Challenges and Opportunities for Research on Same-Sex Relationships

Partnership Dynamics of LGB People and Heterosexuals: Patterns of First Partnership Formation and First Cohabitation

In this study we examine partnership dynamics among people with different sexual orientations in Germany. More specifically, we explore the process of first partnership formation and first cohabitation among men and women who self-identify as heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual. Given the various discriminations against same-sex lifestyles, and the limited opportunities to meet potential partners, we assume that lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) people form partnerships later in life and less frequently than heterosexuals. We further expect that the constantly improving social and legal climate for sexual minorities will lead to a reduction in differences in partnership behaviour by sexual orientation. We use retrospectively reported partnership biographies from the German Socio-Economic Panel, which was supplemented in 2019 with a boost sample of sexual and gender minority households. Using discrete-time event history models, we analyse nearly 15,000 episodes of being single and nearly 20,000 episodes of living without a partner in the household. Around 4.5% of these episodes are from people who self-identify as LGB. The results clearly show that patterns of partnership and coresidential union formation differ by sexual orientation. People with a homosexual orientation-and to a lesser extent people with a bisexual orientation-are less likely to enter into a first partnership and a first cohabitation than people with a heterosexual orientation. Significant changes occur across cohorts: LGB people from younger birth cohorts enter (cohabiting) partnerships much earlier and more frequently than those from older cohorts. Thus, the union formation patterns of LGB and straight people have converged slightly.

The management of cognitive labour in same-gender couples

OBJECTIVE

This study explored how cognitive labour as a form of unpaid, household labour is performed by people in same-gender couples.

BACKGROUND

Excessive performance of unpaid labour has been associated with several health impacts. Cognitive labour (anticipating needs, identifying options for meeting needs, making decisions and monitoring progress) is an underexamined dimension of unpaid labour which has centered on the experiences of heterosexual couples.

METHOD

Dyadic and individual interviews were carried out to explore how cognitive labour was performed in same-gender couples between March and October 2021 using an inductive methodology. Adults who were in a same-gender couple, had lived with their partner for at least six months, were not living with children were recruited largely via social media.

RESULTS

Examining cognitive labour performance amongst same-gender couples revealed four key themes: 1) habitually fostered patterns of trust; 2) agency in redefining family; 3) barriers to cognitive harmony; and 4) facilitators to cognitive harmony. Findings regarding the relationships between themes are presented in a narrative model. Dyadic interviews allowed for deep, narratives relating to cognitive labour performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The narrative model provides new conceptual understanding of how cognitive labour is performed outside of the heteronormative sphere. Couple's adoption of a strengths-based frame to cognitive labour performance removed the opposition inherent in gender dichotomies. These findings support calls for research to incorporate social change to build and refine theory, including how queer and feminist movements have challenged gendered and heteronormative family and household roles.

"I Know Myself Again, Which Makes Me Motivated for Life": Feasibility and Acceptability of Using Experience Sampling Methods With Trauma-Exposed Sexual Minority Women

Intensive longitudinal designs (e.g., experience sampling methods [ESMs]) hold promise for examining the dynamic interplay between daily adversity, coping strategies, and behavioral and mental health issues among marginalized populations. However, few studies have used intensive longitudinal designs with sexual minority women (SMW), an understudied and at-risk population. We assessed feasibility and acceptability of using once-daily, interval-contingent ESM with 161 trauma-exposed SMW (Mage = 29.1, SD = 7.57); 20.5% nonbinary; 32.3% queer; 52.2% people of color; 14.3% with annual incomes ≤$9,999; and 30.4% in Southern United States (U.S.). SMW completed one comprehensive online baseline assessment and once-daily brief online assessments for 14 days. Daily surveys assessed past-24-hour stressors, stress responses, and behavioral and mental health symptoms. At the end of the 14-day ESM period, SMW answered three open-ended questions about participating in this study and about research with SMW. Regarding feasibility, 151 participants (94.0%) initiated the post-baseline ESM study portion and 72 (45.0%) completed all 14 daily surveys. An average of 11.70 (median = 13, SD = 3.31) daily surveys (83.5%) were completed by those who initiated the ESM. ESM completion level varied by race/ethnicity and U.S. region. Qualitative acceptability data revealed several themes, namely that SMW (1) enjoyed participating and felt positively about the ESM experience, (2) felt supported to reflect on impacts of early and ongoing stressors, (3) appreciated the chance to self-reflect and challenge existing thought patterns and coping behaviors, (4) recognized their capacity to tolerate trauma-related distress, (5) recommended that researchers focus on SMW's diverse stressors and daily experiences, (6) wanted a rationale for providing sensitive information and more space to narrate their experiences, and (7) recognized the need for affirmative treatment and policies. Findings could inform modifications to ESM protocols to improve their feasibility and acceptability among trauma-exposed SMW and promote ongoing utility of this valuable method.

Acceptability and accessibility of HIV testing and treatment among men who have sex with men in Botswana

Background: Although HIV testing and treatment are the cornerstones of a comprehensive prevention strategy, their acceptability and accessibility are complex within the healthcare system.Methods: We used Aday and Andersen's conceptual framework of access to healthcare services to explore factors influencing acceptability and accessibility of HIV testing and treatment among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Botswana. A qualitative descriptive study was conducted, using purposive sampling to recruit 20 MSM. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in Setswana and English. All data were audio-recorded, transcribed, translated into English, where necessary, and analysed using thematic analysis.Findings: This study found that acceptance of HIV testing and treatment was largely positive among MSM. Motivators were the expansion of HIV services, free healthcare services and the perceived risk of contracting HIV. Although perceptions of accessibility to HIV testing and treatment were positive, there were some concerns about privacy and confidentiality, perceived barriers and fear of positive diagnosis, making MSM reluctant to access HIV testing and treatment.Conclusion: This study highlights the need for novel approaches to increase the acceptability and accessibility of HIV testing and treatment. Barriers to accessing HIV services should be addressed to achieve satisfactory health outcomes, and sustainable HIV prevention barriers to accessing HIV should be addressed among MSM.

Strategies for Recruiting Migrants to Participate in a Sexual Health Survey: Methods, Results, and Lessons

In this article, we describe the approaches taken to recruit adult migrants living in Australia for a sexual health and blood-borne virus survey (paper and online) and present data detailing the outcomes of these approaches. The purpose was to offer guidance to redress the under-representation of migrants in public health research. Methods of recruitment included directly contacting people in individual/organizational networks, social media posts/advertising, promotion on websites, and face-to-face recruitment at public events/venues. Search query strings were used to provide information about an online referral source, and project officers kept records of activities and outcomes. Descriptive statistical analyses were used to determine respondent demographic characteristics, proportions recruited to complete the paper and online surveys, and sources of referral. Logistic regression analyses were run to predict online participation according to demographic characteristics. The total sample comprised 1454 African and Asian migrants, with 59% identifying as female. Most respondents (72%) were recruited to complete the paper version of the survey. Face-to-face invitations resulted in the highest number of completions. Facebook advertising did not recruit large numbers of respondents. Same-sex attraction and age (40-49 years) were statistically significant predictors of online completion. We encourage more researchers to build the evidence base on ways to produce research that reflects the needs and perspectives of minority populations who often bear the greatest burden of disease.

Divergent patterns of cognitive deficits and structural brain alterations between older adults in mixed-sex and same-sex relationships

Background

Sexual minority (SM) older adults experience mental health disparities. Psychiatric disorders and neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) are risk factors for cognitive decline. Although older people in same-sex (SSR) compared to mixed-sex relationships (MSR) perform more poorly on cognitive screening tests, prior studies found no differences in rates of dementia diagnosis or neuropsychological profiles. We sought to explore the role of NPS on neurocognitive outcomes for SM populations. We compared cognitive performance and structural brain parameters of older adults in SSR and MSR.

Methods

Data were originally collected at Alzheimer's Disease Research Centers (ADRCs). Inclusion criteria were: age of 55+ years, a study partner identified as a spouse/partner, and availability of T1-MRI brain volumes/thickness. Participants were labeled as either SSR or MSR based on their/their co-participant's reported sex. We identified 1,073 participants (1,037 MSR−555 cognitively unimpaired [CU]; 36 SSR−23 CU) with structural MRI data, Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE), and Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire (NPI-Q) scores. A subset of the overall sample completed comprehensive neuropsychological assessment (n = 939; 908 MSR−494 CU; 31 SSR−22 CU). Covariates included in statistical models were age, sex, education, total intracranial volume, and apolipoprotein E genotype.

Results

Multivariate general linear models showed significant diagnosis-by-relationship interaction effects on the left parahippocampal gyrus volume. After stratification by relationship group, only cognitively impaired (CI) MSR had significantly smaller left parahippocampal volumes than MSR-CU. The SSR group showed better episodic memory performance. Severity of neuropsychiatric symptoms was negatively associated with volume/thickness of bilateral fronto-temporal areas and with MMSE scores, predominantly in the MSR group.

Conclusion

In our study, MSR participants presented with a more compromised cognitive profile than SSR participants. MSR-CI participants showed significantly smaller left medio-temporal volumes, a neural signature of AD. Neuropsychiatric symptoms predicted smaller fronto-temporal volumes in the MSR more consistently than in the SSR group. These findings may be due to unexplored protective factors against cognitive decline in SM elders. Indeed, social support has been proposed as a protective factor warranting future investigation.

Marital Stress and Emotion Work in Same-Sex and Different-Sex Marriages: The Moderating Role of Childhood Adversity

Adverse experiences in childhood may set the stage for future response to stress, emotion regulation, and interaction with partners in intimate relationships. Prior research suggests the influence of childhood adversity on stress response is gendered, yet we do not know much about how individuals with a history of significant childhood adversity respond to marital stress outside of a different-sex marriage context. This study examines the moderating role of childhood adversity on the association of daily marital stress with emotion work provision (intentional activities devoted to enhancing others' emotional well-being) and considers whether the association varies for men and women in same- and different-sex marriages. Specifically, I use ten days of dyadic diary data collected from 378 midlife same- and different-sex married couples (n=756 individuals) and conduct multilevel regression models. The results show marital stress is positively associated with emotion work provision, and that the association is stronger for respondents who report more adverse childhood experiences. For respondents with low childhood adversity, the association of marital stress with emotion work is greater for same-sex couples compared to different-sex couples; for those with high childhood adversity, the association is equally strong. Findings from this study suggest that both men and women in same- and different-sex relationships do more emotion work in response to increased daily marital stress. Furthermore, early experiences of adversity are linked to stress responses in adulthood, with differing implications for men and women in different-sex and same-sex unions.

Effects of Same-Sex Marriage Legalization for Sexual Minority Men in Taiwan: Findings From a Prospective Study

Objective: On May 24, 2019, same-sex marriage (SSM) was legalized in Taiwan. Increasing research in western countries has yielded longitudinal evidence about the psychosocial benefits of SSM for sexual minority individuals, but they have rarely included sexual minority-specific measures or considered participants’ relationship status. This study aimed to examine the short-term effects associated with the legalization of SSM for gay and bisexual men in Taiwan.

Methods: A panel sample of 731 gay and 132 bisexual men participated in baseline (May 2019) and follow-up (October 2020) online surveys to report their depressive symptoms, distal sexual minority stress, internalized homophobia, and outness status.

Results: The results demonstrated significant reductions in depressive symptoms and distal sexual minority stress along with increased rates of coming out to friends, family, and parents. These changes were similar for partnered and un-partnered individuals. Fixed-effect regression analysis indicated that the decline in distal sexual minority stress and internalized homophobia contributed to the decline in depressive symptoms.

Conclusion: This study preliminarily supports the positive effects of SSM in promoting sexual minority men’s mental health and disclosure in Taiwan.

Recruiting Cisgender Female Couples for Health Disparity-Focused Daily Diary Research: Challenges, Successes, and Lessons Learned

The underlying mechanisms of sexual minority women's (SMW's) numerous physical and mental health disparities compared to heterosexual women are not well understood. The contribution of relationship factors is particularly understudied; few studies collect data from both same-sex female partners. Further, most research among SMW is cross sectional which limits our understanding of day-to-day experiences of same-sex women's couples. This paper aimed to describe the feasibility of recruiting a large sample of SMW and their female partners for a disparity-focused daily diary study investigating alcohol use and mental health. A firm specializing in sexual minority market research was enlisted to help with recruitment from multiple sources and conducted an initial pre-screening of SMW and their female partners, at least one of whom drank alcohol regularly. A total of 4182 individuals completed the pre-screener, with information for 930 individuals (465 couples) being sent to the research team. From this, 376 individuals (188 couples) completed the study screener, met the inclusion criteria, and were invited to participate. Ultimately, 326 individuals (163 couples) consented and completed baseline. A total of 321 individuals, from 162 couples, began the daily diary portion of the study. Compliance with study procedures was excellent. The use of multiple recruitment sources increased the diversity of the sample. Challenges to recruitment, changes in protocol, and characteristics of the final sample are discussed.

A realist evaluation of the continuum of HIV services for men who have sex with men

Background

Men who have Sex with Men (MSM) represent the risk group that are disproportionately most affected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and continue to drop-off from the steps of the continuum of HIV services that have been adopted to overcome poor engagement and retention in care. This realist evaluation aimed at: (1) describing the evaluation carried out in Haiti aiming to ascertain why, how and under which circumstances MSM are linked and retained along the continuum, (2) assessing the outcomes of this approach and (3) exploring the motivators and facilitators for the HIV continuum of services through mechanisms and pathways.

Methods

Guided by a realist approach, first, an initial program theory (IPT) was developed based on literature and frameworks review, participant observations and discussions with stakeholders. Then, the IPT was tested using a mixed method explanatory study: a quantitative phase to build the continuum from a cross-sectional analysis, and a qualitative phase to explore the motivators and facilitators related to proper linkages along the continuum. Finally, the IPT was refined by eliciting the mechanisms and pathways for outcomes improvement.

Results

The results showed that the current service delivery model is suboptimal in identifying, engaging, linking and retaining MSM, resulting in loss to follow-up at every step of the continuum and failure to fully realize the health and prevention benefits of antiretroviral. However, the mechanisms through which linkages across the continuum can be improved are: self-acceptance, sense of community support and sense of comprehensive and tailored HIV services. These mechanisms are based on 10 different pathways: self-esteem, awareness and pride, perception of HIV risk, pcceptance and HIV status, addressing community stigma, strengthening of MSM organizations and community networks, societal acceptation and tolerance, stigma reduction training for healthcare providers, engagement of peers as educators and navigators and, adapted services delivery through drug dispensing points and mobile technology and financial assistance.

Conclusions

The study findings show that engagement, adherence and retention to the continuum of HIV service for MSM are affected by a multi-layer of factors, thus highlighting the importance of taking a comprehensive approach to improve the program.

Internalized Homophobia and Relationship Quality among Same-Sex Couples: The Mediating Role of Intimate Partner Violence

Based on a geographically and socioeconomically diverse sample of 144 same-sex couples and using a dyadic approach (i.e., the Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Model [APIMeM] with interchangeable dyads), this study examined the association between internalized homophobia and same-sex relationship quality, and also tested the potential mediating role of intimate partner violence perpetration in this association. Results indicated that individuals' own and their partners' psychological violence perpetration mediated the negative associations from individuals' own internalized homophobia to individuals' own and their partner's relationship quality. Such findings contribute to the understanding of mechanisms underlying the harmful effects of sexual minority stressors for same-sex relationship well-being. Implications for interventions were also discussed.

The Legal Vulnerability Model for Same-Sex Parent Families: A Mixed Methods Systematic Review and Theoretical Integration

Globally, parents and children in same-sex parent families are impacted by many laws related to the parental sexual orientation. These laws vary considerably from one country to another, ranging from full legal recognition to criminalization. The psychological consequences of living in an ambiguous or hostile legal climate likely interfere with parental health, family functioning, and child development. However, a systematic evidence synthesis of the pertinent literature and its placement within a broader psychological model are currently lacking. The aims of this review were thus (1) to systematically review qualitative and quantitative evidence on the impact of sexual orientation laws on same-sex parent families in key domains and (2) to place these findings within a broader model informed by minority stress and family theories. Our review was preregistered and conducted in line with PRISMA guidelines. We searched for qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies on the impact of sexual orientation laws on target outcomes (parental health, family functioning, child outcomes) via systematic database search (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science) and forward-backward searches. Fifty-five studies published between 1999 and 2020 were eligible for inclusion and were synthesized using a data-based convergent synthesis design. Thirteen descriptive and three overarching analytical themes were identified through thematic synthesis. Linking our findings with minority stress and family theories, we propose a novel legal vulnerability model for same-sex parent families. The model posits that legal vulnerability constitutes an increased risk for parental and child health as well as family functioning through individual and shared pathways between family members. Additionally, the model introduces counteractions that families engage in on the personal, familial, and systemic level to mitigate the impact of legal vulnerability, as well as moderators on the contextual, familial, couple, and individual level that modulate this impact. Implications for research and clinical practice are discussed.

Potential differences between the political attitudes of people with same-sex parents and people with different-sex parents: An exploratory assessment of first-year college students

Children were often near the center of public debates about legal marriage recognition for same-sex couples. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the case that resulted in legal same-sex marriage recognition, stressed the importance of these children as one of many factors compelling the opinion. Estimates indicated same-sex couples were raising 200,000 children in the United States. Children raised by same-sex couples may be politically socialized in distinct ways compared to children of different-sex couples because lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals tend to hold distinct and progressive political viewpoints on a wide variety of issues. What are the political attitudes of people with same-sex parents? In this exploratory study, we analyze a large, representative survey of first-year college students across the United States; we find few differences between people with same-sex and different-sex parents, and some of those differences may be attributable to households and respondent characteristics. When on the rare occasion a difference exists, we find that people with same-sex female parents are more progressive, but people with same-sex male parents are more conservative. Gender differences also emerged, with some distinctive patterns between males with same-sex parents and females with same-sex parents.

Predictors of disordered weight loss behaviors among same-sex and opposite-sex romantic partners

Although the majority of adults will attempt to lose weight at some point in their lives, most weight loss behaviors are ineffective and potentially harmful. Further, weight loss behaviors often closely resemble disordered eating, and include behaviors such as fasting and purging. The current study examined potential predictors of disordered approaches to weight loss in the context of same-sex and opposite-sex romantic partnerships by investigating participants' (n = 500, M_age = 29.62 years) BMI, body image, self-esteem, relationship quality and disordered weight loss behaviors. We conducted analyses using Actor Partner Interdependence Models, which revealed that the greatest predictors of participating in disordered weight loss behavior were body dissatisfaction and having a male partner. These findings suggest that it is not sexuality, per se, that places individuals at risk for disordered weight loss behavior, but perhaps the value placed on thinness as defined by particular gender and cultural groups.

Differences in how spouses influence each other's alcohol use in same- and different-sex marriages: A daily diary study

RATIONALE

Different-sex spouses influence each other's alcohol consumption, with women having more influence on their spouses than men. Because women drink less than men, this long-term influence partly explains why married men and women consume less alcohol than their unmarried peers. However, much less is known about possible gender differences in the ways spouses influence each other's alcohol use on a day-to-day basis in same-compared to different-sex marriages. Because sexual minority people are at higher risk for alcohol use disorders compared to their heterosexual counterparts, such knowledge could shed light on ways to reduce this risk and alcohol use disparities between sexual minority and heterosexual people.

METHOD

We use 10 days of diary data collected in 2014-2015 in the United States from 157 female same-sex, 106 male same-sex, and 115 different-sex married couples in midlife (ages 35-65) to examine how one spouse's drinking influences how much the other spouse drinks on the following day.

RESULTS

Men reported higher levels of daily drinking than women; after including covariates, men in different-sex marriages reported drinking at the highest levels. Results from actor-partner interdependence models show that men in same- and different-sex marriages drink more, and women in different-sex marriages drink less when their spouse drinks more the previous day. Female same-sex spouses did not change their drinking behaviors in response to their spouse's drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall higher rates of drinking among men in same-sex marriages suggest an accumulation effect of drinking that may contribute to sexual minority health disparities. Women and men in different-sex marriages may be engaging in social control or navigating masculinity norms. Women in same-sex marriages may not feel the need to adjust to low levels of drinking by their spouses. Findings suggest that spousal influence over alcohol consumption unfolds differently in same-sex compared to different-sex marriages.

The Gender-as-Relational Approach for Theorizing About Romantic Relationships of Sexual and Gender Minority Mid- to Later-Life Adults

We deploy the "gender-as-relational" (GAR) approach to enhance the study of the long-term romantic relationships of sexual and gender minority mid- to later-life adults. The GAR approach states that gender within relationships is shaped by three key factors: own gender, partner's gender, and the gendered relational context. This approach highlights that the relationship dynamics of men, women, and gender nonconforming people are highly diverse, reflecting that gender is a social construct formed within interactions and institutions. We explicate how GAR can reorganize the study of sexual and gender diversity in three research areas related to aging and relationships-caregiving, marital health benefits, and intimacy-and discuss theory-driven methods appropriate for a GAR research agenda. A GAR framework reorients research by complicating taken-for-granted assumptions about how gender operates within mid- to later-life romantic relationships and queering understandings of aging and romantic relationships to include experiences outside of heteronormative and cisnormative categories.

Private Health Insurance Coverage Among Same-Sex Couples After Obergefell v. Hodges

Purpose: We aimed to characterize couple-level private insurance coverage among same-sex and different-sex couples before and after the Obergefell v. Hodges (OvH) decision legalizing same-sex marriage in the United States. Methods: National Health Interview Survey data were obtained for 2012-2014 (pre-OvH) and 2016-2018 (post-OvH). Coresiding couples with both partners aged 27-64 years and at least one having private insurance were included. Couple-level coverage was private for both; private for one, other coverage for another; and private for one, none for another. Secondary analysis examined whether either partner was covered by the policy of a family member in the household (partner/spouse coverage). Results: The analysis included 69,251 couples. Ninety percent had private coverage for both partners; 5% had one partner with other coverage; and 5% had one partner uninsured. The share of same-sex couples with both partners having private coverage increased from 79% to 88% after OvH (p = 0.003), whereas it remained at 90% among different-sex couples. In multivariable analysis, this increase was explained by the increase in legal marriage post-OvH. Among unmarried same-sex couples where both partners had private coverage, the odds of one partner being covered by another's policy decreased by 61% after OvH (95% confidence interval: 35%-76%). Conclusion: OvH was associated with greater access to private insurance for same-sex couples and lower risk that one partner would have private insurance while another would be uninsured. Yet, partners in unmarried same-sex couples became less likely to share the same private policy.

Same-Sex Couples' Shared Time in the United States

This study examines and compares shared time for same-sex and different-sex coresident couples using large, nationally representative data from the 2003-2016 American Time Use Survey (ATUS). We compare the total time that same-sex couples and different-sex couples spend together; for parents, the time they spend together with children; and for both parents and nonparents, the time they spend together with no one else present and the time they spend with others (excluding children). After we control for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the couples, women in same-sex couples spend more time together, both alone and in total, than individuals in different-sex arrangements and men in same-sex couples, regardless of parenthood status. Women in same-sex relationships also spend a larger percentage of their total available time together than other couples, and the difference in time is not limited to any specific activity.

MARITAL STRAIN AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS IN SAME-SEX AND DIFFERENT-SEX COUPLES

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the association of marital strain - as reported by each spouse - with psychological distress and considers whether the associations vary for men and women in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages.

BACKGROUND

Prior studies show that marital strain is associated with psychological distress. However, most studies rely on only one spouse's perspective and do not consider how appraisals of strain from both spouses may contribute to distress. Moreover, possible gender differences in these associations have been considered only for heterosexual couples.

METHOD

Analyses are based on 10 days of dyadic diary data from 756 midlife U.S. men and women in 378 gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages. Multilevel modeling is used to examine the association of self- and spouse-reported marital strain with psychological distress; actor-partner interdependence models (APIM) explore possible gender differences in these associations.

RESULTS

Both self- and spousal-reports of marital strain are associated with psychological distress, with notable gender differences. The associations of self- and spouse-reported marital strain with distress are stronger for women in different-sex marriages when compared to men in same-sex and different-sex marriages. The association is also stronger for women in different-sex marriages compared to women in same-sex marriages, but for self-reported strain only.

CONCLUSION

Marital appraisals by both spouses are important for psychological well-being and may be especially important for the well-being of women in different-sex marriages.

Studying the Longest 'Legal' U.S. Same-Sex Couples: A Case of Lessons Learned

We review methodological opportunities and lessons learned in conducting a longitudinal, prospective study of same-sex couples with civil unions, recruited from a population-based sample, who were compared with same-sex couples in their friendship circle who did not have civil unions, and heterosexual married siblings and their spouse. At Time 1 (2002), Vermont was the only U.S. state to provide legal recognition similar to marriage to same-sex couples; couples came from other U.S. states and other countries to obtain a civil union. At Time 2 (2005), only one U.S. state had legalized same-sex marriage, and at Time 3 (2013) about half of U.S. states had legalized same-sex marriage, some within weeks of the onset of the Time 3 study. Opportunities included sampling legalized same-sex relationships from a population; the use of heterosexual married couples and same-sex couples not in legalized relationships as comparison samples from within the same social network; comparisons between sexual minority and heterosexual women and men with and without children; improvements in statistical methods for non-independence of data and missing data; and the use of mixed methodologies. Lessons learned included obtaining funding, locating participants over time as technologies changed, and on-going shifts in marriage laws during the study.

The Qualities of Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples in Young Adulthood

OBJECTIVE

Recognition of sexual minorities in social science research is growing and this study contributes to knowledge on this population by comparing the qualities of same-sex and different-sex relationships among young adults.

BACKGROUND

The findings of studies on this topic cannot be generalized to young adults because they are limited to coresidential unions and based on convenience samples. This study extends prior research by examining multiple relationship qualities among a nationally-representative sample of males and females in "dating" and cohabiting relationships.

METHOD

The authors compare young adults in same-sex and different-sex relationships with respect to relationship quality (commitment, satisfaction, and emotional intimacy) and sexual behavior (sexual frequency and sexual exclusivity). Drawing on the fourth wave of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth), they use multiple regression to compare: male respondents with different-sex partners, male respondents with same-sex partners, female respondents with different-sex partners, and female respondents with same-sex partners.

RESULTS

Consistent with previous research, the authors find that respondents in same-sex relationships experience similar levels of commitment, satisfaction, and emotional intimacy as their counterparts in different-sex relationships. They also corroborate the finding that male respondents in same-sex relationships are less likely than other groups of respondents to indicate their relationship is sexually exclusive.

CONCLUSION

This study provides an empirical basis for understanding the relationships of sexual minority young adults.

The effects of minority stressors in the workplace on same-sex relationships: A collective case study of female couples

The purpose of this study is to explore the relational effects of minority stress processes experienced at work by female sexual minority employees. Lesbians, in particular, warrant attention in the work environment, as their experiences with homophobia may be exacerbated by sexist overtones. While scholars have linked hostility in the work environment to individual health and employment outcomes for LGBQ employees, less attention has been given to the cross-contextual effects from work to family life. This collective case study examines the experiences of three lesbian employees and their partners in various workplaces using minority stress border theory. Results show that, for these women, there are negative effects on their same-sex relationships; surprisingly though, several women also discussed positive changes in their relationship as a result of experiences with minority stress processes in the workplace. Implications for future research are discussed.

Comparing same- and different-sex relationship dynamics: Experiences of young adults in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

Few studies of same-sex relationships are able to capture the dynamics of these relationships from formation to dissolution, and even fewer provide evidence on these dynamics in a non-Western context.

OBJECTIVE

Using retrospective relationship history data collected from a nationally representative sample of young adults, this study compares the processes of forming and terminating relationships between same- and different-sex couples in Taiwan, an Asian society featuring both strong parental influences on children's mate selection and an ongoing legislative effort to legalize same-sex marriage.

RESULTS

Results from event-history models show that factors associated with relationship formation and dissolution are largely similar for same- and different-sex unions and that same-sex relationships do not have higher dissolution rates. Nevertheless, premarital coresidence with parents, which is likely to amplify parental influences on children's mate selection, deters the entry into and accelerates the dissolution of same-sex relationships more than it does different-sex relationships. Moreover, same-sex relationships are more heterogamous in family economic background, but more homogamous in age and education level, than different-sex ones.

CONTRIBUTION

This study is among the first to provide evidence on the dynamics of same- and different-sex relationships in a non-Western context. Aside from a few differences between same- and different-sex relationships related to parental influences, our study provides strong evidence that same- and different-sex couples experience intimacies in similar ways-even in a relatively conservative cultural context like Taiwan.

Love and Dating Patterns for Same- and Both-Gender Attracted Adolescents Across Europe

Sexual orientation is a multidimensional phenomenon, which includes identity, behavior, and attraction. The attraction component, however, is less studied than the other two. In this article, we present the development of a two-item measure to identify adolescents who prefer same- and both-gender partners for love and dating. The questions were administered to nationally representative samples of 15-year-old adolescents in eight European countries and regions participating in the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) cross-national study. The distribution of attraction, as operationalized by preference for the gender of love and dating partners, was similar across countries. These questions offer an alternative or supplementary approach to identify same- and both-gender attracted youth, without administering questions related to sexual identity.

Healthcare Work in Marriage: How Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Spouses Encourage and Coerce Medical Care

Marriage benefits health in part because spouses promote one another's well-being, yet how spouses facilitate formal healthcare (e.g., doctor's visits, emergency care) via what we call healthcare work is unknown. Moreover, like other aspects of the marital-health link, healthcare work dynamics likely vary by gender and couple type. To explore this possibility, we use in-depth interviews with 90 midlife gay, lesbian, and heterosexual spouses to examine how spouses perform healthcare work. Our results show that in heterosexual marriage, women perform the bulk of healthcare work and typically do so in coercive ways. A minority of heterosexual men provide instrumental healthcare work for their wives. Gay and lesbian spouses appear to commonly use both coercive and supportive healthcare work strategies to effectively promote healthcare use. Our findings demonstrate the ways spouses are central to supporting and coercing one another to obtain medical care and how these patterns are gendered.

Marriage, Social Control, and Health Behavior: A Dyadic Analysis of Same-sex and Different-sex Couples

Prior research based on studies of heterosexual populations suggests that men's health benefits more from marriage than women's, in part because women do more than men to influence the health habits of their spouse. We extend this work by using dyadic survey data from 838 spouses in 419 gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages to consider differences in social control tactics across same-sex and different-sex couples-that is, how spouses monitor and regulate each other's health habits. Results suggest that although gender differences in social control are common, gendered patterns sometimes differ depending on whether one is in a same-sex or different-sex marriage. Results also point to the importance of health habits as strong drivers of relationship dynamics across gay and lesbian as well as heterosexual marriages.

Health and Health Behavior Concordance between Spouses in Same-Sex and Different-Sex Marriages

Research shows that heterosexual spouses are concordant on a variety of health and health behavior outcomes. Yet, little is known about patterns of concordance between spouses in same-sex marriages, or whether concordance patterns differ for spouses in same- and different-sex marriages. Using descriptive techniques, we analyze survey data from both spouses in 121 gay, 168 lesbian, and 122 heterosexual married couples to examine health and health behavior concordance. We find that gay and lesbian couples are more concordant than heterosexual couples on several health and health behavior outcomes. Differences in concordance between gay and lesbian couples are also found. Findings suggest that the pathways through which concordance occurs may differ in important ways for same-sex and different-sex unions.

Social Support and Health-Related Quality of Life Among Gay and Bisexual Men With Prostate Cancer

OBJECTIVES

To describe social support patterns of gay and bisexual men with prostate cancer (GBMPCa) and how social support is associated with prostate cancer outcomes.

SAMPLE & SETTING

A cross-sectional online survey with 186 GBMPCa recruited from a national cancer support group network.

METHODS & VARIABLES

Descriptive statistics of social support and linear regression of social support on general and prostate cancer-specific quality of life (QOL). Social support and health-related QOL were assessed generally and specific to prostate cancer.

RESULTS

Participants primarily relied on partners or husbands, gay and bisexual friends, chosen family, and men from support groups for support. The most common types of support received were informational and emotional social support. Low general social support was significantly associated with worse prostate cancer symptom bother and general mental QOL. Wanting more social support was significantly associated with worse prostate cancer-specific and general QOL.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Clinicians should be aware of the different social support networks and needs of GBMPCa and refer them to relevant support groups to improve QOL.

Anticipatory Minority Stressors among Same-sex Couples: A Relationship Timeline Approach

The authors build on previous stress theories by drawing attention to the concept of anticipatory couple-level minority stressors (i.e., stressors expected to occur in the future that emanate from the stigmatization of certain relationship forms). A focus on anticipatory couple-level minority stressors brings with it the potential for important insight into vulnerabilities and resiliencies of people in same-sex relationships, the focus of this study. The authors use relationship timelines to examine stressors among a diverse sample of same-sex couples (n = 120). Respondents in same-sex relationships anticipated stressors that are likely not unique to same-sex couples (e.g., purchasing a home together) but labeled many of these anticipatory stressors as reflecting the stigmatization of their same-sex relationship. Respondents rated anticipatory minority stressors as more stressful than other anticipatory stressors. Moreover, stressors varied by gender, age, and relationship duration although not race/ethnicity or geographic site. This analysis is a preliminary step in examining how unique anticipatory couple-level minority stressors function as determinants of relationship quality, mental and physical health, and health disparities faced by sexual minority populations. Attempts to understand current stress levels should consider anticipatory stressors alongside past and current life events, chronic strains, daily hassles, and minority stressors, as these processes are impossible to disentangle and may be consequential for current well-being.

Childhood Adversity, Daily Stress, and Marital Strain in Same-Sex and Different-Sex Marriages

Childhood adversity has enduring consequences for individuals throughout life, including increased reactivity to stress that may contribute to marital strain in adulthood. Past research on gendered experiences of heterosexual spouses raises questions about how the influence of childhood adversity might differ for men and women in same-sex marriages. We analyze dyadic diary data from 756 individuals in 106 male same-sex, 157 female same-sex, and 115 different-sex marriages to consider how childhood adversity moderates the association between daily stress and marital strain. Results suggest that the negative consequences of daily stress for marital strain are amplified by past childhood adversity with variation for men and women in same- and different-sex unions, such that women and those in same-sex marriages may experience some protection from the adverse consequences of childhood adversity.

What Theories and Methods From Relationship Research Can Contribute to Sex Research

Sexual and relationship satisfaction tend to be closely linked in the context of romantic relationships. Understanding how sexual processes influence relationships and how aspects of the relationship influence a couple's sex life can provide insight into the maintenance of sexual desire and satisfaction over time. In this article, we review how theories and methods that form the foundation for relationship research have made-and will continue to make-sexuality research a stronger, more theoretical, and methodologically sophisticated science. We discuss the key theories that have been used to advance our understanding of who is more likely to be sexually satisfied in relationships, when sex is most satisfying, and how couples can have more satisfying sex lives and relationships. We then provide an overview of dyadic and repeated-measures designs and demonstrate how the use of these types of research methods allows relationship and sexuality researchers to answer novel and nuanced questions about how romantic partners influence each other, as well as how sexual processes unfold in couples' daily lives and over time. Throughout the review, we highlight what we see as fruitful directions for future research at the intersection of sexuality and relationships.

Gender and the Stability of Same-Sex and Different-Sex Relationships Among Young Adults

Most research on the stability of adult relationships has focused on coresidential (cohabiting or married) unions and estimates rates of dissolution for the period of coresidence. Studies examining how the stability of coresidential unions differs by sex composition have typically found that same-sex female couples have higher rates of dissolution than same-sex male couples and different-sex couples. We argue that the more elevated rates of dissolution for same-sex female couples are a by-product of the focus on coresidential unions. We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to compare rates of dissolution based on the total duration of romantic and sexual relationships for same-sex male couples, same-sex female couples, and different-sex couples. Results from hazard models that track the stability of young adult relationships from the time they are formed demonstrate that male couples have substantially higher dissolution rates than female couples and different-sex couples. Results based on models restricted to the period of coresidence corroborate the counterintuitive finding from earlier studies that female couples have the highest rates of dissolving coresidential unions. This study underlines the importance of comparisons between these couple types for a better understanding of the role that institutions and gender play in the stability of contemporary relationships.

Theoretical Extensions of Minority Stress Theory for Sexual Minority Individuals in the Workplace: A Cross-Contextual Understanding of Minority Stress Processes

Minority stress theory posits that stress processes specific to a sexual minority orientation can affect the psychological health and well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer-identified (LGBQ) individuals. In the workplace, LGBQ employees experiencing minority stress report poor mental health outcomes and decreased job satisfaction and commitment. However, few scholars have examined the cross-contextual effects minority stressors that individuals experience in the workplace may have on couples. That is, given the literature highlighting the work-family interface, how do minority stressors at work affect the sexual minority employee within the family dynamics of same-sex couples at home? The purpose of this article is to propose a multi-theoretical approach which includes elements of minority stress theory and work-family border theory to guide future research in examining the cross-contextual effects of minority stress for couple- and family-level outcomes.

Queering Methodologies to Understand Queer Families

Queering questions that which is normative. In this article, we discuss how, for the study of queer families, queering methodologies could reclaim traditional research methods that reflect historically dominant or privileged paradigms. We suggest that queer perspectives may be used to adapt mainstream (i.e., dominant, positivist, empirical) methods, creating possibilities for new, diverse understandings of queer families. We start with comments on the development and current standing of queer family research. We then reflect on several key conceptual and methodological tensions as they apply to queer family studies: lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer individuals ↔ queer families, between-group ↔ within-group, and quantitative ↔ qualitative. In conclusion, we discuss how these methodological considerations provide researchers opportunities to conduct research not only about but for queer families. Such research may reflect the diversity of queer families and challenge the normativities and systems of privilege that constrain them.

Planning for Future Care and the End of Life: A Qualitative Analysis of Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Couples

Two key components of end-of-life planning are (1) informal discussions about future care and other end-of-life preferences and (2) formal planning via living wills and other legal documents. We leverage previous work on the institutional aspects of marriage and on sexual-minority discrimination to theorize why and how heterosexual, gay, and lesbian married couples engage in informal and formal end-of-life planning. We analyze qualitative dyadic in-depth interviews with 45 midlife gay, lesbian, and heterosexual married couples ( N = 90 spouses). Findings suggest that same-sex spouses devote considerable attention to informal planning conversations and formal end-of-life plans, while heterosexual spouses report minimal formal or informal planning. The primary reasons same-sex spouses give for making end-of-life preparations are related to the absence of legal protections and concerns about discrimination from families. These findings raise questions about future end-of-life planning for same- and different-sex couples given a rapidly shifting legal and social landscape.

Family Relationships and Well-Being

Family relationships are enduring and consequential for well-being across the life course. We discuss several types of family relationships—marital, intergenerational, and sibling ties—that have an important influence on well-being. We highlight the quality of family relationships as well as diversity of family relationships in explaining their impact on well-being across the adult life course. We discuss directions for future research, such as better understanding the complexities of these relationships with greater attention to diverse family structures, unexpected benefits of relationship strain, and unique intersections of social statuses.

Sexual Minority Stress and Same-Sex Relationship Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Research Prior to the U.S. Nationwide Legalization of Same-Sex Marriage

Meta-analytic methods were used to analyze 179 effect sizes retrieved from 32 research reports on the implications that sexual minority stress may have for same-sex relationship well-being. Sexual minority stress (aggregated across different types of stress) was moderately and negatively associated with same-sex relationship well-being (aggregated across different dimensions of relationship well-being). Internalized homophobia was significantly and negatively associated with same-sex relationship well-being, whereas heterosexist discrimination and sexual orientation visibility management were not. Moreover, the effect size for internalized homophobia was significantly larger than those for heterosexist discrimination and sexual orientation visibility management. Sexual minority stress was significantly and negatively associated with same-sex relationship quality but not associated with closeness or stability. Sexual minority stress was significantly and negatively associated with relationship well-being among same-sex female couples but not among same-sex male couples. The current status of research approaches in this field was also summarized and discussed.

Sexual Minority Stress and Same-Sex Relationship Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Research Prior to the U.S. Nationwide Legalization of Same-Sex Marriage

Meta-analytic methods were used to analyze 179 effect sizes retrieved from 32 research reports on the implications that sexual minority stress may have for same-sex relationship well-being. Sexual minority stress (aggregated across different types of stress) was moderately and negatively associated with same-sex relationship well-being (aggregated across different dimensions of relationship well-being). Internalized homophobia was significantly and negatively associated with same-sex relationship well-being, whereas heterosexist discrimination and sexual orientation visibility management were not. Moreover, the effect size for internalized homophobia was significantly larger than those for heterosexist discrimination and sexual orientation visibility management. Sexual minority stress was significantly and negatively associated with same-sex relationship quality but not associated with closeness or stability. Sexual minority stress was significantly and negatively associated with relationship well-being among same-sex female couples but not among same-sex male couples. The current status of research approaches in this field was also summarized and discussed.

Marriage, Cohabitation, and Divorce in Later Life

Older adults are at the forefront of family change as a declining share experiences lifelong marriage and rates of cohabitation and divorce in later life continue to rise. The goal of this article is to review recent scholarship on marriage, cohabitation, and divorce among older adults and identify directions for future research. The varied family experiences characterizing the later life course demonstrate the importance of moving beyond marital status to capture additional dimensions of the marital biography, including transitions, timing, duration, and sequencing. Cohabitation operates as an alternative to marriage for older adults and is increasingly replacing remarriage following divorce or widowhood. The gray divorce rate has doubled in recent decades as older adults abandon marriage in favor of unmarried partnerships or singlehood. The retreat from marriage among older adults raises important questions about the ramifications of family change for health and well-being as well as access to caregivers given that spouses historically have been the primary source of care.

Instrumental- and Emotion-Focused Care Work During Physical Health Events: Comparing Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Marriages

OBJECTIVES

We consider emotion- and instrumental-focused care work and marital stress during significant physical health events in midlife gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages.

METHOD

We employ the factorial method, an extension of the actor-partner interdependence model, to analyze survey data from 808 midlife gay, lesbian, and heterosexual spouses in 404 unions.

RESULTS

The amount of emotion- and instrumental-focused care work provided during physical health events, and the associations between care work and marital stress, depends on the gender of the respondent, gender of the spouse, and whether spouses are in a same-sex or different-sex union. For example, in both same- and different-sex marriages, women report providing more emotion-focused care work during their own health event than do men, and respondents report more health-related marital stress when the patient is a woman.

DISCUSSION

Investigating how midlife same-sex and different-sex spouses care for each other during a spouse's health event expands understandings of gendered aging experiences within marriage. Findings can elucidate health policies and clinical strategies that best support the health of men and women in same- and different-sex marriages.

Physical Illness in Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Marriages: Gendered Dyadic Experiences

The inclusion of same-sex married couples can illuminate and challenge assumptions about gender that are routinely taken for granted in studies of physical illness. We analyze gender dynamics in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual marriages with in-depth interview data from 90 spouses (45 couples) to consider how spouses co-construct illness experiences in ways that shape relationship dynamics. Overall, findings indicate that men tend to downplay illness and thus provide minimal care work, whereas women tend to construct illness as immersive and involving intensive care work-in both same-sex and different-sex marriages. Yet same-sex spouses describe similar constructions of illness much more so than different-sex couples, and as such, same-sex spouses describe less illness-related disagreement and stress. These findings help inform policies to support the health of gay and lesbian, as well as heterosexual, patients and their spouses, an important goal given health disparities of gay and lesbian populations.

Family Communication About the Donor Conception: A Multi-Perspective Qualitative Study With Lesbian Parents and Their Children

In literature, disclosure of donor conception in lesbian families has been considered an obvious and straightforward event. However, little is known about the ways in which donor conception is discussed in planned lesbian co-mother families. This study focuses on the process of parent-child communication about the donor conception on a within-family level. Six families, including 7 children and 12 parents, were interviewed about their family communication with regard to donor conception. A dyadic interview analysis revealed that family members managed the space taken up by the topic of donor conception in their daily conversations. Within these conversations, they also took care of each other and of their family relationships. In addition, children had an active position in the co-construction of the donor conception narrative. Linking these findings to the concepts of relational management and functionality of donor conception narratives, this study informs practitioners in the field of medically assisted reproduction.

Marital status, social support, and depressive symptoms among lesbian and heterosexual women

The current study investigated social support and relationship status (single, dating-but-not-cohabiting, cohabiting, domestic partnership/civil union, married) as predictors of depressive symptoms among lesbian and heterosexual women. The study aimed to determine whether the documented higher rates of depressive symptoms among lesbians compared to heterosexual women could be accounted for by lesbians' reduced access to, or in many cases exclusion from, legalized relationship statuses. The effect of social support from family and social support from friends on depressive symptoms also was examined. Contrary to expectations, results indicated no difference in levels of depressive symptoms among lesbian compared to heterosexual women in this sample. However, regardless of sexual orientation, married women had lower levels of depressive symptoms than unmarried women. Thus, marriage seems to be associated with less depression in lesbian and heterosexual women alike. The interaction of social support and relationship status added to the prediction of depressive symptoms over and above the predictive power of either variable alone, although this effect was small and should be interpreted with caution.

Gender, BMI, and eating regulation in the context of same-sex and heterosexual couples

Research suggests that romantic partners may benefit each other's health, but factors contributing to partners' involvement in eating regulation have been relatively unexplored. In this study, 104 heterosexual couples, 72 female same-sex and 72 male same-sex couples were examined in order to understand how partners' weight statuses were related to attempts to regulate eating behaviors. Weight status was assessed via body mass index and eating regulation was assessed using the Partner Feeding Questionnaire. Actor-Partner Interdependence Models revealed that gay men were particularly likely to regulate their partners' eating behaviors. Additionally, partners were found to regulate their significant others' eating behaviors when their significant others were heavy. Women were most likely to attempt to regulate their partners' eating behaviors when they were thin and their partners were heavy. These findings are discussed in the context of current obesity trends and the role of romantic partners in healthy weight management.

Relationship dynamics around depression in gay and lesbian couples

Research on intimate relationship dynamics around depression has primarily focused on heterosexual couples. This body of work shows that wives are more likely than husbands to offer support to a depressed spouse. Moreover, when wives are depressed, they are more likely than husbands to try and shield their spouse from the stress of their own depression. Yet, previous research has not examined depression and relationship dynamics in gay and lesbian couples. We analyze in-depth interviews with 26 gay and lesbian couples (N = 52 individuals) in which one or both partners reported depression. We find evidence that dominant gender scripts are both upheld and challenged within gay and lesbian couples, providing important insight into how gender operates in relation to depression within same-sex contexts. Our results indicate that most gay and lesbian partners offer support to a depressed partner, yet lesbian couples tend to follow a unique pattern in that they provide support both as the non-depressed and depressed partner. Support around depression is sometimes viewed as improving the relationship, but if the support is intensive or rejected, it is often viewed as contributing to relationship strain. Support is also sometimes withdrawn by the non-depressed partner because of caregiver exhaustion or the perception that the support is unhelpful. This study points to the importance of considering depression within gay and lesbian relational contexts, revealing new ways support sustains and strains intimate partnerships. We emphasize the usefulness of deploying couple-level approaches to better understand depression in sexual minority populations.

Sarantakos's Research on Same-Sex Parenting in Australia and New Zealand: Importance, Substance, and Corroboration with Research from the United States

Sarantakos (1996a) compared teacher ratings and other outcomes for the children of heterosexual married, heterosexual cohabiting, and homosexual parents and reported numerous significant, substantial differences. Few scholars have taken the effect sizes of his results into account or have considered his larger program of research. Sarantakos's research yielded many interesting findings with respect to children's academic performance, sexual orientation, use of alcohol and drugs, sexual deviance, and gender identity with respect to parents' parenting values, relationship stability, conflict, monogamy, and religiosity or moral values, many of which have been corroborated by U.S. or British research. In addition, the methodological quality of his research appears to be at least above average, especially for research done 20 or more years ago. He appears to have been unbiased with respect to same-sex families. His results disseminated via multiple publications should be taken into account in literature reviews concerning same-sex parenting.

Navigating Treacherous Waters—One Researcher's 40 Years of Experience with Controversial Scientific Research,

Science often must deal with issues that are politically controversial. However, there are dangers in dealing with controversial research and serious risks to the process of doing science and to the credibility of science, particularly social science. Here, I discuss lessons learned from engaging in and criticizing controversial research for nearly four decades. Social science research as a process is being damaged by questionable research practices, several of which are discussed. Social science results are being misrepresented through a variety of weak or incorrect methodologies, each of which is discussed. Discourse about social science results often shifts from academic discussion into attempts to discredit those with whom one may disagree. Science and the public are not being well served by these problems, so new researchers and policymakers need to be aware of them. For teaching purposes, examples are also presented of controversial research in which new analyses offer different results than previously reported.