locomotor activity dysfunction in Pb-intoxicaed meriones was reinstated by 90%. In this study, we have revealed a new pharmacological potential of Crocus sativus that can be used as a neuroprotective product for neurodegenerative disorders, especially, which implying dopaminergic and noradrenergic injuries, like PD, trigged by heavy metals.

Integrated analytical methodology to investigate bioactive compounds in Crocus sativus L. flowers

INTRODUCTION

The increasing interest on Crocus sativus L. over the last decades is caused by its potential employment as a source of biologically active molecules, endowed with antioxidant and nutraceutical properties. These molecules are present mainly in stigmas and tepals, these last generally considered as byproducts.

OBJECTIVE

To characterise bioactive compounds in stigmas, stamens, and tepals of Crocus sativus L. for quality, cross-contamination of tissues or fraudulent addition, joining spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques.

METHODOLOGY

Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopies were initially employed, being very rapid in response; volatiles were more appropriately investigated by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while finally nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) were adopted for a more thorough characterisation of secondary metabolites. NMR was also used to investigate the anthocyanins content in tepals upon acid extraction.

RESULTS

The results obtained highlighted the drying method as the dominant factor affecting the content of volatile constituents and contributing to the quality of saffron, while only slight differences were observed in the most abundant metabolites of stigmas, as well as in the anthocyanin content of tepals. In particular, for the first time, delphinidin and petunidin were detected by NMR in this latter tissue.

CONCLUSION

The integrated analytical methodology here proposed, allowed to achieve a deeper level of compositional and structural details of secondary metabolites in Crocus sativus L. flowers.

Effects of Saffron on Cognition, Anxiety, and Depression in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVES

Cognitive decline, depression, and anxiety are among the major concerns in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Crocus sativus L. (saffron) seems to be a promising candidate for treatment of these conditions.

DESIGN

In this 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, men and women with on-pump CABG, who had Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) score >70 and age <70 years, received either saffron capsules (15 mg/twice daily) or placebo. Patients were excluded if they had history of treatment with saffron or acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, comorbid neuropsychiatric disorders, serious medical conditions other than cardiovascular diseases, and hypersensitivity to herbal compounds. The primary outcome was defined as the difference in mean total score changes for WMS-Revised from the baseline to week 12 between the saffron and placebo groups. Secondary outcomes included difference in mean score changes from baseline to endpoint between the two treatment groups for Mini Mental Status Examination and subscales of Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale ( www.irct.ir ; IRCT201408071556N63).

RESULTS

No significant difference was detected in primary or secondary outcomes between the saffron and placebo groups. Also, no significant time × treatment interaction effect was found for any of the scales.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this trial do not support the hypothesis of potential benefits of saffron in treatment of CABG-related neuropsychiatric conditions.

Antioxidant activity, cytotoxic activity and metabolic profiling of juices obtained from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) floral by-products

Juices obtained from cold-pressed saffron (Crocus sativus L.) floral by-products were evaluated as a potential source of compounds with antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Floral by-products were split in two batches for extraction 24 and 48h after flower harvesting, respectively. The in vitro anti-oxidant activity of these extracts was tested using the FRAP and DPPH assays, and two biological models of lipid oxidation (activity in preventing cholesterol degradation and protection against Cu(2+)-mediated degradation of the liposomal unsaturated fatty acids). The cytotoxic activity was evaluated using the MTT assay. The results show that extracts obtained 48h post-harvest contained higher levels of total polar phenols and had the highest antioxidant activity in all of the performed assays. The LC-DAD and LC-ESI-(HR)MS(n) metabolic profiles showed high levels of kaempferol derivatives and anthocyanins. This study suggests that juices from saffron floral by-products could potentially be used to develop new products for the food and health industry.

Petals of Crocus sativus L. as a potential source of the antioxidants crocin and kaempferol

Saffron from the province of L'Aquila, in the Abruzzo region of Italy, is highly prized and has been awarded a formal recognition by the European Union with EU Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status. Despite this, the saffron regions are abandoned by the younger generations because the traditional cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is labour intensive and yields only one crop of valuable saffron stamens per year. Petals of the saffron Crocus have had additional uses in traditional medicine and may add value to the crops for local farmers. This is especially important because the plant only flowers between October and November, and farmers will need to make the best use of the flowers harvested in this period. Recently, the petals of C. sativus L., which are considered a waste material in the production of saffron spice, were identified as a potential source of natural antioxidants. The antioxidants crocin and kaempferol were purified by flash column chromatography, and identified by thin layer chromatography (TLC), HPLC-DAD, infrared (IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H &(13)C NMR) spectroscopy. The antioxidant activity was determined with the ABTS and DPPH tests. The antioxidant activities are mainly attributed to carotenoid and flavonoid compounds, notably glycosides of crocin and kaempferol. We found in dried petals 0.6% (w/w) and 12.6 (w/w) of crocin and kaempferol, respectively. Petals of C. sativus L. have commercial potential as a source for kaempferol and crocetin glycosides, natural compounds with antioxidant activity that are considered to be the active ingredients in saffron-based herbal medicine.

Comparing the efficacy and safety of Crocus sativus L. with memantine in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease: a double-blind randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVES

Limited pharmacological options are available for the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in severe stages. Cognitive-enhancing properties of saffron, the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L., have been evidenced in different studies. We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of saffron extract versus memantine in reducing cognitive deterioration of patients with moderate to severe AD.

METHODS

In this randomized double-blind parallel-group study, 68 patients with moderate to severe AD (Mini-Mental State Examination score of 8-14) received memantine (20 mg/day) or saffron extract (30 mg/day) capsules for 12 months. Participants were evaluated every month by Severe Cognitive Impairment Rating Scale (SCIRS) and Functional Assessment Staging (FAST) in addition to recording the probable adverse events.

RESULTS

Both treatment groups showed similar outcomes as demonstrated by insignificant effect for time × treatment interaction on SCIRS scores [F(2.95, 194.78) = 2.25, p = 0.08]. There was no significant difference between the two groups in the scores changes from baseline to the endpoint on SCIRS (p = 0.38) and FAST (p = 0.87). The frequency of adverse events was not significantly different between the two groups as well.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to its favorable safety profile, 1-year administration of saffron extract capsules showed to be comparable with memantine in reducing cognitive decline in patients with moderate to severe AD. Confirmatory studies with larger sample sizes and longer follow-up periods are warranted.

Evaluation of antioxidant activities of bioactive compounds and various extracts obtained from saffron (Crocus sativus L.): a review

Saffron (Crocus sativus L. stigma), the most valuable medicinal food product, belongs to the Iridaceae family which has been widely used as a coloring and flavoring agent. These properties are basically related to its crocins, picrocrocin and safranal contents which have all demonstrated health promoting properties. The present review article highlights the phytochemical constituents (phenolic and flavonoid compounds, degraded carotenoid compounds crocins and crocetin) that are important in antioxidant activity of saffron extracts. However, the synergistic effect of all the bioactive components presence in saffron gave a significant antioxidant activity similar to vegetables rich in carotenoids. Our study provides an updated overview focused on the antioxidant activity of saffron related to its bioactive compounds to design the different functional products in food, medicine and cosmetic industries.

A randomized, double-blind, clinical trial comparing the efficacy and safety of Crocus sativus L. with fluoxetine for improving mild to moderate depression in post percutaneous coronary intervention patients

OBJECTIVE

A significant correlation exists between coronary artery diseases and depression. The aim of this trial was to compare the efficacy and safety of saffron versus fluoxetine in improving depressive symptoms of patients who were suffering from depression after performing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

METHODS

In this randomized double-blind parallel-group study, 40 patients with a diagnosis of mild to moderate depression who had undergone PCI in the last six months were randomized to receive either fluoexetine (40mg/day) or saffron (30mg/day) capsule for six weeks. Participants were evaluated by Hamilton depression rating scale (HDRS) at weeks 3 and 6 and the adverse events were systemically recorded.

RESULTS

By the study endpoint, no significant difference was detected between two groups in reduction of HDRS scores (P=0.62). Remission and response rates were not significantly different as well (P=1.00 and P=0.67; respectively). There was no significant difference between two groups in the frequency of adverse events during this trial.

LIMITATIONS

Relatively small sample size and short observational period were the major limitations of this study.

CONCLUSION

Short-term therapy with saffron capsules showed the same antidepressant efficacy compared with fluoxetine in patients with a prior history of PCI who were suffering from depression.

Cytotoxic effect against 3T3 fibroblasts cells of saffron floral bio-residues extracts

For every kilogram of saffron spice produced, about 63 kg of floral bio-residues (FB) (tepals, stamens and styles) are thrown away. Extracts of these bio-residues in water (W1), water:HCl (100:1, v/v) (W2), ethanol (E3), ethanol:HCl (100:1, v/v) (E4), dichloromethane (D5) and hexane (H6) were prepared. Their composition in flavonols and anthocyanins, and their effect on cell viability were determined. W1 was the richest in kaempferol 3-sophoroside (30.34 mg/g dry FB) and delphinidin 3,5-diglucoside (15.98 mg/g dry FB). The highest tested concentration (900 μg/ml) of W1, W2, E4, D5 and H6 did not significantly decrease the cell viability. Only E3 at that concentration caused a significant decrease of 38% in the cell viability. Therefore, all extracts studied are not cytotoxic at concentrations lower than 900 μg/ml, and W1 is proposed as the optimal for food applications due to its greater contribution of phenolic compounds.