Pyrosequencing-based characterization of gastrointestinal bacteria of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) within a commercial mariculture system

Unveiling the gut bacteriome diversity and distribution in the national fish hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha) of Bangladesh

The field of fish microbiome research has rapidly been advancing, primarily focusing on farmed or laboratory fish species rather than natural or marine fish populations. This study sought to reveal the distinctive gut bacteriome composition and diversity within the anadromous fish species Tenualosa ilisha (hilsa), which holds the status of being the national fish of Bangladesh. We conducted an analysis on 15 gut samples obtained from 15 individual hilsa fishes collected from three primary habitats (e.g., freshwater = 5, brackish water = 5 and marine water = 5) in Bangladesh. The analysis utilized metagenomics based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing targeting the V3-V4 regions. Our comprehensive identification revealed a total of 258 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The observed OTUs were represented by six phyla, nine classes, 19 orders, 26 families and 40 genera of bacteria. Our analysis unveiled considerable taxonomic differences among the habitats (freshwater, brackish water, and marine water) of hilsa fishes, as denoted by a higher level of shared microbiota (p = 0.007, Kruskal-Wallis test). Among the identified genera in the gut of hilsa fishes, including Vagococcus, Morganella, Enterobacter, Plesiomonas, Shigella, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Serratia, Aeromonas, Macrococcus, Staphylococcus, Proteus, and Hafnia, several are recognized as fish probiotics. Importantly, some bacterial genera such as Sinobaca, Synechococcus, Gemmata, Serinicoccus, Saccharopolyspora, and Paulinella identified in the gut of hilsa identified in this study have not been reported in any aquatic or marine fish species. Significantly, we observed that 67.50% (27/40) of bacterial genera were found to be common among hilsa fishes across all three habitats. Our findings offer compelling evidence for the presence of both exclusive and communal bacteriomes within the gut of hilsa fishes, exhibiting potential probiotic properties. These observations could be crucial for guiding future microbiome investigations in this economically significant fish species.

Opportunities and challenges with transitioning to non-lethal sampling of wild fish for microbiome research

The microbial communities of fish are considered an integral part of maintaining the overall health and fitness of their host. Research has shown that resident microbes reside on various mucosal surfaces, such as the gills, skin, and gastrointestinal tract, and play a key role in various host functions, including digestion, immunity, and disease resistance. A second, more transient group of microbes reside in the digesta, or feces, and are primarily influenced by environmental factors such as the host diet. The vast majority of fish microbiome research currently uses lethal sampling to analyse any one of these mucosal and/or digesta microbial communities. The present paper discusses the various opportunities that non-lethal microbiome sampling offers, as well as some inherent challenges, with the ultimate goal of creating a sound argument for future researchers to transition to non-lethal sampling of wild fish in microbiome research. Doing so will reduce animal welfare and population impacts on fish while creating novel opportunities to link host microbial communities to an individual's behavior and survival across space and time (e.g., life-stages, seasons). Current lethal sampling efforts constrain our ability to understand the mechanistic ecological consequences of variation in microbiome communities in the wild. Transitioning to non-lethal sampling will open new frontiers in ecological and microbial research.

Characterization of gill bacterial microbiota in wild Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) across lakes, rivers, and bays in the Canadian Arctic ecosystems

Teleost gill mucus has a highly diverse microbiota, which plays an essential role in the host's fitness and is greatly influenced by the environment. Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), a salmonid well adapted to northern conditions, faces multiple stressors in the Arctic, including water chemistry modifications, that could negatively impact the gill microbiota dynamics related to the host's health. In the context of increasing environmental disturbances, we aimed to characterize the taxonomic distribution of transcriptionally active taxa within the bacterial gill microbiota of Arctic char in the Canadian Arctic in order to identify active bacterial composition that correlates with environmental factors. For this purpose, a total of 140 adult anadromous individuals were collected from rivers, lakes, and bays belonging to five Inuit communities located in four distinct hydrologic basins in the Canadian Arctic (Nunavut and Nunavik) during spring (May) and autumn (August). Various environmental factors were collected, including latitudes, water and air temperatures, oxygen concentration, pH, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), salinity, and chlorophyll-a concentration. The taxonomic distribution of transcriptionally active taxa within the gill microbiota was quantified by 16S rRNA gene transcripts sequencing. The results showed differential bacterial activity between the different geographical locations, explained by latitude, salinity, and, to a lesser extent, air temperature. Network analysis allowed the detection of a potential dysbiosis signature (i.e., bacterial imbalance) in fish gill microbiota from Duquet Lake in the Hudson Strait and the system Five Mile Inlet connected to the Hudson Bay, both showing the lowest alpha diversity and connectivity between taxa.IMPORTANCEThis paper aims to decipher the complex relationship between Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) and its symbiotic microbial consortium in gills. This salmonid is widespread in the Canadian Arctic and is the main protein and polyunsaturated fatty acids source for Inuit people. The influence of environmental parameters on gill microbiota in wild populations remains poorly understood. However, assessing the Arctic char's active gill bacterial community is essential to look for potential pathogens or dysbiosis that could threaten wild populations. Here, we concluded that Arctic char gill microbiota was mainly influenced by latitude and air temperature, the latter being correlated with water temperature. In addition, a dysbiosis signature detected in gill microbiota was potentially associated with poor fish health status recorded in these disturbed environments. With those results, we hypothesized that rapid climate change and increasing anthropic activities in the Arctic might profoundly disturb Arctic char gill microbiota, affecting their survival.

Microbiome pattern and diversity of an anadromous fish, hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha)

BACKGROUND

The host-microbe interactions are complex, dynamic and context-dependent. In this regard, migratory fish species like hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha), which migrates from seawater to freshwater for spawning, provides a unique system for investigating the microbiome under an additional change in fish's habitat. This work was undertaken to detect taxonomic variation of microbiome and their function in the migration of hilsa.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The study employed 16S rRNA amplicon-based metagenomic analysis to scrutinize bacterial diversity in hilsa gut, skin mucus and water. Thus, a total of 284 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), 9 phyla, 35 orders and 121 genera were identified in all samples. More than 60% of the identified bacteria were Proteobacteria with modest abundance (> 5%) of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. Leucobacter in gut and Serratia in skin mucus were the core bacterial genera, while Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas and Psychrobacter exhibited differential compositions in gut, skin mucus and water.

CONCLUSIONS

Representative fresh-, brackish- and seawater samples of hilsa habitats were primarily composed of Vibrio, Serratia and Psychrobacter, and their diversity in seawater was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than freshwater. Overall, salinity and water microbiota had an influence on the microbial composition of hilsa shad, contributing to host metabolism and adaptation processes. This pioneer exploration of hilsa gut and skin mucus bacteria across habitats will advance our insights into microbiome assembly in migratory fish populations.

Host-microbiota-parasite interactions in two wild sparid fish species, Diplodus annularis and Oblada melanura (Teleostei, Sparidae) over a year: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

The microbiota in fish external mucus is mainly known for having a role in homeostasis and protection against pathogens, but recent evidence suggests it is also involved in the host-specificity of some ectoparasites. In this study, we investigated the influence of seasonality and environmental factors on both fish external microbiota and monogenean gill ectoparasites abundance and diversity and assessed the level of covariations between monogenean and bacterial communities across seasons. To do so, we assessed skin and gill microbiota of two sparid species, Oblada melanura and Diplodus annularis, over a year and collected their specific monogenean ectoparasites belonging to the Lamellodiscus genus.

RESULTS

Our results revealed that diversity and structure of skin and gill mucus microbiota were strongly affected by seasonality, mainly by the variations of temperature, with specific fish-associated bacterial taxa for each season. The diversity and abundance of parasites were also influenced by seasonality, with the abundance of some Lamellodiscus species significantly correlated to temperature. Numerous positive and negative correlations between the abundance of given bacterial genera and Lamellodiscus species were observed throughout the year, suggesting their differential interaction across seasons.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study is one of the first to demonstrate the influence of seasonality and related abiotic factors on fish external microbiota over a year. We further identified potential interactions between gill microbiota and parasite occurrence in wild fish populations, improving current knowledge and understanding of the establishment of host-specificity.

Host individual and gut location are more important in gut microbiota community composition than temporal variation in the marine herbivorous fish Kyphosus sydneyanus

BACKGROUND

Gut microbiota play a key role in the nutrition of many marine herbivorous fishes through hindgut fermentation of seaweed. Gut microbiota composition in the herbivorous fish Kyphosus sydneyanus (family Kyphosidae) varies between individuals and gut sections, raising two questions: (i) is community composition stable over time, especially given seasonal shifts in storage metabolites of dietary brown algae, and (ii) what processes influence community assembly in the hindgut?

RESULTS

We examined variation in community composition in gut lumen and mucosa samples from three hindgut sections of K. sydneyanus collected at various time points in 2020 and 2021 from reefs near Great Barrier Island, New Zealand. 16S rRNA gene analysis was used to characterize microbial community composition, diversity and estimated density. Differences in community composition between gut sections remained relatively stable over time, with little evidence of temporal variation. Clostridia dominated the proximal hindgut sections and Bacteroidia the most distal section. Differences were detected in microbial composition between lumen and mucosa, especially at genus level.

CONCLUSIONS

High variation in community composition and estimated bacterial density among individual fish combined with low variation in community composition temporally suggests that initial community assembly involved environmental selection and random sampling/neutral effects. Community stability following colonisation could also be influenced by historical contingency, where early colonizing members of the community may have a selective advantage. The impact of temporal changes in the algae may be limited by the dynamics of substrate depletion along the gut following feeding, i.e. the depletion of storage metabolites in the proximal hindgut. Estimated bacterial density, showed that Bacteroidota has the highest density (copies/mL) in distal-most lumen section V, where SCFA concentrations are highest. Bacteroidota genera Alistipes and Rikenella may play important roles in the breakdown of seaweed into useful compounds for the fish host.

Microbiomes in the context of developing sustainable intensified aquaculture

With an ever-growing human population, the need for sustainable production of nutritional food sources has never been greater. Aquaculture is a key industry engaged in active development to increase production in line with this need while remaining sustainable in terms of environmental impact and promoting good welfare and health in farmed species. Microbiomes fundamentally underpin animal health, being a key part of their digestive, metabolic and defense systems, in the latter case protecting against opportunistic pathogens in the environment. The potential to manipulate the microbiome to the advantage of enhancing health, welfare and production is an intriguing prospect that has gained considerable traction in recent years. In this review we first set out what is known about the role of the microbiome in aquaculture production systems across the phylogenetic spectrum of cultured animals, from invertebrates to finfish. With a view to reducing environmental footprint and tightening biological and physical control, investment in "closed" aquaculture systems is on the rise, but little is known about how the microbial systems of these closed systems affect the health of cultured organisms. Through comparisons of the microbiomes and their dynamics across phylogenetically distinct animals and different aquaculture systems, we focus on microbial communities in terms of their functionality in order to identify what features within these microbiomes need to be harnessed for optimizing healthy intensified production in support of a sustainable future for aquaculture.

Impact of Infection with Flavobacterium psychrophilum and Antimicrobial Treatment on the Intestinal Microbiota of Rainbow Trout

The diversity and composition of intestinal microbiota in rainbow trout have been studied using next-generation sequencing (NGS), although few studies have examined the effects of antimicrobials. We evaluated the effect of antibiotics florfenicol and erythromycin and infection with or without Flavobacterium psychrophilum on the intestinal microbiota in rainbow trout juveniles (30–40 g) using NGS. Prophylactic oral antibiotic treatments were administered for 10 days before groups of fish were injected intraperitoneally with virulent F. psychrophilum. Intestinal content (allochthonous bacteria) was collected at day −11, 0, 12, and 24 p.i., and the v3–v4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced using Illumina MiSeq. Before prophylactic treatment, Tenericutes and Proteobacteria were the most abundant phyla identified and Mycoplasma was the most abundant genus. Fish infected with F. psychrophilum had decreased alpha diversity and a high abundance of Mycoplasma. Fish administered florfenicol had increased alpha diversity compared to the control at day 24 p.i., although both florfenicol and erythromycin-treated fish had a higher abundance of potential pathogens, specifically Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Acinetobacter. Mycoplasma disappeared after treatment but appeared again after day 24. This study demonstrates that prophylactic oral treatment with antibiotics florfenicol and erythromycin as well as F. psychrophilum infection changed the composition of intestinal microbiota in rainbow trout juveniles that did not recover by day 24 p.i. and further long-term effects on the host need to be investigated.

Relationship between gut microbiota and Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) health and growth performance in freshwater recirculating aquaculture systems

Gut microbiota play important roles in fish health and growth performance and the microbiome in fish has been shown to be a biomarker for stress. In this study, we surveyed the change of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) gut and water microbiota in freshwater recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) for 7 months and evaluated how gut microbial communities were influenced by fish health and growth performance. The gut microbial diversity significantly increased in parallel with the growth of the fish. The dominant gut microbiota shifted from a predominance of Firmicutes to Proteobacteria, while Proteobacteria constantly dominated the water microbiota. Photobacterium sp. was persistently the major gut microbial community member during the whole experiment and was identified as the core gut microbiota for freshwater farmed Chinook salmon. No significant variation in gut microbial diversity and composition was observed among fish with different growth performance. At the end of the trial, 36 out of 78 fish had fluid in their swim bladders. These fish had gut microbiomes containing elevated proportions of Enterococcus, Stenotrophomonas, Aeromonas, and Raoultella. Our study supports the growing body of knowledge about the beneficial microbiota associated with modern salmon aquaculture systems and provides additional information on possible links between dysbiosis and gut microbiota for Chinook salmon.

A strategic model of a host–microbe–microbe system reveals the importance of a joint host–microbe immune response to combat stress-induced gut dysbiosis

Microbiomes provide key ecological functions to their host; however, most host-associated microbiomes are too complicated to allow a model of essential host–microbe–microbe interactions. The intestinal microbiota of salmonids may offer a solution since few dominating species often characterize it. Healthy fish coexist with a mutualistic Mycoplasma sp. species, while stress allows the spread of pathogenic strains, such as Aliivibrio sp. Even after a skin infection, the Mycoplasma does not recover; Aliivibrio sp. often remains the dominant species, or Mycoplasma–Aliivibrio coexistence was occasionally observed. We devised a model involving interactions among the host immune system, Mycoplasma sp. plus a toxin-producing pathogen. Our model embraces a complete microbiota community and is in harmony with experimental results that host–Mycoplasma mutualism prevents the spread of pathogens. Contrary, stress suppresses the host immune system allowing dominance of pathogens, and Mycoplasma does not recover after stress disappears.

Infection and antibiotic treatment have prolonged effect on gut microbiota, muscle and hepatic fatty acids in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

AIMS

The aim of the present study was to investigate the gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota and bacterium-specific fatty acid occurrence in the muscle and hepatic lipids of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792), both healthy and those naturally infected with bacterial pathogens.

METHODS AND RESULTS

From June 2017 (L1) to September 2018 (L8), 74 specimens of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (with the average weight from 139.2 ± 7.1 g (L1) to 2191.7 ± 85.1 g (L8)) were studied. Amplicon sequencing targeted to the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene fragments is used for identification of taxonomic composition of gut bacterial communities. Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Tenericutes, and Fusobacteria were the major phyla. Besides behavioural and physiological manifestations of the bacterial mixed disease (yersiniosis, pseudomonosis, and flavobacteriosis), some disorders induced both the infection and followed antibiotic treatment were detected in the host organism, including (1) a progressive decrease in the content of odd-chain saturated fatty acids of bacterial origin within the trout lipid molecules and (2) abnormalities in trout GI tract microbiota, such as the elimination of LAB and progressive occurrence of certain bacterial taxa, particularly Mycoplasmataceae.

CONCLUSIONS

The GI bacterial flora varied principally due to Mycoplasmataceae and Lactobacillaceae, which could be considered in the search for bioindicators. The content of specific bacterium-derived fatty acids incorporated into the lipids of trout muscle and hepatic seems to be related to the prevalence of bacterial taxa, and their deficit could be regarded as an early warning sign of microbiota disturbance.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY

Our results demonstrated that infectious disease and antibiotic treatment of reared species can cause pertinent imbalance in their gut microbiota and reduce the abundance of specific fatty acids. This can be useful for the sustainable aquaculture industry due to development of early indication technologies for rapid disease diagnosis.

Association of Gut Microbiota With Metabolism in Rainbow Trout Under Acute Heat Stress

Global warming is one of the most common environmental challenges faced by cold-water fish farming. Heat stress seriously affects the feeding, growth, immunity, and disease resistance of fish. These changes are closely related to the destruction of intestinal barrier function, the change of intestinal microbiota, and metabolic dysfunction. However, the causal relationship between the phenotypic effects of heat stress as well as intestinal and metabolic functions of fish is unknown. In the current study, the optimal growth temperature (16°C) of rainbow trout was used as the control group, while the fish treated at 22.5°C, 23.5°C, and 24.5°C for 24 h, respectively, were the treatment groups. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis showed that with the increase in temperature, the relative abundance and diversity of intestinal microbiota decreased significantly, while the number of Mycoplasma, Firmicutes, and Tenericutes increased significantly. Non-targeted metabolomics analysis by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis and correlation analysis showed that the changes of metabolites related to amino acids, vitamins, and short-chain fatty acids in serum of rainbow trout under acute heat stress were strongly correlated with the decrease of relative abundance of various intestinal microbiota, especially Morganella, Enterobacter, Lactobacillus, Lawsonia, and Cloacibacterium. In addition, we also found that acute heat stress seriously affected the intestinal structure and barrier function, and also caused the pathological damage of epithelial cells. These results indicate that the gut microbiome of acute heat-stressed rainbow trout could mediate metabolite transfer through the gut barrier by affecting its integrity. Significant changes in gut morphology, permeability, antioxidant capacity, and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were observed. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the changes of intestinal microbiota under heat stress to help understand the regulatory mechanism of heat stress and protect the intestinal health of rainbow trout from the negative effects of rising water temperature.

Diversity and structure of sparids external microbiota (Teleostei) and its link with monogenean ectoparasites

Background

Animal-associated microbial communities appear to be key factors in host physiology, ecology, evolution and its interactions with the surrounding environment. Teleost fish have received relatively little attention in the study of surface-associated microbiota. Besides the important role of microbiota in homeostasis and infection prevention, a few recent studies have shown that fish mucus microbiota may interact with and attract some specific parasitic species. However, our understanding of external microbial assemblages, in particular regarding the factors that determine their composition and potential interactions with parasites, is still limited. This is the objective of the present study that focuses on a well-known fish-parasite interaction, involving the Sparidae (Teleostei), and their specific monogenean ectoparasites of the Lamellodiscus genus. We characterized the skin and gill mucus bacterial communities using a 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, tested how fish ecological traits and host evolutionary history are related to external microbiota, and assessed if some microbial taxa are related to some Lamellodiscus species.

Results

Our results revealed significant differences between skin and gill microbiota in terms of diversity and structure, and that sparids establish and maintain tissue and species-specific bacterial communities despite continuous exposure to water. No phylosymbiosis pattern was detected for either gill or skin microbiota, suggesting that other host-related and environmental factors are a better regulator of host-microbiota interactions. Diversity and structure of external microbiota were explained by host traits: host species, diet and body part. Numerous correlations between the abundance of given bacterial genera and the abundance of given Lamellodiscus species have been found in gill mucus, including species-specific associations. We also found that the external microbiota of the only unparasitized sparid species in this study, Boops boops, harbored significantly more Fusobacteria and three genera, Shewenella, Cetobacterium and Vibrio, compared to the other sparid species, suggesting their potential involvement in preventing monogenean infection.

Conclusions

This study is the first to explore the diversity and structure of skin and gill microbiota from a wild fish family and present novel evidence on the links between gill microbiota and monogenean species in diversity and abundance, paving the way for further studies on understanding host-microbiota-parasite interactions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42523-022-00180-1.

Community Structure and Functional Annotations of the Skin Microbiome in Healthy and Diseased Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis

The skin mucosa of fish serves as a primary barrier against pathogens. In lesion sites in diseased fish, the mucosal barrier is expected to be compromised, with a substantial presence of potential pathogens. An understanding of the skin microbiome and its functional repertoire would provide important insights into host-microbe interactions, which has important implications for prophylactic measures in aquaculture. This study revealed the skin microbiomes and their functional annotations from healthy and diseased stinging catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis) based on 16S rRNA metagenomics. The OTUs consisted of four major phyla, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota, Actinobacteriota and Firmicutes. Among members of the predominant phyla, Proteobacteria were rich in healthy fishes, but Bacteroidota and Firmicutes were significantly differentiated in healthy and diseased fish. The diversified microbiome was high in the skin of healthy fishes and did not significantly differ from that of the diseased groups. At the genus level, Pseudomonas showed the highest abundance in healthy fish but was nearly absent in diseased fish, whereas Flavobacterium showed the highest abundance in diseased fish. Linear discriminant analysis identified two phyla (Bacteroidota, Firmicutes) and two genera (Flavobacterium, Allorhizobium) that were consistently identified in diseased fishes. Functional prediction analysis specified that the genes related to physiological functions such as metabolism, immune and digestive systems and environmental adaptations could be highly expressed in diseased fishes. The present study indicates that the compositions, richness and functions of the bacterial community could influence the health status of cultured stinging catfish. Aquaculture-associated pathogenic bacteria may be identified, and preventive measures can be taken for the surveillance of fish health.

Aquaculture industry prospective from gut microbiome of fish and shellfish: An overview

The microbiome actually deals with micro-organisms that are associated with indigenous body parts and the entire gut system in all animals, including human beings. These microbes are linked with roles involving hereditary traits, defence against diseases and strengthening overall immunity, which determines the health status of an organism. Considerable efforts have been made to find out the microbiome diversity and their taxonomic identification in finfish and shellfish and its importance has been correlated with various physiological functions and activities. In recent past due to the availability of advanced molecular tools, some efforts have also been made on DNA sequencing of these microbes to understand the environmental impact and other stress factors on their genomic structural profile. There are reports on the use of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology, including amplicon and shot-gun approaches, and associated bioinformatics tools to count and classify commensal microbiome at the species level. The microbiome present in the whole body, particularly in the gut systems of finfish and shellfish, not only contributes to digestion but also has an impact on nutrition, growth, reproduction, immune system and vulnerability of the host fish to diseases. Therefore, the study of such microbial communities is highly relevant for the development of new and innovative bio-products which will be a vital source to build bio and pharmaceutical industries, including aquaculture. In recent years, attempts have been made to discover the chemical ingredients present in these microbes in the form of biomolecules/bioactive compounds with their functions and usefulness for various health benefits, particularly for the treatment of different types of disorders in animals. Therefore, it has been speculated that microbiomes hold great promise not only as a cure for ailments but also as a preventive measure for the number of infectious diseases. This kind of exploration of new breeds of microbes with their miraculous ingredients will definitely help to accelerate the development of the drugs, pharmaceutical and other biological related industries. Probiotic research and bioinformatics skills will further escalate these opportunities in the sector. In the present review, efforts have been made to collect comprehensive information on the finfish and shellfish microbiome, their diversity and functional properties, relationship with diseases, health status, data on species-specific metagenomics, probiotic research and bioinformatics skills. Further, emphasis has also been made to carry out microbiome research on priority basis not only to keep healthy environment of the fish farming sector but also for the sustainable growth of biological related industries, including aquaculture.

Mucosal immunoglobulins of teleost fish: A decade of advances

Immunoglobulins (Igs) are complex glycoproteins that play critical functions in innate and adaptive immunity of all jawed vertebrates. Given the unique characteristics of mucosal barriers, secretory Igs (sIgs) have specialized to maintain homeostasis and keep pathogens at bay at mucosal tissues from fish to mammals. In teleost fish, the three main IgH isotypes, IgM, IgD and IgT/Z can be found in different proportions at the mucosal secretions of the skin, gills, gut, nasal, buccal, and pharyngeal mucosae. Similar to the role of mammalian IgA, IgT plays a predominant role in fish mucosal immunity. Recent studies in IgT have illuminated the primordial role of sIgs in both microbiota homeostasis and pathogen control at mucosal sites. Ten years ago, IgT was discovered to be an immunoglobulin class specialized in mucosal immunity. Aiming at this 10-year anniversary, the goal of this review is to summarize the current status of the field of fish Igs since that discovery, while identifying knowledge gaps and future avenues that will move the field forward in both basic and applied science areas.

The Effect of a Total Fishmeal Replacement by Arthrospira platensis on the Microbiome of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

An increasing number of fishmeal supplements are becoming the focus of aquaculture research, with a special emphasis on microalgae/cyanobacteria such as spirulina being considered as sustainable alternatives. New feed ingredients can have a far-reaching impact on the intestinal microbiome and therefore play an important role in the development and the health of fish. However, the influence of these alternatives on the microbiome is largely unknown. We undertook a 10 weeks feeding experiment on 120 African catfish with an initial body weight of 50.1 ± 2.95 g. To understand the effect of the spirulina supplementation, two isoenergetic experimental diets were formulated, containing either fishmeal or spirulina as a protein source. The 16S rRNA sequencing was used to analyze the intestinal bacteria microbiota. Results show that the observed richness indicated no significant statistical difference, but Chao1, ACE, Shannon, and Simpson indices indicate a possible increase in bacterial richness for the spirulina diet. The most abundant bacteria in both experimental groups were Fusobacteriia with the only taxa from the genus Cetobacterium. The bacterium from genus Romboutsia was more likely to be found in the microbiome of fish fed the fishmeal diet. In spirulina-fed fish, the genera Plesiomonas and Bacteroides were the most dominant microbes observed. Even though some genera were more abundant in the spirulina group, the overall microbial community structure was not affected by diets.

Fishing for the right probiotic: Host-microbe interactions at the interface of effective aquaculture strategies

Effective aquaculture management strategies are paramount to global food security. Growing demands stimulate the intensification of production and create the need for practices that are both economically viable and environmentally sustainable. Importantly, pathogenic microbes continue to be detrimental to fish growth and survival. In terms of host health, the intestinal mucosa and its associated consortium of microbes have a critical role in modulating fitness and present an attractive opportunity to promote health at this interface. In light of this, the administration of probiotic microorganisms is being considered as a means to restore and sustain health in fish. Current evidence suggests that certain probiotic strains might be able to augment immunity, enhance growth rate, and protect against infection in salmonids, the most economically important family of farmed finfish. This review affirms the relevance of host-microbe interactions in salmonids in light of emerging evidence, with an emphasis on intestinal health. In addition, the current understanding of the mode of action of probiotics in salmonid fish is discussed, along with delivery systems that can effectively carry the living microbes.

Salmon gut microbiota correlates with disease infection status: potential for monitoring health in farmed animals

BACKGROUND

Infectious diseases cause significant production losses in aquaculture every year. Since the gut microbiota plays an essential role in regulating the host immune system, health and physiology, altered gut microbiota compositions are often associated with a diseased status. However, few studies have examined the association between disease severity and degree of gut dysbiosis, especially when the gut is not the site of the primary infection. Moreover, there is a lack of knowledge on whether bath treatment with formalin, a disinfectant commonly used in aquaculture to treat external infections, might affect the gut microbiome as a consequence of formalin ingestion. Here we investigate, through 16S rRNA gene metabarcoding, changes in the distal gut microbiota composition of a captive-reared cohort of 80 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.), in consequence of an external bacterial skin infection due to a natural outbreak and subsequent formalin treatment.

RESULTS

We identified Tenacibaculum dicentrarchi as the causative disease pathogen and we show that the distal gut of diseased salmon presented a different composition from that of healthy individuals. A new, yet undescribed, Mycoplasma genus characterized the gut of healthy salmon, while in the sick fish we observed an increase in terms of relative abundance of Aliivibrio sp., a strain regarded as opportunistic. We also noticed a positive correlation between fish weight and Mycoplasma sp. relative abundance, potentially indicating a beneficial effect for its host. Moreover, we observed that the gut microbiota of fish treated with formalin was more similar to those of sick fish than healthy ones.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that external Tenacibaculum infections have the potential of indirectly affecting the host gut microbiota. As such, treatment optimization procedures should account for that. Formalin treatment is not an optimal solution from a holistic perspective, since we observe an altered gut microbiota in the treated fish. We suggest its coupling with a probiotic treatment aimed at re-establishing a healthy community. Lastly, we have observed a positive correlation of Mycoplasma sp. with salmon health and weight, therefore we encourage further investigations towards its potential utilization as a biomarker for monitoring health in salmon and potentially other farmed fish species.

The Impact of Sampling Season and Catching Site (Wild and Aquaculture) on Gut Microbiota Composition and Diversity of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Simple Summary

The gut microbiota (all microbes in the intestine) of fishes is known to play an essential role in diverse aspects of their life. The gut microbiota of fish is affected by various environmental parameters, including temperature changes, salinity and diet. This study characterised the microbial composition in gut samples of Nile Tilapia collected from Lake Tana and the Bahir Dar aquaculture facility centre applying modern molecular techniques. The results show clear differences in the gut microbiota in fish from the Lake Tana and the ones from aquaculture. Further, also significant differences were observed on the composition of the gut microbiota across sampling months. Samples from the aquaculture centre displayed a higher diversity than the wild catch Nile tilapia from Lake Tana even though there is also an overlapping of the detected microbial groups. Overall, this is the first study on the effects of sampling season and catching site on the gut microbiota of Nile tilapia in Ethiopia. Future work will help to precisely explain the causes of these changes and their influence of the health and growth of Nile tilapia in Ethiopian lakes as well as under aquaculture conditions.

Abstract

The gut microbiota of fishes is known to play an essential role in diverse aspects of host biology. The gut microbiota of fish is affected by various environmental parameters, including temperature changes, salinity and diet. Studies of effect of environment on gut microbiota enables to have a further understanding of what comprises a healthy microbiota under different environmental conditions. However, there is insufficient understanding regarding the effects of sampling season and catching site (wild and aquaculture) on the gut microbiota of Nile tilapia. This study characterised gut microbial composition and diversity from samples collected from Lake Tana and the Bahir Dar aquaculture facility centre using 16S rDNA Illumina MiSeq platform sequencing. Firmicutes and Fusobacteria were the most dominant phyla in the Lake Tana samples, while Proteobacteria was the most dominant in the aquaculture samples. The results of differential abundance testing clearly indicated significant differences for Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Cyanobacteria across sampling months. However, Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Fusobacteria and Cyanobacteria were significantly enriched in the comparison of samples from the Lake Tana and aquaculture centre. Significant differences were observed in microbial diversity across sampling months and between wild and captive Nile tilapia. The alpha diversity clearly showed that samples from the aquaculture centre (captive) had a higher diversity than the wild Nile tilapia samples from Lake Tana. The core gut microbiota of all samples of Nile tilapia used in our study comprised Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Fusobacteria. This study clearly showed the impact of sampling season and catching site (wild and aquaculture) on the diversity and composition of bacterial communities associated with the gut of Nile tilapia. Overall, this is the first study on the effects of sampling season and catching site on the gut microbiota of Nile tilapia in Ethiopia. Future work is recommended to precisely explain the causes of these changes using large representative samples of Nile tilapia from different lakes and aquaculture farms.

Gut Microbiota of Five Sympatrically Farmed Marine Fish Species in the Aegean Sea

In this study, we hypothesized that sympatrically grown farmed fish, i.e. fish which experience similar environmental conditions and nutritionally similar diets, would have more convergent gut microbiota. Using a "common garden" approach, we identified the core microbiota and bacterial community structure differences between five fish species farmed in the same aquaculture site on the west coast of the Aegean Sea, Greece. The investigated individuals were at similar developmental stages and reared in adjacent (< 50 m) aquaculture cages; each cage had 15 kg fish m^-3. The diets were nutritionally similar to support optimal growth for each fish species. DNA from the midgut of 3-6 individuals per fish species was extracted and sequenced for the V3-V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA. Only 3.9% of the total 181 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were shared among all fish. Between 5 and 74 OTUs were unique to each fish species. Each of the investigated fish species had a distinct profile of dominant OTUs, i.e. cumulative relative abundance of ≥ 80%. Co-occurrence network analysis for each fish species showed that all networks were strongly dominated by positive correlations between the abundances of their OTUs. However, each fish species had different network characteristics suggesting the differential significance of the OTUs in each of the five fish species midgut. The results of the present study may provide evidence that adult fish farmed in the Mediterranean Sea have a rather divergent and species-specific gut microbiota profile, which are shaped independently of the similar environmental conditions under which they grow.

Microbiota in intestinal digesta of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), observed from late freshwater stage until one year in seawater, and effects of functional ingredients: a case study from a commercial sized research site in the Arctic region

BACKGROUND

The importance of the gut microbiota for health and wellbeing is well established for humans and some land animals. The gut microbiota is supposedly as important for fish, but existing knowledge has many gaps, in particular for fish in the Arctic areas. This study addressed the dynamics of Atlantic salmon digesta-associated gut microbiota assemblage and its associations with host responses from freshwater to seawater life stages under large-scale, commercial conditions in the Arctic region of Norway, and explored the effects of functional ingredients. The microbiota was characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequencing in distal intestinal digesta at four time points: 2 weeks before seawater transfer (in May, FW); 4 weeks after seawater transfer (in June, SW1); in November (SW2), and in April (SW3) the following year. Two series of diets were fed, varying throughout the observation time in nutrient composition according to the requirements of fish, one without (Ref diet), and the other with functional ingredients (Test diet). The functional ingredients, i.e. nucleotides, yeast cell walls, one prebiotic and essential fatty acids, were supplemented as single or mixtures based on the strategies from the feed company.

RESULTS

Overall, the fish showed higher microbial richness and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) abundance after seawater transfer, while Simpson's diversity decreased throughout the observation period. At SW1, the gut microbiota was slightly different from those at FW, and was dominated by the genera Lactobacillus and Photobacterium. As the fish progressed towards SW2 and SW3, the genera Lactobacillus and Mycoplasma became more prominent, with a corresponding decline in genus Photobacterium. The overall bacterial profiles at these time points showed a clear distinction from those at FW. A significant effect of functional ingredients (a mixture of nucleotides, yeast cell walls and essential fatty acids) was observed at SW2, where Test-fed fish showed lower microbial richness, Shannon's diversity, and LAB abundance. The multivariate association analysis identified differentially abundant taxa, especially Megasphaera, to be significantly associated with gut immune and barrier gene expressions, and plasma nutrients.

CONCLUSIONS

The gut microbiota profile varied during the observation period, and the Mycoplasma became the dominating bacteria with time. Megasphaera abundance was associated with gut health and plasma nutrient biomarkers. Functional ingredients modulated the gut microbiota profile during an important ongrowing stage.

Differential response of digesta- and mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota to dietary insect meal during the seawater phase of Atlantic salmon

Background

Intestinal digesta is commonly used for studying responses of microbiota to dietary shifts, yet evidence is accumulating that it represents an incomplete view of the intestinal microbiota. The present work aims to investigate the differences between digesta- and mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and how they may respond differently to dietary perturbations. In a 16-week seawater feeding trial, Atlantic salmon were fed either a commercially-relevant reference diet or an insect meal diet containing ~ 15% black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal. The digesta- and mucosa-associated distal intestinal microbiota were profiled by 16S rRNA gene sequencing.

Results

Regardless of diet, we observed substantial differences between digesta- and mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota. Microbial richness and diversity were much higher in the digesta than the mucosa. The insect meal diet altered the distal intestinal microbiota resulting in higher microbial richness and diversity. The diet effect, however, depended on the sample origin. Digesta-associated intestinal microbiota showed more pronounced changes than the mucosa-associated microbiota. Multivariate association analyses identified two mucosa-enriched taxa, Brevinema andersonii and Spirochaetaceae, associated with the expression of genes related to immune responses and barrier function in the distal intestine, respectively.

Conclusions

Our data show that salmon intestinal digesta and mucosa harbor microbial communities with clear differences. While feeding insects increased microbial richness and diversity in both digesta- and mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota, mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota seems more resilient to variations in the diet composition. To fully unveil the response of intestinal microbiota to dietary changes, concurrent profiling of digesta- and mucosa-associated intestinal microbiota is recommended whenever feasible. Specific taxa enriched in the intestinal mucosa are associated to gene expression related to immune responses and barrier function. Detailed studies are needed on the ecological and functional significance of taxa associated to intestinal microbiota dwelling on the mucosa.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42523-020-00071-3.

Dietary Lipid:Protein Ratio and n-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Alters the Gut Microbiome of Atlantic Salmon Under Hypoxic and Normoxic Conditions

Researchers have adjusted dietary lipid:protein ratios and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) to optimize the growth performance of Atlantic salmon. However, dietary impacts on the gut microbiome are lacking, especially under varying environmental conditions. To examine this response, post-smolt salmon (184 ± 5 g) were fed diets with lipid:protein ratios considered low (180, 570 g/kg) and high (230, 460 g/kg) along with low and high levels of n-3 LC-PUFA (7 or 14 g/kg) while fish were reared under low and high levels of dissolved oxygen (6.7 or 8.0 mg/L). At day 0, 35 and 116, digesta in the distal intestine were collected and analyzed for viable counts and 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes (V4 region) using Illumina MiSeq. The reduction in oxygen had negligible effects, except on viable plate counts of total bacteria and an initial effect on beta-diversity. In contrast, the high lipid (HL) diets had an increased alpha-diversity (e.g., Shannon and Chao-1) at day 0 and day 35 whereas high n-3 diets suppressed these indices at day 116. Generally, a reduction in alpha-diversity was observed over time and an interaction between lipid:protein ratio x n-3 was found. Between diets, beta-diversity and phyla abundance were similar as both Proteobacteria (44%) and Firmicutes (21%) dominated. However, at the genus level Aliivibrio, Streptococcus, Weissella, and Lactobacillus, were associated with low lipid (LL) diets while the high lipid diets were associated with less abundant bacteria, e.g., Chromohalobacter. At day 116, the relative abundance of the Tenericutes phylum increased 10-fold (36%). Fish fed the high lipid diet with high n-3 had reduced alpha-diversity, lowest abundance of lactic acid bacteria, and highest abundance of Mycoplasma, which may indicate a less healthy gut microbiome. Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) analysis revealed that saturated and unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis pathways were several folds higher in fish fed the high lipid diet, possibly to compensate for the lack of dietary n-3. In summary, our results show that the viable plate counts, alpha-diversity, beta-diversity, and predictive function of gut bacteria in Atlantic salmon post-smolts are influenced by dietary lipid:protein ratio and n-3 LC-PUFA over several time points with little effect by dissolved oxygen.

Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L., 1758) Gut Microbiota Profile Correlates with Flesh Pigmentation: Cause or Effect?

In Tasmania (Australia), during the marine phase, it has been observed that flesh pigmentation significantly drops in summer, possibly due to high water temperatures (> 20 °C). Although this deleterious effect of summer temperatures has been ascertained, there is a lack of knowledge of the actual mechanisms behind the impaired uptake and/or loss of pigments in Atlantic salmon in a challenging environment. Since the microbial community in the fish intestine significantly changes in relation to the variations of water temperature, this study was conducted to assess how the gut microbiota profile also correlates with the flesh color during temperature fluctuation. We sampled 68 fish at three time points covering the end of summer to winter at a marine farm in Tasmania, Australia. Flesh color was examined in two ways: the average color throughout and the evenness of the color between different areas of the fillet. Using 16S rRNA sequencing of the v3-v4 region, we determined that water temperature corresponded to changes in the gut microbiome both with alpha diversity (Kruskal-Wallis tests P = 0.05) and beta diversity indices (PERMANOVA P = 0.001). Also, there was a significant correlation between the microbiota and the color of the fillet (PERMANOVA P = 0.016). There was a high abundance of Pseudoalteromonadaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Microbacteriaceae, and Vibrionaceae in the pale individuals. Conversely, carotenoid-synthesizing bacteria families (Bacillaceae, Mycoplasmataceae, Pseudomonas, Phyllobacteriaceae, and Comamonadaceae) were found in higher abundance in individuals with darker flesh color.

Comparative analysis of the gut microbiota of grass carp fed with chicken faeces

The gut microbiota is closely related to health and disease. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is an important food fish in China. We aimed to investigate the effect of a chicken faeces diet on the gut microbiota composition of grass carp reared in an integrated farming system in China. Gut microbiota compositions of grass carps fed chicken faeces, a commercial diet, and grass were compared based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The major intestinal phyla in grass carps fed chicken faeces were Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. The untreated chicken faeces diet altered the gut microbiota composition and increased the number of potential pathogens and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the gut to varying degrees. To reduce the risk of diseases, it is necessary to remove residual antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in chicken faeces by fermentation or other techniques, before it can be used as a fish feed for grass carp.

Assessing the Pyloric Caeca and Distal Gut Microbiota Correlation with Flesh Color in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L., 1758)

The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L., 1758) is a temperate fish species native to the northern Atlantic Ocean. The distinctive pink–red flesh color (i.e., pigmentation) significantly affects the market price. Flesh paleness leads to customer dissatisfaction, a loss of competitiveness, a drop in product value and, consequently, severe economic losses. This work extends our knowledge on salmonid carotenoid dynamics to include the interaction between the gut microbiota and flesh color. A significant association between the flesh color and abundance of specific bacterial communities in the gut microbiota suggests that color may be affected either by seeding resilient beneficial bacteria or by inhibiting the negative effect of pathogenic bacteria. We sampled 96 fish, which covered all phenotypes of flesh color, including the average color and the evenness of color of different areas of the fillet, at both the distal intestine and the pyloric caeca of each individual, followed by 16S rRNA sequencing at the V3-V4 region. The microbiota profiles of these two gut regions were significantly different; however, there was a consistency in the microbiota, which correlated with the flesh color. Moreover, the pyloric caeca microbiota also showed high correlation with the evenness of the flesh color (beta diversity index, PERMANOVA, p = 0.002). The results from the pyloric caeca indicate that Carnobacterium, a group belonging to the lactic acid bacteria, is strongly related to the flesh color and the evenness of the color between the flesh areas.

PCR-RFLP Detection and Genogroup Identification of Piscirickettsia salmonis in Field Samples

Piscirickettsia salmons, the causative agent of piscirickettsiosis, is genetically divided into two genomic groups, named after the reference strains as LF-89-like or EM-90-like. Phenotypic differences have been detected between the P. salmonis genogroups, including antibiotic susceptibilities, host specificities and pathogenicity. In this study, we aimed to develop a rapid, sensitive and cost-effective assay for the differentiation of the P. salmonis genogroups. Using an in silico analysis of the P. salmonis 16S rDNA digestion patterns, we have designed a genogroup-specific assay based on PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). An experimental validation was carried out by comparing the restriction patterns of 13 P. salmonis strains and 57 field samples obtained from the tissues of dead or moribund fish. When the bacterial composition of a set of field samples, for which we detected mixtures of bacterial DNA, was analyzed by a high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene amplicons, a diversity of taxa could be identified, including pathogenic and commensal bacteria. Despite the presence of mixtures of bacterial DNA, the characteristic digestion pattern of the P. salmonis genogroups could be detected in the field samples without the need of a microbiological culture and bacterial isolation.

Neutral Processes Dominate Microbial Community Assembly in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar

In recent years, a wealth of studies has examined the relationships between a host and its microbiome across diverse taxa. Many studies characterize the host microbiome without considering the ecological processes that underpin microbiome assembly. In this study, the intestinal microbiota of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, sampled from farmed and wild environments was first characterized using 16S rRNA gene MiSeq sequencing analysis. We used neutral community models to determine the balance of stochastic and deterministic processes that underpin microbial community assembly and transfer across life cycle stage and between gut compartments. Across gut compartments in farmed fish, neutral models suggest that most microbes are transient with no evidence of adaptation to their environment. In wild fish, we found declining taxonomic and functional microbial community richness as fish mature through different life cycle stages. Alongside neutral community models applied to wild fish, we suggest that declining richness demonstrates an increasing role for the host in filtering microbial communities that is correlated with age. We found a limited subset of gut microflora adapted to the farmed and wild host environment among which Mycoplasma spp. are prominent. Our study reveals the ecological drivers underpinning community assembly in both farmed and wild Atlantic salmon and underlines the importance of understanding the role of stochastic processes, such as random drift and small migration rates in microbial community assembly, before considering any functional role of the gut microbes encountered.IMPORTANCE A growing number of studies have examined variation in the microbiome to determine the role in modulating host health, physiology, and ecology. However, the ecology of host microbial colonization is not fully understood and rarely tested. The continued increase in production of farmed Atlantic salmon, coupled with increased farmed-wild salmon interactions, has accentuated the need to unravel the potential adaptive function of the microbiome and to distinguish resident from transient gut microbes. Between gut compartments in a farmed system, we found a majority of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) that fit the neutral model, with Mycoplasma species among the key exceptions. In wild fish, deterministic processes account for more OTU differences across life stages than those observed across gut compartments. Unlike previous studies, our results make detailed comparisons between fish from wild and farmed environments, while also providing insight into the ecological processes underpinning microbial community assembly in this ecologically and economically important species.

Analysis of the Microbiome of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Exposed to the Pathogen Flavobacterium psychrophilum 10094

Rainbow trout that were resistant or susceptible to Flavobacterium psychrophilum infection were compared with respect to their microbial composition by using 16S rRNA V3-V4 sequencing. The differences occurred in gills, where resistant fish displayed a greater abundance of the phylum Proteobacteria and a smaller proportion of Firmicutes relative to those of susceptible fish.

Rainbow trout that were resistant or susceptible to Flavobacterium psychrophilum infection were compared with respect to their microbial composition by using 16S rRNA V3-V4 sequencing. The differences occurred in gills, where resistant fish displayed a greater abundance of the phylum Proteobacteria and a smaller proportion of Firmicutes relative to those of susceptible fish.

Habitat and seasonality shape the structure of tench (Tinca tinca L.) gut microbiome

Tench (Tinca tinca L.) is one of the most valued species of the Cyprinidae. This species is commercially important and has been intensively domesticated in recent years. To avoid excessive production losses, the health of farm fish must be maintained. Characterization of the tench gut microbiome can help achieve this goal, as the gastrointestinal microbiome plays an important role in host health. As part of this characterization, investigating the influence of the environment and season will help to understand the interrelationship between host and gut microbiota. Therefore, our aim was to use high-throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to profile the gut microbiome of tench. We studied two populations in summer and autumn: wild tench living in a lake and tench living in a pond in a semi-intensive fish farm. We found that, in the gut microbiome of all fish, the most abundant phylum was Proteobacteria, followed by Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. Together, these phyla constituted up to 90% of the microbial communities. The abundance of Candidatus Xiphinematobacter differed significantly between lake and pond fish in summer, but not in autumn. In pond tench, Methylobacterium abundance was significantly lower in summer than in autumn. Mean Shannon, Chao1 indices and observed OTU's indicated that microbial biodiversity was greater in the gut of lake fish than in that of pond fish. Beta-diversity analysis showed significant divergence between groups with both weighted and unweighted UniFrac distance matrices. Principal coordinates analysis revealed that more of the variance in microbial diversity was attributable to environment than to season. Although some of the diversity in lake tench gut microbiota could be attributable to feeding preferences of individual fish, our results suggest that environment is the main factor in determining gut microbiome diversity in tench.

Environmental plasticity and colonisation history in the Atlantic salmon microbiome: A translocation experiment

Microbial communities associated with the gut and the skin are strongly influenced by environmental factors, and can rapidly adapt to change. Historical processes may also affect the microbiome. In particular, variation in microbial colonisation in early life has the potential to induce lasting effects on microbial assemblages. However, little is known about the relative extent of microbiome plasticity or the importance of historical colonisation effects following environmental change, especially for nonmammalian species. To investigate this we performed a reciprocal translocation of Atlantic salmon between artificial and semi-natural conditions. Wild and hatchery-reared fry were transferred to three common garden experimental environments for 6 weeks: standard hatchery conditions, hatchery conditions with an enriched diet, and simulated wild conditions. We characterized the faecal and skin microbiome of individual fish before and after the environmental translocation, using a BACI (before-after-control-impact) design. We found evidence of extensive microbiome plasticity for both the gut and skin, with the greatest changes in alpha and beta diversity associated with the largest changes in environment and diet. Microbiome richness and diversity were entirely determined by environment, with no detectable effects of fish origin, and there was also a near-complete turnover in microbiome structure. However, we also identified, for the first time in fish, evidence of historical colonisation effects reflecting early-life experience, including ASVs characteristic of captive rearing. These results have important implications for host adaptation to local selective pressures, and highlight how conditions experienced during early life can have a long-term influence on the microbiome and, potentially, host health.

Influence of Dietary Supplementation of Probiotic Pediococcus acidilactici MA18/5M During the Transition From Freshwater to Seawater on Intestinal Health and Microbiota of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.)

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of the transfer from freshwater to seawater on the distal intestinal bacterial communities of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) and to evaluate the effect of dietary inclusion of Pediococcus acidilactici MA18/5M (at 1.19 × 10⁶ CFU/g). In this context, fish health and antiviral response were also investigated. A 12-week feeding trial was conducted in a flow-through rearing system involving 6 weeks in freshwater and 6 weeks in seawater. Fish received a control and probiotic diet. The composition of the salmon gut bacterial communities was determined by high-throughput sequencing of digesta and mucosa samples from both the freshwater and seawater stage. The main phyla detected during both freshwater and seawater stages were Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria, and Actinobacteria. Significant differences were observed between the intestinal microbiota in the digesta and the mucosa. Both probiotic supplementation and the seawater transfer (SWT) had a substantial impact on the microbial communities, with most pronounced changes detected in the mucosal communities after SWT. This last finding together with a significantly higher antiviral response (mx-1 and tlr3 gene expression) in the distal intestine of fish fed the probiotic diet suggest a causal link between the microbiota modulation and activation of antiviral response. Feeding probiotics during the freshwater stage did not significantly increase survival after infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) challenge after SWT, although higher survival was observed in one out of two replicate challenge tanks. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that both dietary probiotic supplementation and transfer from freshwater to seawater have an important role in modulating the bacterial communities in the distal intestine of Atlantic salmon. Furthermore, supplementation of the diet with P. acidilactici MA18/5M can modulate antiviral response.

Macroalga-Derived Alginate Oligosaccharide Alters Intestinal Bacteria of Atlantic Salmon

Prebiotics are substrates intended to sculpt gut microbial communities as they are selectively utilized by the microorganisms to exert beneficial health effects on hosts. Macroalga-derived oligosaccharides are candidate prebiotics, and herein, we determined the effects of Laminaria sp.-derived alginate oligosaccharide (AlgOS) on the distal intestinal microbiota of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Using a high-throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing technique, we investigated the microbiota harbored in the intestinal content and mucus of the fish offered feeds supplemented with 0.5 and 2.5% AlgOS. We found that the prebiotic shifts the intestinal microbiota profile; alpha diversity was significantly reduced with 2.5% AlgOS while with 0.5% AlgOS the alteration occurred without impacting the bacterial diversity. Beta diversity analysis indicated the significant differences between control and prebiotic-fed groups. The low supplementation level of AlgOS facilitated the dominance of Proteobacteria (including Photobacterium phosphoreum, Aquabacterium parvum, Achromobacter insolitus), and Spirochaetes (Brevinema andersonii) in the content or mucus of the fish, and few of these bacteria (Aliivibrio logei, A. parvum, B. andersonii, A. insolitus) have genes associated with butyrate production. The results indicate that the low inclusion of AlgOS can plausibly induce a prebiotic effect on the distal intestinal microbiota of Atlantic salmon. These findings can generate further interest in the potential of macroalgae-derived oligosaccharides for food and feed applications.

Insights into the Potential of the Atlantic Cod Gut Microbiome as Biomarker of Oil Contamination in the Marine Environment

BACKGROUND

Microorganisms are widespread in all environments, including in and on animal bodies. The gut microbiome has an essential influence on fish health, and is affected by several persistent and harmful organic and inorganic contaminants. Considering the shifts in gut microbiota composition observed in those studies, we hypothesized that certain microbial groups in the gut can serve as indicators of pollution. To test this hypothesis, we explored the possibility of identifying key microbial players that indicate environmental contamination.

METHODS

Published 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing data generated from the gut microbiota of Atlantic cod caught in geographically different Norwegian waters were used for bacterial diversity comparison.

RESULTS

Different microbiomes were identified between the northern Norway and southern Norway samples. Several bacterial genera previously identified as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degraders were present only in the samples collected in the southern Norway area, suggesting fish contamination with oil-related compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

The results contribute to the identification of bacterial taxa present in the Atlantic cod gut that indicate fish exposure to contaminants in the marine environment.

Full-length 16S rRNA gene classification of Atlantic salmon bacteria and effects of using different 16S variable regions on community structure analysis

Understanding fish-microbial relationships may be of great value for fish producers as fish growth, development and welfare are influenced by the microbial community associated with the rearing systems and fish surfaces. Accurate methods to generate and analyze these microbial communities would be an important tool to help improve understanding of microbial effects in the industry. In this study, we performed taxonomic classification and determination of operational taxonomic units on Atlantic salmon microbiota by taking advantage of full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences. Skin mucus was dominated by the genera Flavobacterium and Psychrobacter. Intestinal samples were dominated by the genera Carnobacterium, Aeromonas, Mycoplasma and by sequences assigned to the order Clostridiales. Applying Sanger sequencing on the full-length bacterial 16S rRNA gene from the pool of 46 isolates obtained in this study showed a clear assignment of the PacBio full-length bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences down to the genus level. One of the bottlenecks in comparing microbial profiles is that different studies use different 16S rRNA gene regions. Comparisons of sequence assignments between full-length and in silico derived variable 16S rRNA gene regions showed different microbial profiles with variable effects between phylogenetic groups and taxonomic ranks.

Adaptation to Fasting in Crucian Carp (Carassius auratus): Gut Microbiota and Its Correlative Relationship with Immune Function

Fasting influences the overall physiology of fish, and the knowledge how the gut microbiota, growth performances, and immune function in response to intermittent and long-term fasting is still insufficient. Here, we characterized the effects of fasting on the host-gut microbiota in crucian carp, which would enhance our insight into physiological adaptation to fasting. To achieve this, we investigated the gut microbial communities of crucian carp with different fasting stress, and corresponding immune and growth parameters. The gut microbial communities were structured into four clusters according to different fasting stress, namely one control group (feed regularly), two intermittent fasting groups (fasting period and re-feeding period, respectively), and one long-term fasting group. Intermittent fasting significantly improved the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and lysozyme (LZM) (ANOVA, p < 0.05) and significantly increased alpha diversity and ecosystem stability of gut microbiota (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Gut length (GL) and condition factor (CF) showed no significant difference between the control group (CG) and intermittent fasting group under re-feeding period (RIF) (ANOVA, p = 0.11), but relative gut length (RGL) in group RIF was higher than that in the CG (ANOVA, p = 0.00). The bacterial genera Bacteroides, Akkermansia, and Erysipelotrichaceae were enriched in fishes under intermittent fasting. Two Bacteroides OTUs (OTU50 and OTU1292) correlated positively with immune (SOD, complement, and LZM) and growth (GL and RGL) parameters. These results highlight the possible interplay between growth performances, immune function, and gut microbiota in response to fasting.

Diversity and composition of the gut microbiota of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farmed in Irish waters

AIMS

Information on the gut microbiota of salmon is essential for optimizing nutrition while maintaining host health and welfare. This study's objectives were to characterize the microbiota in the GI tract of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farmed in waters off the west coast of Ireland and to investigate whether there is a difference in microbiota diversity between the proximal and distal regions of the intestine.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The microbiota from the proximal and distal intestine (PI and DI, respectively) of Atlantic salmon was examined using MiSeq Illumina high-throughput sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. The PI region had greater bacterial diversity than the DI region. Six phyla were present in the DI samples, dominated by Tenericutes and Firmicutes. These six phyla were also amongst the 12 phyla detected in the PI samples. The PI microbiota was dominated by Tenericutes, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. A core microbiota of 20 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) common to both regions was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

It was concluded that Tenericutes were the dominant phylum in both PI and DI samples, and the PI region had greater Shannon and Simpson diversity of bacteria. However, further work is required to identify the functionality of the salmon microbiota.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Our study determined the composition and diversity of the intestinal microbiota in adult salmon from a commercial fishery and provides data to improve our understanding of their contributions to the nutrition, health and welfare of Atlantic salmon farmed in Irish waters.

Variations of the intestinal gut microbiota of farmed rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), depending on the infection status of the fish

AIMS

The aim of the present study was to investigate the composition of the intestinal microbiota during the acute stage of a bacterial infection to understand how dysbiosis of the gut may influence overall taxonomic hierarchy and diversity, and determine if there exists a bacterial taxon(s) that serve as markers for healthy or diseased rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

METHODS AND RESULTS

From July to September 2015, 29 specimens of 3-year-old (an average weight from 240·9 ± 37·7 to 850·7 ± 70·1 g) rainbow trout O. mykiss were studied. Next-generation high-throughput sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA genes was applied to stomach and intestinal samples to compare the impact of infection status on the microbiota of rainbow trout O. mykiss (Walbaum) from the northwest part of Eurasia (Karelian region, Russia). The alpha diversity (Chao1, Simpson and Shannon index) of the microbial community of healthy rainbow trout was significantly higher than in unhealthy fish. The greatest contribution to the gut microbial composition of healthy fish was made by OTU's belonging to Bacillus, Serratia, Pseudomonas, Cetobacterium and Lactobacillus. Microbiota of unhealthy fish in most cases was represented by the genera Serratia, Bacillus and Pseudomonas. In microbiota of unhealthy fish there were also registered unique taxa such as bacteria from the family Mycoplasmataceae and Renibacterium. Analysis of similarities test revealed the significant dissimilarity between the microbiota of stomach and intestine (P ≤ 0·05).

CONCLUSIONS

A substantial finding was the absence of differences between microbial communities of the stomach and intestine in the unhealthy groups if compared with healthy fish.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

These results demonstrated alterations of the gut microbiota of farmed rainbow trout, O. mykiss during co-infections and can be useful for the development of new strategies for disease control programs.

Switching on the light: using metagenomic shotgun sequencing to characterize the intestinal microbiome of Atlantic cod

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is an ecologically important species with a wide-spread distribution in the North Atlantic Ocean, yet little is known about the diversity of its intestinal microbiome in its natural habitat. No geographical differentiation in this microbiome was observed based on 16S rRNA amplicon analyses, yet such finding may result from an inherent lack of power of this method to resolve fine-scaled biological complexity. Here, we use metagenomic shotgun sequencing to investigate the intestinal microbiome of 19 adult Atlantic cod individuals from two coastal populations in Norway-located 470 km apart. Resolving the species community to unprecedented resolution, we identify two abundant species, Photobacterium iliopiscarium and Photobacterium kishitanii, which comprise over 50% of the classified reads. Interestingly, the intestinal P. kishitanii strains have functionally intact lux genes, and its high abundance suggests that fish intestines form an important part of its ecological niche. These observations support a hypothesis that bioluminescence plays an ecological role in the marine food web. Despite our improved taxonomical resolution, we identify no geographical differences in bacterial community structure, indicating that the intestinal microbiome of these coastal cod is colonized by a limited number of closely related bacterial species with a broad geographical distribution.

Shifts in the Skin-Associated Microbiota of Hatchery-Reared Common Snook Centropomus undecimalis During Acclimation to the Wild

The skin-associated microbiota of fish competes against pathogens for space and nutrients, preventing colonization by harmful bacteria encountered during environmental transitions such as those faced during stock enhancement. Thus, alterations in bacterial community structure during release of cultured fish have important implications for health of these individuals. This study investigated microbiota structure during acclimation of juvenile hatchery-reared common snook Centropomus undecimalis to the wild by comparing skin-associated microflora among snook in captivity, after 48 h of acclimation at release sites, and from the wild. After two days of acclimation, the microbiota of hatchery-reared snook mirrored that observed on wild snook. Relative abundances of potential pathogens were higher in captive fish, whereas acclimated and wild fish harbored bacterial taxa influenced by geographical factors and water quality at release sites. Predicted microbiota function of acclimated and wild fish showed higher production of protective amino acids and antimicrobials, identifying a mechanism for microbial supplementation of the immune defense of these fish. The two-day transition to wild-type microbiota suggests a temporal scale of hours associated with bacterial succession indicating that the microbiota, whose structure is vital to fish health, aids in acclimation of fish to new environments during stock enhancement efforts.

The intestinal environment as an evolutionary adaptation to mouthbrooding in the Astatotilapia burtoni cichlid

Many of the various parental care strategies displayed by animals are accompanied by a significant reduction in food intake that imposes a substantial energy trade-off. Mouthbrooding, as seen in several species of fish in which the parent holds the developing eggs and fry in the buccal cavity, represents an extreme example of reduced food intake during parental investment and is accompanied by a range of physiological adaptations. In this study we use 16S sequencing to characterize the gut microbiota of female Astatotilapia burtoni cichlid fish throughout the obligatory phase of self-induced starvation during the brooding cycle in comparison to stage-matched females that have been denied food for the same duration. In addition to a reduction of gut epithelial turnover, we find a dramatic reduction in species diversity in brooding stages that recovers upon release of fry and refeeding that is not seen in females that are simply starved. Based on overall species diversity as well as differential abundance of specific bacterial taxa, we suggest that rather than reflecting a simple deprivation of caloric intake, the gut microbiota is more strongly influenced by physiological changes specific to mouthbrooding including the reduced epithelial turnover and possible production of antimicrobial agents.

16S rRNA-Based metagenomic analysis of microbial communities associated with wild Labroides dimidiatus from Karah Island, Terengganu, Malaysia

This study was designed to evaluate the bacterial composition of the Labroides dimidiatus and its surrounding water. Fish and carriage water samples were obtained from corals of the Karah Island in Terengganu Malaysia. DNA was extracted and the bacteria communities on the skin mucus and stomach as well as water sample were classified (to family level) using the 16S rRNA-based metagenomics analysis. 1,426,740 amplicon sequence reads corresponding to 508 total operational taxonomic units were obtained from the three metagenomics libraries in this study. The Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Fusobacteria were the most dominant bacterial phyla in all samples. A total of 36 different classes and 132 families were identified, many of which had shared presence in all samples while others were exclusive to different sample. Thirty-three of these were identified as pathogenic zoonotic bacterial. The results obtained indicate a strong influence of host environment on the composition of its microbiota. Knowing the composition of the microbiota is the first step toward exploring proper management of this ornamental fish in captivity.

Lactobacillus Dominate in the Intestine of Atlantic Salmon Fed Dietary Probiotics

Probiotics, the live microbial strains incorporated as dietary supplements, are known to provide health benefits to the host. These live microbes manipulate the gut microbial community by suppressing the growth of certain intestinal microbes while enhancing the establishment of some others. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been widely studied as probiotics; in this study we have elucidated the effects of two fish-derived LAB types (RII and RIII) on the distal intestinal microbial communities of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). We employed high-throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to investigate the bacterial communities in the distal intestinal content and mucus of Atlantic salmon fed diets coated with the LABs or that did not have microbes included in it. Our results show that the supplementation of the microbes shifts the intestinal microbial profile differentially. LAB supplementation did not cause any significant alterations in the alpha diversity of the intestinal content bacteria but RIII feeding increased the bacterial diversity in the intestinal mucus of the fish. Beta diversity analysis revealed significant differences between the bacterial compositions of the control and LAB-fed groups. Lactobacillus was the dominant genus in LAB-fed fish. A few members of the phyla Tenericutes, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Spirochaetes were also found to be abundant in the LAB-fed groups. Furthermore, the bacterial association network analysis showed that the co-occurrence pattern of bacteria of the three study groups were different. Dietary probiotics can modulate the composition and interaction of the intestinal microbiota of Atlantic salmon.

Fish Gut Microbiome: Current Approaches and Future Perspectives

In recent years, investigations of microbial flora associated with fish gut have deepened our knowledge of the complex interactions occurring between microbes and host fish. The gut microbiome not only reinforces the digestive and immune systems in fish but is itself shaped by several host-associated factors. Unfortunately, in the past, majority of studies have focused upon the structure of fish gut microbiome providing little knowledge of effects of these factors distinctively and the immense functional potential of the gut microbiome. In this review, we have highlighted the recently gained insights into the diversity and functions of the fish gut microbiome. We have also delved on the current approaches that are being employed to study the fish gut microbiome with an aim to collate all the knowledge gained and make accurate conclusions for their application based perspectives. The literature reviewed indicated that the future research should shift towards functional microbiomics to improve the maximum sustainable yield in aquaculture.

Interpopulation Variation in the Atlantic Salmon Microbiome Reflects Environmental and Genetic Diversity

The microbiome has a crucial influence on host phenotype and is of broad interest to ecological and evolutionary research. Yet, the extent of variation that occurs in the microbiome within and between populations is unclear. We characterized the skin and gut microbiomes of seven populations of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) inhabiting a diverse range of environments, including hatchery-reared and wild populations. We found shared skin operational taxonomic units (OTUs) across all populations and core gut microbiota for all wild fish, but the diversity and structure of both skin and gut microbial communities were distinct between populations. There was a marked difference between the gut microbiomes of wild and captive fish. Hatchery-reared fish had lower intestinal microbial diversity, lacked core microbiota found in wild fish, and showed altered community structure and function. Skin and gut microbiomes were also less varied within captive populations, reflecting more uniform artificial rearing conditions. The surrounding water influenced the microbiome of the gut and, especially, the skin, but could not explain the degree of variation observed between populations. For both gut and skin, we found that there was greater difference in microbiome structures between more genetically distinct fish populations, and that population genetic diversity was positively correlated with microbiome diversity. However, diet is likely to be the major factor contributing to the large differences in gut microbiota between wild and captive fish. Our results highlight the scope of interpopulation variation in the Atlantic salmon microbiome and offer insights into the deterministic factors contributing to microbiome diversity and structure.IMPORTANCE Variation in the microbiome has a fundamental influence on host health, ecology, and evolution, but the scope and basis of this variation are not fully understood. We identified considerable variation in skin and gut microbial communities between seven wild and captive populations of Atlantic salmon, reflecting divergent environmental conditions and fish genetic diversity. In particular, we found very pronounced differences in the intestinal microbiomes of wild and hatchery-reared fish, likely reflecting differences in diet. Our results offer an insight into how the microbiome potentially contributes to the generation of local adaptations in this species and how domestication alters intestinal microbial communities, highlighting future research directions in these areas.

Diet and other environmental factors shape the bacterial communities of fish gut in an eutrophic lake

AIMS

The aim of this work was to study the gut microbial diversity from eight species of wild fish with different feeding habits, digestive physiology (gastric vs agastric) and provide comparative structural analysis of the microbial communities within their environment (food items, water, sediments and macrophytes).

METHODS AND RESULTS

The microbiota of fish gut and their prey items were studied using next generation high-throughput sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA genes. A scatter plot based on PCoA scores demonstrated the microbiota formed three groups: (i) stomach and intestinal mucosa (IM), (ii) stomach and intestinal content (IC), and (iii) prey and environment. Comparisons using ANOSIM showed significant differences among IC of omnivorous, zoobenthivorous, zooplanktivorous-piscivorous fishes (P ≤ 0·1). No significant difference was detected for mucosa from the same groups (P > 0·1).

CONCLUSIONS

Neither the interspecies differences in fish diet nor their phylogenetic position had any effect on the microbiome of the IM, but diet did influence the composition of the microbiota of the IC.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The data demonstrate that fish harboured specific groups of bacteria that do not completely reflect the microbiota of the environment or prey.

Interpopulation Variation in the Atlantic Salmon Microbiome Reflects Environmental and Genetic Diversity

Variation in the microbiome has a fundamental influence on host health, ecology, and evolution, but the scope and basis of this variation are not fully understood. We identified considerable variation in skin and gut microbial communities between seven wild and captive populations of Atlantic salmon, reflecting divergent environmental conditions and fish genetic diversity. In particular, we found very pronounced differences in the intestinal microbiomes of wild and hatchery-reared fish, likely reflecting differences in diet. Our results offer an insight into how the microbiome potentially contributes to the generation of local adaptations in this species and how domestication alters intestinal microbial communities, highlighting future research directions in these areas.

The microbiome has a crucial influence on host phenotype and is of broad interest to ecological and evolutionary research. Yet, the extent of variation that occurs in the microbiome within and between populations is unclear. We characterized the skin and gut microbiomes of seven populations of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) inhabiting a diverse range of environments, including hatchery-reared and wild populations. We found shared skin operational taxonomic units (OTUs) across all populations and core gut microbiota for all wild fish, but the diversity and structure of both skin and gut microbial communities were distinct between populations. There was a marked difference between the gut microbiomes of wild and captive fish. Hatchery-reared fish had lower intestinal microbial diversity, lacked core microbiota found in wild fish, and showed altered community structure and function. Skin and gut microbiomes were also less varied within captive populations, reflecting more uniform artificial rearing conditions. The surrounding water influenced the microbiome of the gut and, especially, the skin, but could not explain the degree of variation observed between populations. For both gut and skin, we found that there was greater difference in microbiome structures between more genetically distinct fish populations, and that population genetic diversity was positively correlated with microbiome diversity. However, diet is likely to be the major factor contributing to the large differences in gut microbiota between wild and captive fish. Our results highlight the scope of interpopulation variation in the Atlantic salmon microbiome and offer insights into the deterministic factors contributing to microbiome diversity and structure.

IMPORTANCE Variation in the microbiome has a fundamental influence on host health, ecology, and evolution, but the scope and basis of this variation are not fully understood. We identified considerable variation in skin and gut microbial communities between seven wild and captive populations of Atlantic salmon, reflecting divergent environmental conditions and fish genetic diversity. In particular, we found very pronounced differences in the intestinal microbiomes of wild and hatchery-reared fish, likely reflecting differences in diet. Our results offer an insight into how the microbiome potentially contributes to the generation of local adaptations in this species and how domestication alters intestinal microbial communities, highlighting future research directions in these areas.