Spanning Borders, Cultures, and Generations: A Decade of Research on Immigrant Families

The Venezuelan Humanitarian Crisis, Out-Migration, and Household Change Among Venezuelans in Venezuela and Abroad

International migration is increasingly characterized by the need to evade threats to survival. Nevertheless, demographic understandings of how families-rather than individuals alone-decide to migrate or separate in response to threats remain limited. Focusing on the recent humanitarian crisis in Venezuela, we analyze 2012-2016 data on Venezuelans in Venezuela and 2018-2020 data on UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees)-registered Venezuelans in nine receiving countries to illuminate the evolution of threats Venezuelans sought to evade, how threat evasion transformed households away from previous norms, the selection of migrants into different receiving countries and household structures, and demographic disparities in migrants' odds of reporting changes to their household because of specific migration-related processes (e.g., leaving someone in Venezuela, leaving someone in another country). Results underscore a simultaneous escalation of economic, safety, and political concerns that informed Venezuelans' increasing intentions to out-migrate. Where Venezuelans migrated and who ended up in their households abroad varied by demographic background and migration experiences. Among UNHCR-registered Venezuelans, 43% left family members in Venezuela, and more than 10% left or were left behind by members in another country. Such household separations, however, were unevenly distributed across factors such as age, gender, and country of reception.

International Displacement and Family Stress in Latin America

Family stress theories posit that individual family members are positioned to adapt to external stressors differently and that these differences can strain family systems. Analyzing in-depth interviews with a diverse sample of migrant mothers in Costa Rica, we investigate how families adjust to the stressors of international displacement. Three stages of family stress adjustment emerged from our analysis: (1) parents' prioritization of safety, (2) parents' and children's grappling with new legal, economic, and social circumstances, and (3) parents' protracted uncertainty in one or more of these realms concomitant with children's feeling resettled. A fourth stage of (4) convergent parent and child resettling also emerged, but only among select families who enjoyed stable financial or emotional support from extended kin or local institutions in Costa Rica. Parents' perceptions of their security, and social, economic, and legal circumstances contributed to the progression between stages of stress adjustment.

Pandemic Precarity: COVID-19's Impact on Mexican and Central American Immigrant Families

Objective

The study examines the association of gender, parenthood, and marriage with reports of perceived pandemic precarity among Mexican and Central American immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic (Fall 2020) to understand predictors of vulnerability in periods of crisis.

Background

Latinos/as, immigrants, parents, and women have faced significant challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. Family structure, along with social expectations for gender (i.e., self-sacrificing femininity for women and hegemonic masculinity for men), parenthood, and marriage may explain perceptions of pandemic precarity - defined as the material deprivation and economic anxiety resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Method

This study used data from the Hispanic COVID-19 Rapid Response Study (n=400), a follow-up of the VidaSana Study of Mexican and Central American immigrants, to examine how family structure is associated with pandemic precarity (i.e., food, housing, and economic insecurity). Using linear regression models, average marginal effects (AMEs), and tests for group differences we investigate the independent and interactive effects of gender, parenthood, and marriage on pandemic precarity.

Results

Men and parents reported the highest pandemic precarity. Fathers reported higher pandemic precarity than mothers. For men, marriage is associated with greater precarity, and for women, marriage is associated with less precarity, yet marriage increased precarity for those without children.

Conclusion

We discuss the importance and implications of examining gender along with family structure to understand how immigrant families were faring in response to the pandemic.

Using the social ecological model to identify challenges facing Latino immigrants

BACKGROUND

New Latino immigrant populations face challenges and barriers when arriving in new immigrant destinations.

OBJECTIVE

To better understand the challenges faced by Latino immigrants in a new immigrant destination by using the Social Ecological Model.

DESIGN

This study solicited the perceptions of key informants and Latino immigrant participants through qualitative data collection methods to understand how to address and decrease barriers to healthcare services and community resources.

SAMPLE

Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with two groups of respondents: 13 key informants and 30 Latino immigrants.

MEASUREMENTS

Data were analyzed using thematic analysis and categorized based on the Social Ecological Model.

RESULTS

Themes identified at the individual and interpersonal levels of the Social Ecological Model include fear of deportation and stress. Themes at the community level include cultural differences, discrimination, and a lack of exposure of the majority community to Latino immigrants. At the system level, researchers identified language barriers, the cost of healthcare, and housing. At the policy level, researchers identified legal status and occupational exploitation as challenges for this community.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the challenges faced by Latino immigrants requires multi-level interventions to address barriers that prevent new immigrants from accessing community resources.

Role of country of origin and state of residence for dietary change among foreign-born adults in the US

Place of origin and place of current residence may shape migrants' health-related behaviors. Using the nationally-representative US New Immigrant Survey (n = 7930), we examined associations between country of origin, state of residence, and dietary changes among foreign-born adults. 65% of migrants reported dietary change since immigration (mean score = 7.3; range = 1-10); 6% of the variance was explained by country of origin characteristics; 1.6% by US state of residence; 1.4% by their interaction. Country of origin factors, specifically availability of animal source foods and sweets, were associated with dietary change, availability of sweets also including greater abandonment of specific foods and adoption of others.

The Work, Economic, and Remittance Stress and Distress of the COVID-19 Pandemic Containment Policies: The Case of Venezuelan Migrants in Argentina and Chile

According to the social stress process model, global crises are macro-level stressors that generate physiological stress and psychological distress. However, existing research has not identified immigrants' COVID-19 containment policy stressors or examined the social stress of sending remittances amid crises. Drawing on in-depth longitudinal interviews with 46 Venezuelan immigrants-half before and half during the pandemic-in Chile and Argentina, we identified the COVID-19 containment policies' stressors. We focused on Venezuelan immigrants because they constitute one of the largest internationally displaced populations, with most migrating within South America. We found that the governmental COVID-19 containment measures in both countries generated four stressors: employment loss, income loss, devaluation of employment status, and inability to send needed remittances. Moreover, sending remittances helped some migrants cope with concerns about loved ones in Venezuela. However, sending remittances became a social stressor when immigrants struggled to simultaneously sustain their livelihoods and send financial support to relatives experiencing hardships in Venezuela. For some immigrants, these adversities generated other stressors (e.g., housing instability) and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Broadly, for immigrants, the stressors of global crises transcend international borders and generate high stress, which strains their psychological well-being.

Factors influencing the well-being of Asian American LGBT individuals across the lifespan: perspectives from leaders of community-based organizations

BACKGROUND

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals have documented disparities in mental health that are experienced across the life course. However, limited research has been conducted to identify the factors which contribute to evaluated risk for poor mental health among older Asian Americans who identify as LGBT. The purpose of this study was to determine the perspectives of leaders of community-based organizations about the mental health needs and concerns of their LGBT constituents from diverse Asian backgrounds.

METHODS

Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with leaders of community-based organizations serving the needs of LGBT individuals. A qualitative framework analysis approach was used to identify, analyze and report themes within the data.

RESULTS

11 members of community organizations located in California (54.5%), Chicago (27.2%), and New York (18.1%) were interviewed. Chronic stress was identified as negatively impacting constituents' lives and was attributed to social determinants of health, including inadequate housing, financial insecurity, discrimination, barriers to adequate health care, and immigration status. Ageism, social isolation, language barriers, and limited connections to cultural, religious, or LGBT communities were identified as factors impacting middle-aged and older adults. Participants identified homelessness, violence, and lack of parental acceptance as contributing to distress among youth and younger adults. The most vulnerable community members were identified as gender minorities, undocumented individuals, and individuals with limited English proficiencies. Organizational leaders described strategies to address social determinants.

CONCLUSIONS

Asian Americans who are LGBT are confronted with substantial risks for poor mental health that are linked to modifiable social determinants of health. Organizations serving these populations play a vital role in meeting the needs of a highly underserved population.

"Mi Corazón se Partió en Dos": Transnational Motherhood at the Intersection of Migration and Violence

In the recent Central American migrations spurred by violence, political instability, and economic insecurity, women grapple with whether and when to bring their children with them in pursuit of safety in another country, and with fulfilling their roles as mothers from afar. Drawing from the transnational motherhood literature and critical feminist theories, this interpretive qualitative study examined transnational motherhood grounded in the lived experiences of Central American women (n = 19) over the course of their migrations to the US. Informed by the principles of grounded theory, the inductive analysis identified five processes in which migration and violence shaped meanings of motherhood: risking everything, embodying separation, braving reunification, mothering others, and experiencing motherhood due to sexual violence. The findings contribute knowledge of how violence shapes and informs women's migrations and decision-making, and the consequences women endure in taking action to mitigate threats of violence in their own and their children's lives. The analysis furthermore highlights the specific and profound effects of family separation on mothers. The voices, perspectives, and experiences of migrating mothers and the ways in which migration and violence shapes notions and lived experiences of motherhood are imperative to research, practice, and advocacy to change oppressive immigration policies.

From One Generation to the Next: Hmong American Adolescents’ Views of Maternal Racial Socialization

This study investigated Hmong American adolescents’ perceptions of their mother as helping them understand race as Asian American youths in an urban context. Twenty-four Hmong American adolescents ages 14 to 18 ( M = 15.8; 67% female; 54% U.S. born, 46% born in Southeast Asia) participated in semi-structured interviews, following approval of the Institutional Review Board. Directed content analysis revealed three themes of racial, ethnic, and neutral socialization practices. Frequently, responses reflected the categories of racism awareness, racial group identification, and diversity awareness, as well as no discussion of race (racial socialization theme). Although the study asked specifically about racial socialization, some responses indicated that mothers engaged in cultural practices that included cultural markers and ethnic group identification (ethnic socialization theme). A few responses also represented neutral socialization that emphasized good behavior. Emergent categories included intra-racial discrimination and bicultural socialization. More frequently than girls, boys reported having discrimination experiences without discussing race with mothers. Girls reported more intra-racial discrimination messages, as well as bicultural and neutral messages than boys. These findings can help Hmong American adolescents and their families continue to build successful strategies for dealing with racism and discrimination, and support understanding how Asian Americans address racialized experiences in the U.S.

How Socioeconomic Status and Acculturation Relate to Dietary Behaviors Within Latino Populations

PURPOSE

Despite having lower socioeconomic status, Latinos in the US experience fewer adverse health outcomes than non-Latinos. However, they are disproportionately affected by diet-related diseases. Among other racial/ethnic groups, high acculturation and low socioeconomic status are associated with worse dietary intake, yet, few studies have investigated these relationships among Latinos.

DESIGN

2013-2014 NHANES analyzed to examine pathways through which acculturation, income, nativity, and food security are associated with dietary behaviors.

SETTING

U.S. population-based survey.

SAMPLE

Survey respondents >18 years old and identified as Latino/Hispanic (N = 1197; 53.88% female; Mage = 44.61).

MEASURES

Primary language spoken (acculturation), total household income (income), place of birth (nativity), Food security, and the Flexible Consumer Behavior Survey (dietary behavior).

ANALYSIS

Univariate and multivariate regressions in STATA. Covariates include length of time in the US, ethnicity/Hispanic origin (i.e., "Mexican American" or "Other Hispanic"), and gender.

RESULTS

Nativity (β = -1.16; SE = .19; P < .001) and income (β = .39; SE = .07; P < .001) were significant predictors of dietary behavior. Foreign-born Latinos and those with lower income consumed significantly lower numbers of fast-food or pizza. Food security was not a significant predictor of dietary behavior (β = .16; SE = .1; P > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that income is not a protective factor against unhealthy dietary behavior and a renewed importance of nativity as a predictor of health behavior among Latinos.

Mother–Child Relationships in U.S. Latinx Families in Middle Childhood: Opportunities and Challenges in the 21st Century

The 21st century has brought unique opportunities and challenges for parents, and this is particularly true for Latinx families, whose children comprise more than one-fourth of the school-age population in the U.S. today. Taking an ecological and strengths-based approach, the current study examined the role of mothers’ cultural assets (familism values, family cohesion) and challenges (economic hardship, ethnic–race-based discrimination) on children’s educational adjustment in middle childhood, as well as the indirect role of mother–child warmth and conflict in these associations. The sample included 173 Latinx mothers and their middle childhood offspring (i.e., 5th graders and younger sisters/brothers in the 1st through 4th grade). Mothers participated in home visits and phone interviews and teachers provided ratings of children’s educational adjustment (academic and socioemotional competence, aggressive/oppositional behaviors). Findings revealed family cohesion was indirectly linked to children’s educational adjustment via mother–child warmth and conflict, particularly for younger siblings. Discussion focuses on the culturally based strengths of Latinx families and highlights potential implications for family-based prevention in middle childhood.

Racial Pairings and Fertility: Do Interracial Couples Have Fewer Children?

OBJECTIVE

Our overall goal is largely descriptive-to compare recent fertility patterns between racially endogamous and exogamous couples in the United States. Evidence of lower fertility among exogamous or interracial couples arguably provides indirect evidence of social distance and cultural and economic integration.

BACKGROUND

The growth of interracial marriage and cohabitation has fueled the rise in biracial or mixed-race children. Fertility rates are uneven among racial and ethnic groups, seemingly rooted in stigma and cultural differences (e.g., fertility norms). Whether fertility is different among interracial couples is unclear: Fertility rates that largely conform to the population of racially endogamous White couples provide evidence of social integration whereas differential fertility may reveal gender dynamics in fertility decision-making, including power relationships that depend on the race of male and female partners.

METHOD

We pool data from the 2008 to 2017 American Community Survey to compare past-year fertility patterns among endogamously and interracially married and cohabiting couples.

RESULTS

Fertility is generally lower among racially exogamous than endogamous unions, especially among Asian American-White couples. Fertility among American Indian-White couples is much closer to patterns of White couples than of American Indian couples. Fertility among other interracial couples nevertheless varies by the race of male partners. That is, fertility of the Black male/White female and the Hispanic male/White female couples is similar to patterns found among endogamous Black and Hispanic couples, respectively. The White male/Black female and the White male/Hispanic female couples follow the fertility patterns of White couples.

CONCLUSION

In general, the fertility levels of interracial couples are intermediate between those of endogamous White couples and their endogamous Black, Hispanic, or American Indian counterparts, but vary significantly by the race-gender mix of partners.

Bride Kidnapping and Gendered Labor Migration: Evidence from Kyrgyzstan

Because the decision to migrate is a product of gendered negotiations within households, households formed through forced marriage may have different migration strategies than households formed through voluntary marriage. In Kyrgyzstan, we anticipate two possible effects of the traditional practice of bride kidnapping on migration. Households headed by a kidnap couple may be more cohesive and patriarchal, facilitating men's labor migration and remittance-sending. Alternately, women may use migration to escape such households. We test these two hypotheses using a sample of 1,171 households in rural Kyrgyzstan. Kidnap households are more likely to include women migrants, compared to other households. Kidnap households are also more likely to be receiving remittances, even when controlling for migrant household members. However, traditional beliefs about kidnapping are negatively associated with men's and women's migration. While higher levels of remittance receipt among kidnap households resembles the unified, patriarchal households envisioned in the New Economics of Labor Migration, it also appears that women use labor migration as a means to escape patriarchal constraints. We demonstrate that forced marriage in Kyrgyzstan plays a larger social role than is often believed, and highlight a new pathway through which gendered power dynamics can shape household migration strategies.

Early Childhood Education Programs as Protective Experiences for Low-Income Latino Children and Their Families

Research is accelerating toward a deeper understanding of early childhood education (ECE) environments as protective experiences for Latino children; however, more work remains. This paper provides a review of the evidence that ECE environments benefit Latino children and mitigate the impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and other poverty-related risks; however, Latino families face numerous barriers to accessing ECE opportunities for their children. While enrollment by Latino children in ECE programs has grown in prior decades, further increases in access to ECE are needed to benefit Latino children, who are disproportionately impacted by poverty. In addition, ECE programs, especially high-quality and dual generation-focused programs like Early Head Start and Head Start, are in a strong position to help offset the risk for poor educational and mental health outcomes due to Latino's children's exposure to stressors such as discrimination and ACEs. Gaps remain in how well ECE is serving Latino families due to a combination of factors including parental work schedules, heritage language and cultural factors, and the lack of affordable and available ECE programs in Latino communities. To remedy these gaps, researchers must continue to further elucidate the needs, preferences, and gaps regarding access to early care and education opportunities for Latino children. For those studying trauma and ACEs among low-income children, greater attention to how preventative interventions or treatments that are embedded in ECE settings serve Latino populations is warranted, as this has the tremendous potential to mitigate the long-term impact of ACEs on Latino children. The paper concludes with a set of early childhood practice and policy recommendations for enhancing protective experiences for low-income Latino children.

Immigration Policy and Justice in the Era of COVID-19

The U.S. immigration system has not escaped the challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic. Concerns have been raised about policy changes, enforcement actions, immigrant detention, and deportation practices during the outbreak. In response, dozens of lawsuits have been brought against the government on behalf of undocumented immigrants and detainees, ranging from the conditions of ICE detention facilities to the public charge rule. While most cases continue to move through the federal court system, a number of district court judges have already ruled in favor of the plaintiffs. This paper focuses on three particular areas of immigration policy and practice during COVID: ICE enforcement actions, immigrant detention, and deportations. We summarize the current state of extant data and evidence on each of these and examine questions that remain for further research.

Paternal Migration and Children's Educational Attainment and Work Activity: The Case of Mexico

Most of the research evaluating the import of paternal migration for children's outcomes has taken "left-behind children" as a single group. Such an approach does not take into account how family processes may intersect with migration processes. Taking a life course perspective, this paper distinguishes fathers' short-term and long-term migrations, as well as return migration, as they affect children's productive activities. Using the Mexican Family Life Survey (2002-2009), we followed school-aged children from two-parent households in 2002 and observed their activities as they transitioned into adulthood from 2005 through 2009. We found that fathers' short-term migration is negatively associated with children's labor force participation, especially for 12- to 18-year-old boys, suggesting that paternal migration may interrupt adolescent boys' labor market transition in the short-term. Fathers' long-term migration and return migration does not significantly alter children's activities. However, the negative role of fathers' long-term absence and benefits brought by the paternal migration trip are important mechanisms for educational persistence and the labor force entrance of 12- to 18-year-old girls, highlighting the conditions under which certain mechanisms may work. This suggests that migration is a family process, with the outcomes lying in the interplay of the stages of migration, children's life stages, and how gender is treated within cultural and familial contexts.

Families in Later Life: A Decade in Review

Later-life families encompass the legal, biological, romantic, and kin-like relationships of persons ages 65 and older. Research on older families has flourished over the past decade, as population aging has intensified concerns regarding the capacities of families to care for older adults and the adequacy of public pension systems to provide an acceptable standard of living. Shifting patterns of family formation over the past half-century have created a context in which contemporary older adults' family lives differ markedly from earlier generations. Decreasing numbers of adults are growing old with their first and only spouse, with rising numbers divorcing, remarrying, forming non-marital romantic partnerships, or living single by choice. Remarriage and the formation of stepfamilies pose challenges and opportunities as older adults negotiate complex decisions such as inheritance and caregiving. Family relationships are consequential for older adults' well-being, operating through both biological and psychosocial mechanisms. We synthesize research from the past decade, revealing how innovations in data and methods have refined our understanding of late-life families against a backdrop of demographic change. We show how contemporary research refines classic theoretical frameworks and tests emerging conceptual models. We organize the article around two main types of family relationships: (1) marriage and romantic partnerships and (2) intergenerational relationships. We discuss how family caregiving occurs within these relationships, and offer three promising avenues for future research: ethnic minority and immigrant families; older adults without close kin ("elder orphans"); and the potentials of rapidly evolving technologies for intergenerational relationships and caregiving.

A Decade of Research on Intergenerational Ties: Technological, Economic, Political, and Demographic Changes

Due to extended transitions to adulthood and declining marital rates, bonds between adults and parents have grown increasingly salient in individuals' lives. This review organizes research around these topics to address ties between parents and grown children in the context of broader societal changes over the past decade. Literature searches included tables of contents of premier journals (e.g., Journal of Marriage and Family), Psychological Info, and Google Scholar. The literature review revealed patterns of social and intergenerational changes. Technological advances (e.g., introduction of the smart phone) co-occurred with more frequent contact and interdependence between generations. The Great Recession and financial strains altered the nature of many parent/child ties, including increased rates of intergenerational coresidence. Individual life problems such as divorce, addiction, and physical health problems were reflected in complex changes in positive and negative relationship qualities, ambivalence, and intergenerational support. Government policies reflect societal values and in turn, affected the distribution of parents' and grown children's resources. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Demographic changes (e.g., constellation of family members, delayed marriage, same sex marriage) were also manifest in ties between adults and parents. Findings were consistent with the Intergenerational Systems in Context Model, which posits that societal transformations co-occur with changes in intergenerational relationships via reciprocal influences.

Family Matters: Research on Family Ties and Health, 2010-2020

Family ties have wide-ranging consequences for health, for better and for worse. This decade review uses a life course perspective to frame significant advances in research on the effects of family structure and transitions (e.g., marital status), and family dynamics and quality (e.g., emotional support from family members), on health across the life course. Significant advances include the linking of childhood family experiences to health at older ages, identification of biosocial processes that explain how family ties influence health throughout life, research on social contagion showing how family members influence one another's health, and attention to diversity in family and health dynamics, including gender, sexuality, socioeconomic, and racial diversity. Significant innovations in methods include dyadic and family-level analysis and causal inference strategies. The review concludes by identifying directions for future research on families and health, advocating for a "family biography" framework to guide future research, and calling for more research specifically designed to assess policies that affect families and their health from childhood into later life.