Toll-like receptor signaling in primary immune deficiencies

Characterization of DmToll and DmToll7 homologue in Litopenaeus vannamei based on structure analysis

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize invading pathogens and activate downstream signaling pathways. The number of 10 Tolls is found in Litopenaeus vannamei but have not yet been identified as the corresponding Toll homologue of model animal. In this study, we predicted the three-dimensional (3D) structures of 10 LvTolls (LvToll1-10) with AlphaFold2 program. The per-residue local distance difference test (pLDDT) scores of LvTolls showed the predicted structure of LvTolls had high accuracy (pLDDT>70). By structural analysis, 3D structures of LvToll2 and LvToll3 had high similarity with Drosophila melanogaster Toll and Toll7, respectively. 3D structure of LvToll7 and LvToll10 were not similar to that of other LvTolls. Moreover, we also predicted that LvSpätzle4 had high structural similarity to DmSpätzle. There were 9 potential hydrogen bonds in LvToll2-LvSpätzle4 complex. Importantly, co-immunoprecipitation assay showed that LvToll2 could bind with LvSpätzle4. Collectively, this study provides new insight for researching invertebrate immunity by identifying the protein of model animal homologue.

Unraveling the Role of Toll-like Receptors in the Immunopathogenesis of Selected Primary and Secondary Immunodeficiencies

The human immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and molecules that work together to defend the body against pathogens and maintain overall health. However, in some individuals, the immune system fails to function correctly, leading to immunodeficiencies. Immunodeficiencies can be classified into primary (PID) and secondary (SID) types, each with distinct underlying causes and manifestations. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), as key components of the immune system, have been implicated in the pathogenesis of both PID and SID. In this study, we aim to unravel the intricate involvement of TLR2, TLR4, TLR3, TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 in the immunopathogenesis of common variable immunodeficiency-CVID (as PID)-and chronic lymphocytic leukemia-CLL (as SID). The obtained results indicate a significant increase in the percentage of all tested subpopulations of T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes showing positive expression of all analyzed TLRs in patients with CVID and CLL compared to healthy volunteers, constituting the control group, which is also confirmed by analysis of the concentration of soluble forms of these receptors in the plasma of patients. Furthermore, patients diagnosed with CVID are characterized by the percentage of all lymphocytes showing positive expression of the tested TLR2, TLR4, TLR3, and TLR9 and their plasma concentrations in relation to patients with CLL. By investigating the functions and interactions of TLRs within the immune system, we seek to shed light on their critical role in the development and progression of these immunodeficiencies. Through a comprehensive analysis of the literature and presented experimental data, we hope to deepen our understanding of the complex mechanisms by which TLRs contribute to the pathogenesis of PID and SID. Ultimately, our findings may provide valuable insights into developing targeted therapeutic strategies to mitigate the impact of these disorders on those affected by immunodeficiency.

Intrinsic B cell TLR-BCR linked coengagement induces class-switched, hypermutated, neutralizing antibody responses in absence of T cells

Maturation of antibody responses entails somatic hypermutation (SHM), class-switch DNA recombination (CSR), plasma cell differentiation, and generation of memory B cells, and it is thought to require T cell help. We showed that B cell Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-B cell receptor (BCR) (receptor for antigen) coengagement by 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl acetyl (NP)-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (Escherichia coli lipid A polysaccharide O-antigen) or TLR5-BCR coengagement by Salmonella flagellin induces mature antibody responses to NP and flagellin in Tcrβ-/-Tcrδ-/- and NSG/B mice. TLR-BCR coengagement required linkage of TLR and BCR ligands, "linked coengagement." This induced B cell CSR/SHM, germinal center-like differentiation, clonal expansion, intraconal diversification, plasma cell differentiation, and an anamnestic antibody response. In Tcrβ-/-Tcrδ-/- mice, linked coengagement of TLR4-BCR by LPS or TLR5-BCR by flagellin induced protective antibodies against E. coli or Salmonella Typhimurium. Our findings unveiled a critical role of B cell TLRs in inducing neutralizing antibody responses, including those to microbial pathogens, without T cell help.

Trained immunity: A “new” weapon in the fight against infectious diseases

Innate immune cells can potentiate the response to reinfection through an innate form of immunological memory known as trained immunity. The potential of this fast-acting, nonspecific memory compared to traditional adaptive immunological memory in prophylaxis and therapy has been a topic of great interest in many fields, including infectious diseases. Amidst the rise of antimicrobial resistance and climate change—two major threats to global health—, harnessing the advantages of trained immunity compared to traditional forms of prophylaxis and therapy could be game-changing. Here, we present recent works bridging trained immunity and infectious disease that raise important discoveries, questions, concerns, and novel avenues for the modulation of trained immunity in practice. By exploring the progress in bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic diseases, we equally highlight future directions with a focus on particularly problematic and/or understudied pathogens.

Influence of genetic variability in toll-like receptors (TLR 2, TLR 4, and TLR 9) on human immunodeficiency virus-1 disease progression

Background

It has been demonstrated that toll-like receptors (TLR2), TLR4, and TLR9 which were initially known for recognizing bacterial products are involved in the detection of viral components. It was planned to undertake a prospective longitudinal study among ethnically homogeneous antiretroviral treatment and antitubercular treatment naïve human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive patients representing the north Indian population. The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 polymorphism in HIV disease progression.

Methods

The present study was designed to investigate genetic polymorphism in TLRs (TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9) among HIV-infected patients with and without TB coinfection. The study population consisted of two groups: (i) HIV-positive patients without TB infection and disease (n = 223, HIV-positive patients); (ii) HIV-positive patients with latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) (n = 150, HIV-positive LTBI patients). These participants were of either gender between 18 and 60 years of age and treatment naïve for both TB and HIV. HIV-positive and HIV-positive LTBI patients were longitudinally followed up for t2 years to study HIV disease progression.

Results

On comparing TLR2 and TLR4 allelic and genotypic frequencies between 306 HIV-positive patients (no TB/AIDS) and 47 HIV-positive patients progressed to active TB/AIDS, no significant difference was observed between the two groups. The frequency of "A" allele in TLR9 was found to be significantly increased in 47 HIV-positive patients who progressed to active TB/AIDS (61.7%) as compared to 42.16% in 306 HIV-positive patients (no TB/AIDS), (P < 0.001). Furthermore, a significantly increased frequency of "AA" genotype in TLR9 was observed in 47 HIV-positive patients progressed to active TB/AIDS (55.32%) as compared to 20.26% in HIV-positive patients (no TB/AIDS).

Conclusion

Findings of the present study revealed that genetic variability in TLR9 may influence HIV disease progression. The AA genotype in TLR9 may be associated with progression to TB/AIDS for 2 years in HIV-positive patients.

Diagnostic Modalities in Primary Immunodeficiency

As the field of inborn errors of immunity expands, providers continually update and fine-tune their diagnostic approach and selection of testing modalities to increase diagnostic accuracy. Here, we first describe a mechanistic consideration of laboratory testing, highlighting both benefits and drawbacks of currently clinically available testing modalities. Next, we provide methods in evaluation of patients presenting with concern for inborn errors of immunity as defined by the International Union of Immunological Societies 2019 phenotypic categories: primary antibody deficiencies, cellular and humoral immune deficiency, disorders of the innate immune system, and syndrome-associated and primary immune regulation disorders (PIRDs). Using the suggested approach in this paper as a roadmap highlights the importance of thorough history taking and physical examination as the foundation to guide further diagnostic tests. This is followed by enumeration and functional testing. Finally, to determine the underlying molecular etiology-specific genetic panels, chromosomal microarrays, and broad genetic testing (whole exome sequencing or whole genome sequencing) are available.

Chromosome-Scale Genome of Masked Palm Civet (Paguma larvata) Shows Genomic Signatures of Its Biological Characteristics and Evolution

The masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) is a small carnivore with distinct biological characteristics, that likes an omnivorous diet and also serves as a vector of pathogens. Although this species is not an endangered animal, its population is reportedly declining. Since the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic in 2003, the public has been particularly concerned about this species. Here, we present the first genome of the P. larvata, comprising 22 chromosomes assembled using single-tube long fragment read (stLFR) and Hi-C technologies. The genome length is 2.41 Gb with a scaffold N50 of 105.6 Mb. We identified the 107.13 Mb X chromosome and one 1.34 Mb Y-linked scaffold and validated them by resequencing 45 P. larvata individuals. We predicted 18,340 protein-coding genes, among which 18,333 genes were functionally annotated. Interestingly, several biological pathways related to immune defenses were found to be significantly expanded. Also, more than 40% of the enriched pathways on the positively selected genes (PSGs) were identified to be closely related to immunity and survival. These enriched gene families were inferred to be essential for the P. larvata for defense against the pathogens. However, we did not find a direct genomic basis for its adaptation to omnivorous diet despite multiple attempts of comparative genomic analysis. In addition, we evaluated the susceptibility of the P. larvata to the SARS-CoV-2 by screening the RNA expression of the ACE2 and TMPRSS2/TMPRSS4 genes in 16 organs. Finally, we explored the genome-wide heterozygosity and compared it with other animals to evaluate the population status of this species. Taken together, this chromosome-scale genome of the P. larvata provides a necessary resource and insights for understanding the genetic basis of its biological characteristics, evolution, and disease transmission control.

Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) in Health and Disease: An Overview

Toll-like receptors were discovered as proteins playing a crucial role in the dorsoventral patterning during embryonic development in the Drosophila melanogaster (D. melanogaster) almost 40 years ago. Subsequently, further research also showed a role of the Toll protein or Toll receptor in the recognition of Gram-positive bacterial and fungal pathogens infecting D. melanogaster. In 1997, the human homolog was reported and the receptor was named the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) that recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the Gram-negative bacteria as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP). Identification of TLR4 in humans filled the long existing gap in the field of infection and immunity, addressing the mystery surrounding the recognition of foreign pathogens/microbes by the immune system. It is now known that mammals (mice and humans) express 13 different TLRs that are expressed on the outer cell membrane or intracellularly, and which recognize different PAMPs or microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and death/damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) to initiate the protective immune response. However, their dysregulation generates profound and prolonged pro-inflammatory immune responses responsible for different inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases. This chapter provides an overview of TLRs in the control of the immune response, their association with different diseases, including TLR single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), interactions with microRNAs (miRs), use in drug development and vaccine design, and expansion in neurosciences to include pain, addiction, metabolism, reproduction, and wound healing.

Revealing the Mechanism of Astragali Radix against Cancer-Related Fatigue by Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

Background

Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is an increasingly appreciated complication in cancer patients, which severely impairs their quality of life for a long time. Astragali Radix (AR) is a safe and effective treatment to improve CRF, but the related mechanistic studies are still limited.

Objective

To systematically analyze the mechanism of AR against CRF by network pharmacology.

Methods

TCMSP was searched to obtain the active compounds and targets of AR. The active compound-target (AC-T) network was established and exhibited by related visualization software. The GeneCards database was searched to acquire CRF targets, and the intersection targets with AR targets were used to make the Venny diagram. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of intersection targets was established, and further, the therapeutic core targets were selected by topological parameters. The selected core targets were uploaded to Metascape for GO and KEGG analysis. Finally, AutoDock Vina and PyMOL were employed for molecular docking validation.

Results

16 active compounds of AR were obtained, such as quercetin, kaempferol, 7-O-methylisomucronulatol, formononetin, and isorhamnetin. 57 core targets were screened, such as AKT1, TP53, VEGFA, IL-6, and CASP3. KEGG analysis manifested that the core targets acted on various pathways, including 137 pathways such as TNF, IL-17, and the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway. Molecular docking demonstrated that active compounds docked well with the core targets.

Conclusion

The mechanism of AR in treating CRF involves multiple targets and multiple pathways. The present study laid a theoretical foundation for the subsequent research and clinical application of AR and its extracts against CRF.

Toll-Like Receptor Signaling in the Establishment and Function of the Immune System

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors that play a central role in the development and function of the immune system. TLR signaling promotes the earliest emergence of hematopoietic cells during development, and thereafter influences the fate and function of both primitive and effector immune cell types. Aberrant TLR signaling is associated with hematopoietic and immune system dysfunction, and both loss- and gain-of- function variants in TLR signaling-associated genes have been linked to specific infection susceptibilities and immune defects. Herein, we will review the role of TLR signaling in immune system development and the growing number of heritable defects in TLR signaling that lead to inborn errors of immunity.

Biological Responses to Hydrogen Molecule and its Preventive Effects on Inflammatory Diseases

Because multicellular organisms do not have hydrogenase, H₂ has been considered to be biologically inactive in these species, and enterobacteria to be largely responsible for the oxidation of H₂ taken into the body. However, we showed previously that inhalation of H₂ markedly suppresses brain injury induced by focal ischemia-reperfusion by buffering oxidative stress. Although the reaction constant of H₂ with hydroxyl radical in aqueous solution is two to three orders of magnitude lower than that of conventional antioxidants, we showed that hydroxyl radical generated by the Fenton reaction reacts with H₂ at room temperature without a catalyst. Suppression of hydroxyl radical by H₂ has been applied in ophthalmic surgery. However, many of the anti- inflammatory and other therapeutic effects of H₂ cannot be completely explained by its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species. H₂ administration is protective in several disease models, and preculture in the presence of H₂ suppresses oxidative stress-induced cell death. Specifically, H₂ administration induces mitochondrial oxidative stress and activates Nrf2; this phenomenon, in which mild mitochondrial stress leaves the cell less susceptible to subsequent perturbations, is called mitohormesis. Based on these findings, we conclude that crosstalk between antioxidative stress pathways and the anti-inflammatory response is the most important molecular mechanism involved in the protective function of H₂, and that regulation of the immune system underlies H₂ efficacy. For further medical applications of H₂, it will be necessary to identify the biomolecule on which H₂ first acts.

Effective, safe, and sustained correction of murine XLA using a UCOE-BTK promoter-based lentiviral vector

X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) is an immune disorder caused by mutations in Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK). BTK is expressed in B and myeloid cells, and its deficiency results in a lack of mature B cells and protective antibodies. We previously reported a lentivirus (LV) BTK replacement therapy that restored B cell development and function in Btk and Tec double knockout mice (a phenocopy of human XLA). In this study, with the goal of optimizing both the level and lineage specificity of BTK expression, we generated LV incorporating the proximal human BTK promoter. Hematopoietic stem cells from Btk^−/−Tec^−/− mice transduced with this vector rescued lineage-specific expression and restored B cell function in Btk^−/−Tec^−/− recipients. Next, we tested addition of candidate enhancers and/or ubiquitous chromatin opening elements (UCOEs), as well as codon optimization to improve BTK expression. An Eμ enhancer improved B cell rescue, but increased immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies. Addition of the UCOE avoided autoantibody generation while improving B cell development and function and reducing vector silencing. An optimized vector containing a truncated UCOE upstream of the BTK promoter and codon-optimized BTK cDNA resulted in stable, lineage-regulated BTK expression that mirrored endogenous BTK, making it a strong candidate for XLA therapy.

Genetic-molecular characterization in the diagnosis of primary immunodeficiencies

OBJECTIVES

To rescue medical genetics concepts that are necessary to understand the advances in the genetic-molecular characterization of primary immunodeficiencies, to help in the understanding and adequate interpretation of their results.

SOURCE OF DATA

Non-systematic literature review, searching for articles since 2000 on PubMed using the terms "genetic evaluation" OR "whole exome sequence" or "whole genome sequence" OR "next generation sequence" AND "immunologic deficiency syndromes" OR "Immune deficiency disease" OR "immune deficiency" NOT HIV.

SUMMARY OF THE DATA

Knowledge of medical genetics is essential for the understanding of the principles of heredity and disease inheritance patterns, types of genetic variants, types of genetic sequencing and interpretation of their results. The clinical and immunophenotypic evaluation of each patient is essential for the correlation with the genetic variants observed in the genetic study of patients with primary immunodeficiencies. The discussion of the benefits and limitations of genetic tests should always guide the performance of genetic tests.

CONCLUSIONS

There are many evident benefits of genetic analysis, such as the definitive diagnosis of the disease, family genetic counseling, and the possibility of a more adequate and accurate management. Cost, access and interpretation of genetic test results are limitations that need continuous improvement. The understanding of the benefits and limits of the several genetic assessment methodologies related to primary immunodeficiencies is essential to obtain more effective results from the sequencing.

Toll receptor 2 (Toll2) positively regulates antibacterial immunity but promotes white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection in shrimp

The Toll family of receptors are a group of conserved pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) essentially controlling the initiation of innate immune responses. The white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and Vibrio parahaemolyticus are major pathogens of aquaculture shrimp. Previous study has suggested that expression of the Toll2 receptor in Pacific white shrimp Penaeus vannamei was up-regulated by white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection but did not significantly changed upon infection with the bacterial pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus. The current study intends to investigate the role of P. vannamei Toll2 in antibacterial and antiviral immunity. We demonstrated that compared with the control, the Toll2-silenced shrimp was more susceptible to V. parahaemolyticus infection, suggesting that Toll2 may play a positive role in antibacterial immunity. However, silencing of Toll2 significantly enhanced survivorship of shrimp infected with WSSV and reduced the viral load in shrimp tissues. The expression of WSSV structural protein VP28 was also inhibited in Toll2-silenced shrimp. Histologic pathology analysis further showed that the WSSV infection was attenuated in stomach tissues from Toll2-silenced shrimp. These suggested that Toll2 could promote WSSV infection in shrimp. In Toll2-silenced shrimp, expression of antimicrobial peptides ALFs and PENs was significantly changed, which may contribute to the role of Toll2 in antibacterial immunity and WSSV infection.

The microbiome and its impact on food allergy and atopic dermatitis in children

Food allergy (FA) affects 4-10% of children, especially children with atopic dermatitis (AD). During infancy the gut microbiome may determine both the course of FA and tolerance to food allergens. Analogically, the skin microbiome changes in the course of AD. Most studies have associated FA with a lower abundance and diversity of Lactobacillales and Clostridiales, but greater numbers of Enterobacterales, while AD in children has been associated with lower numbers of Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. hominis but an abundance of S. aureus and Streptococcus species. An understanding of the impact of the microbiome on the clinical course of FA and AD may allow for the development of new models of allergy treatment and prevention.

Primary Immunodeficiencies With Defects in Innate Immunity: Focus on Orofacial Manifestations

The field of primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) is rapidly evolving. Indeed, the number of described diseases is constantly increasing thanks to the rapid identification of novel genetic defects by next-generation sequencing. PIDs are now rather referred to as “inborn errors of immunity” due to the association between a wide range of immune dysregulation-related clinical features and the “prototypic” increased infection susceptibility. The phenotypic spectrum of PIDs is therefore very large and includes several orofacial features. However, the latter are often overshadowed by severe systemic manifestations and remain underdiagnosed. Patients with impaired innate immunity are predisposed to a variety of oral manifestations including oral infections (e.g., candidiasis, herpes gingivostomatitis), aphthous ulcers, and severe periodontal diseases. Although less frequently, they can also show orofacial developmental abnormalities. Oral lesions can even represent the main clinical manifestation of some PIDs or be inaugural, being therefore one of the first features indicating the existence of an underlying immune defect. The aim of this review is to describe the orofacial features associated with the different PIDs of innate immunity based on the new 2019 classification from the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) expert committee. This review highlights the important role played by the dentist, in close collaboration with the multidisciplinary medical team, in the management and the diagnostic of these conditions.

Genetic determinants of host immunity against human rhinovirus infections

Human rhinoviruses (RV) are a frequent cause of respiratory tract infections with substantial morbidity and mortality in some patients. Nevertheless, the genetic basis of susceptibility to RV in humans has been relatively understudied. Experimental infections of mice and in vitro infections of human cells have indicated that various pathogen recognition receptors (TLRs, RIG-I, and MDA5) regulate innate immune responses to RV. However, deficiency of MDA5 is the only one among these so far uncovered that confers RV susceptibility in humans. Other work has shown increased RV susceptibility in patients with a polymorphism in CDHR3 that encodes the cellular receptor for RV-C entry. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the genetic determinants of human RV susceptibility in the context of what is known about RV biology.

[Assessment of external risk factors of hepatocellular cancer development and markers of genetic predisposition to its development in the ethnic group of yakut - men]

AIM

To establish the main external and genetically determined risk factors for the development of hepatocellular cancer in the ethnic group of male Yakuts living in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) [RS (Y)] in the epidemiologically unfavorable conditions of the incidence of viral hepatitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 97 male Yakuts were examined, including 44 people diagnosed with hepatocellular cancer and 53 people diagnosed with chronic viral hepatitis. HCC risk factors were identified by analyzing medical records and questioning patients. In the experimental and control groups, genetic studies of single nucleotide polymorphisms of genes mapped on the X-chromosome and involved in the activation of antiviral immunity along the TLR7 signaling pathway were performed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In 100% of patients with hepatocellular cancer, infection with hepatitis B, C, D viruses or co - infection with these agents was detected. Every fourth patient with HCC in the RS (Y) was infected with hepatitis D. The course of hepatocellular cancer associated with HDV was characterized by rapid progression of liver cirrhosis, development of portal hypertension, bleeding from varicose veins of the stomach and esophagus (36.4%) and edematous ascitic syndrome (63.6%). In addition to viral agents, additional risk factors for liver cancer were identified, such as alcohol abuse, overweight, diabetes mellitus, and smoking. Among the studied variation sites of genes localized on the X-chromosome and encoding the reaction of innate antiviral immunity, no genetic marker was found with a sufficient degree of confidence determining the likelihood of hepatocellular cancer developing.

CONCLUSIONS

The high incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma of the male population in the RS (Y) is due to the widespread prevalence of parenteral viral hepatitis, especially viral hepatitis D. Due to the introduction of mass vaccination of the population against hepatitis B in the Russian Federation in the foreseeable future in the RS (Y) we should see a decrease in the proportion of hepatocellular cancer associated with hepatitis B and D viruses, and therefore the focus should be on the treatment and prevention of hepatitis C virus and non - infectious risk factors.

Co-expression of HIF-1 and TLR3 is associated with poor prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma

This study investigates the prognostic impact of the expression of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α and Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 detected by immunohistochemistry in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). The study also evaluates the treatment outcome by inhibition of the HIF-1α and TLR 3 pathway (nuclear factor [NF]-κB) in an OSCC transplantation model in nude mice. Statistical analysis of immunohistochemical results with clinical findings that included overall survival outcomes was performed for 90 OSCC patients. Forty nude mice were divided into four groups (control; inhibition of HIF-1α; inhibition of NF-κB; and inhibition of HIF-1α and NF-κB). Tumor weight and immunohistochemical results of each group were compared. The results show that co-detection of low HIF-1α/TLR3 expression is significantly correlated with a better prognosis for OSCC patients. Use of an inhibitor of the HIF-1 and TLR3 pathway in an OSCC transplantation model shows a good treatment outcome.

Clinical features and surgical treatment of epilepsy after viral encephalitis

Encephalitis is an acute inflammatory process of the brain parenchyma, which is often caused by viral infection. It is an vital cause of acute symptomatic seizures and subsequent epilepsy. The incidence of unprovoked and recurrent seizures after previous infections of the central nervous system is high and accounts for 1%~5% of the cases of epilepsy. Viral encephalitis (VE) is directly caused by viral infection. The occurrence of seizures after VE is associated with poor prognosis. In survivors of VE, among other neurological sequelae, the risk of developing epilepsy is increased 10-fold. The risk of severe neurological sequelae after VE is particularly high in very young children. Studies on seizure occurrence, possible underlying mechanisms, clinical characteristics, and clinical treatment (especially surgical treatment) of VE have yielded only limited detailed data. We reviewed the most recent literature on the clinical features and surgical treatment of post-VE epilepsy.

The Expanding Spectrum of Primary Immune Defects

This article presents the general pediatrician with a broad overview of the rapidly expanding spectrum of primary immune deficiencies, which are diseases that go beyond the classic description of increased susceptibility to infections and also those with predisposition to autoimmunity, malignancy, and immune dysregulation. Readers are guided through the three proposed categories under the umbrella term of primary immune deficiencies. These categories are lack of function, inappropriate surveillance and clearance, and inadequate control immune dysregulation. This article presents an illustrative distribution of the interrelated groups of immune disorders. [Pediatr Ann. 2019;48(12):e489-e494.].

Fungal immunology in clinical practice: Magical realism or practical reality?

Invasive fungal infections (IFIs) occur predominantly in immunocompromised individuals but can also be seen in previously well persons. The human innate immune system recognizes key components of the fungal cell wall as foreign resulting in a myriad of signaling cascades. This triggers release of antifungal molecules as well as adaptive immune responses, which kill or at least contain the invading fungi. However, these defences may fail in hosts with primary or secondary immunodeficiencies resulting in IFIs. Knowledge of a patient's immune status enables the clinician to predict the fungal infections most likely to occur. Moreover, the occurrence of an opportunistic mycosis in a patient without known immunocompromise usually should prompt a search for an occult immune defect. A rapidly expanding number of primary and secondary immunodeficiencies associated with mycoses has been identified. An investigative approach to determining the nature of these immunodeficiencies is suggested to help guide clinicians encountering patients with IFI. Finally, promising adjunctive immunotherapy measures are currently being investigated in IFI.

Identification of mechanisms conferring an enhanced immune response in mice induced by CVC1302-adjuvanted killed serotype O foot-and-mouth virus vaccine

The adjuvant CVC1302 was previously shown to efficiently enhance the immunogenicity of killed foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in mice and piglets. However, the underlining mechanism of action of CVC1302 remains unclear, especially at local injection sites and draining lymph nodes. Since the FMDV vaccine is administrated intramuscularly in field settings, we studied local immune responses to FMDV following intramuscular injection in mice, and found that CVC1302-adjuvanted killed FMDV (KV-CVC1302) induced secretion of several chemokines in murine muscle tissues, including MCP-1, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β. The number of monocytes recruited to the site of injection was significantly higher in mice immunized with KV-CVC1302 compared with mice immunized with killed FMDV alone (KV). iTAQ-based quantitative proteomic assays were additionally employed to explore the molecular mechanisms of CVC1302 action in the draining lymph nodes. A total of 35 proteins were identified as being differentially expressed among the control group, KV-immunized group and KV-CVC1302-immunized group at 10 days post immunization (dpi). Proteins exhibiting differential expression were mainly involved in signal transduction, apoptosis, endocytosis and innate immune responses. Pathway analysis demonstrated that AMPK, phospholipase D, cAMP, Rap1, and MAPK signaling pathways were potentially induced by the immunopotentiator CVC1302. Understanding the local mechanism of CVC1302 action at injection sites and draining lymph nodes will provide new insights into the development of FMDV vaccines.

Role of a novel circulatory RNA-based biomarker panel expression in ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer (OC) is considered the sixth commonest cancer affecting women globally. We choose novel integrated specific ovarian cancer RNA biomarker panel; pellino E3 ubiquitin protein ligase family member 3 (PELI3) gene expressions along with its selected epigenetic regulators (microRNA (miR-361-3p) and long noncoding RNA (lncRNA RP5-837J1.2) by bioinformatic methods. Then, differential expressions of the selected panel in the sera of 50 OC patients, 42 cases with benign ovarian lesions, and among 45 controls were determined using real-time polymerase chain reaction quantitative (qRT-PCR). Furthermore, their expression was measured also in malignant ovarian tissues and adjacent nontumor tissues in 23 of 50 OC patients by quantitative qRT-PCR. The current study reported, for the first time, upregulation of serum lncRNA RP5-837J1.2 with concomitant downregulation of miR-361-3p and PELI3 mRNA in malignant group compared with benign and controls groups. There were associations of serum lncRNA RP5-837J1.2 with the affected ovary and worse International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics staging; associations of miR-361-3p with tumor size, grade, stage, and presence of metastasis; as well as associations among PELI3 mRNA expression and tumor size, grade, stage, and presence of metastasis among the OC group. In tumor tissues, miR-361-3p and PELI3 mRNA levels were at a higher level than that of nontumor tissues; however, tumor tissue showed lower level of lncRNA RP5-837J1.2 compared to normal tissue. There were positive correlations between serum and tissue level of RNA RP5-837J1.2, miR-361-3p, and PELI3 mRNA, but they did not reach statistical significance. Receiver operating characteristics curve analyses showed that lncRNA RP5-837J1.2, miR-361-3p, and PELI3 mRNA expression levels can discriminate among OC patient, cases with benign mass, and controls with an accuracy of 96, 76, and 83%, respectively; which increased if they are combined. This novel diagnostic RNA-based panel biomarker could be helpful for OC diagnosis.

Lactoferrin deficiency induces a pro-metastatic tumor microenvironment through recruiting myeloid-derived suppressor cells in mice

Lactoferrin, an innate immunity molecule, is involved in anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-tumor activities. We previously reported that lactoferrin is downregulated in specimens of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and negatively associated with tumor progression and metastasis of patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma. However, the relationship between lactoferrin and the pro-metastatic microenvironment has not been reported yet. Here, by using the lactoferrin knockout mouse, we found that lactoferrin deficiency facilitated melanoma cells metastasizing to lungs, through recruiting myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in the lungs. Mechanistic studies showed that in the lung microenvironment of the lactoferrin knockout mice, the TLR9 signaling was the most repressed signaling. Lactoferrin can induce MDSCs differentiation and apoptosis, as well as upregulate TLR9 expression. TLR9 agonist or lactoferrin treatment can rescue this phenotype in the tumor metastasis mouse model. Our results suggest a protective role of lactoferrin in cancer metastasis, along with a deficiency in certain components of the innate immune system, may lead to a pro-metastatic tumor microenvironment.

Functional aspects, phenotypic heterogeneity, and tissue immune response of macrophages in infectious diseases

Macrophages are a functionally heterogeneous group of cells with specialized functions depending not only on their subgroup but also on the function of the organ or tissue in which the cells are located. The concept of macrophage phenotypic heterogeneity has been investigated since the 1980s, and more recent studies have identified a diverse spectrum of phenotypic subpopulations. Several types of macrophages play a central role in the response to infectious agents and, along with other components of the immune system, determine the clinical outcome of major infectious diseases. Here, we review the functions of various macrophage phenotypic subpopulations, the concept of macrophage polarization, and the influence of these cells on the evolution of infections. In addition, we emphasize their role in the immune response in vivo and in situ, as well as the molecular effectors and signaling mechanisms used by these cells. Furthermore, we highlight the mechanisms of immune evasion triggered by infectious agents to counter the actions of macrophages and their consequences. Our aim here is to provide an overview of the role of macrophages in the pathogenesis of critical transmissible diseases and discuss how elucidation of this relationship could enhance our understanding of the host-pathogen association in organ-specific immune responses.

Disturbed Transcription of TLRs' Negative Regulators and Cytokines Secretion among TLR4- and 9-Activated PBMCs of Agammaglobulinemic Patients

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are inevitable elements for immunity development and antibody production. TLRs are in close interaction with Bruton's tyrosine kinase which has been found mutated and malfunctioned in the prototype antibody deficiency disease named X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA). TLRs' ability was evaluated to induce transcription of TLR-negative regulators, including suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 3 (IRAK-M), tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced protein 3 (TNFAIP3, A20), and Ring finger protein 216 (RNF216), and Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and Interferon-α (IFN-α) production via Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and CpG-A oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-A ODN). Measured by TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), meaningfully increased transcripts of SOCS1 and RNF216 were found in XLA peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Also, TLR inductions of XLA have led to similar downregulations in the regulator's transcription which was different from that in healthy donors. Cytokine measurement by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) revealed a significant lower TNF-α production both before and after LPS. By selected molecules in this study, TLRs' potential defectiveness range expands TLRs expression, downstream signaling, and cytokine production. The results show new potential elements that could play a part in TLRs defect and pathogenesis of agammaglobulinemia as well.

A novel invertebrate toll-like receptor with broad recognition spectrum from thick shell mussel Mytilus coruscus

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a category of most well recognized pattern recognition molecules that act on a vital role in both innate and adaptive immunity. In the present study, a novel toll-like receptor (McTLRw) was identified and characterized in thick shell mussel Mytilus coruscus. McTLRw possesses one intracellular Toll/interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor (TIR) domain, one transmembrane region (TM), one leucine rich repeat N-terminal domain (LRR_NT) and a few of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs), which all are common in typical TLRs. McTLRw transcripts were constitutively expressed in all examined tissues with higher expression levels in immune related tissues, and were significantly induced in haemocytes with the challenges of live Vibrio alginolyticus, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycans (PGN) and β-glucan (GLU), but not induced by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C). rMcTLRw exhibited affinity to LPS, PGN and GLU while no affinity to poly I:C. Further, the downstream of TLR signaling pathway myeloid differentiation factor 88a (MyD88a), interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-4 (IRAK4) and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) were significantly repressed in McTLRw silenced mussels while challenged with LPS. These results collectively indicated that McTLRw is one member of TLR family and involved in immune response to against invaders by taking participate in TLR mediated signaling pathway.

Inhibition of TLR4 inhibits allergic responses in murine allergic rhinitis by regulating the NF-κB pathway

The present study investigated the underlying mechanisms and effects of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on a mouse model of allergic rhinitis (AR). An ovalbumin (OVA)-induced mouse model of AR was treated with TLR4-short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Allergic symptoms were then subsequently assessed. Protein levels of OVA-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE), eosinophil cation protein (ECP), leukotriene C4 (LTC4) and prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) in mice serum and nasal lavage fluid, as well as various inflammatory cytokine mediators in mice serum, were determined by ELISA. Protein level detection was performed using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blot analysis. The results revealed that TLR4 was highly expressed in the nasal mucosa of AR mice. TLR4 inhibition significantly relieved OVA-induced AR symptoms. Relief of symptoms was evidenced by a decreased frequency of sneezing and nose friction, reduced levels of OVA-specific IgE, ECP, LTC4, PGD2, less inflammatory cells and decreased levels of T-helper 2 type cytokines. In addition, the data indicated that OVA-induced activation of the NF-κB pathway was repressed by TLR4-shRNA. The results of the current study indicate that TLR4 may be a promising therapeutic target of AR.

NF-κB signaling and crosstalk during carcinogenesis

Transcription factors (TFs) are proteins that control the transcription of genetic information from DNA to mRNA by binding to specific DNA sequences either on their own or with other proteins as a complex. TFs thus support or suppress the recruitment of the corresponding RNA polymerase. In general, TFs are classified by structure or function. The TF, Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), is expressed in all cell types and tissues. NF-κB signaling and crosstalk are involved in several steps of carcinogenesis including in sequences involving pathogenic stimulus, chronic inflammation, fibrosis, establishment of its remodeling to the precancerous niche (PCN) and transition of a normal cell to a cancer cell. Triggered by various inflammatory cytokines, NF-κB is activated along with other TFs with subsequent stimulation of cell proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis. The involvement of NF-κB in carcinogenesis provides an opportunity to develop anti-NF-κB therapies. The complexity of these interactions requires that we elucidate those aspects of NF-κB interactions that play a role in carcinogenesis, the sequence of events leading to cancer.

Definition of Opportunistic Infections in Immunocompromised Children on the Basis of Etiologies and Clinical Features: A Summary for Practical Purposes

Opportunistic Infections (OIs) still remain a major cause of morbidity and death in children with either malignant or nonmalignant disease. OIs are defined as those infections occurring due to bacteria, fungi, viruses or commensal organisms that normally inhabit the human body and do not cause a disease in healthy people, but become pathogenic when the body's defense system is impaired. OIs can also be represented by unusually severe infections caused by common pathogens. An OI could present itself at the onset of a primary immunodeficiency syndrome as a life-threatening event. More often, OI is a therapyassociated complication in patients needing immunosuppressive treatment, among long-term hospitalised patients or in children who undergo bone marrow or solid organ transplantation. The aim of the present review is to provide a comprehensive and 'easy to read' text that briefly summarises the currently available knowledge about OIs in order to define when an infection should be considered as opportunistic in pediatrics as a result of an underlying congenital or acquired immune-deficit.

Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR-4) Pathway Promotes Pulmonary Inflammation in Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia-Induced Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Background

Studies have shown that intermittent hypoxia mimics obstructive sleep apnea in causing pulmonary inflammation, but the mechanism is not yet clear.TLR-4 is a recognized proinflammatory factor, so the purpose of this study was to assess the function of TLR-4 in pulmonary inflammation induced by chronic intermittent hypoxia simulating obstructive sleep apnea.

Material/Methods

Healthy male Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups (8 in each group): the normoxia control group (CG), the intermittent hypoxia group (IH), and the TLR4 antagonist TAK242 treatment group (3 mg/kg, daily), with exposure durations of 12 weeks and 16 weeks (HI). The morphological changes of lung tissue were determined with hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. The expressions of the TLR-4 pathway in lung tissue were tested by Western blotting and RT-PCR. The levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in serum and lung tissue were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The levels of SOD and MDA in lung tissue were detected by use of SOD and MDA kits, respectively.

Results

After TAK242 treatment, damage to lung tissue was increased, and the expressions of TLR-4, MYD88, P65, IL-6, TNF-α, MDA, and SOD were decreased. Intermittent hypoxic exposure caused alveolar expansion, thickening of alveolar septum, and fusion of adjacent alveoli into larger cysts under intermittent hypoxia in a time-dependent manner. Compared with the CG and HI groups, the mean lining interval (MLI) become more thickened and the alveolar destruction index (DI) increased significantly in the IH group.

Conclusions

Chronic intermittent hypoxia causes pulmonary inflammatory response and the inflammatory pathway involved in TLR4 receptor may be one of the mechanisms that trigger lung inflammation.

SpToll1 and SpToll2 modulate the expression of antimicrobial peptides in Scylla paramamosain

Tolls and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) were the first pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) identified to play key roles in host innate immunity. However, relatively little is known about other types of Toll-like receptors in Scylla paramamosain, although a Toll-like receptor (SpToll1) has recently been cloned. In this study, we cloned and characterized another novel Toll-like receptor 2 (SpToll2) from S. paramamosain. The full-length cDNA of SpToll2 is 3391 bp with a 2646 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a putative protein of 881 amino acids, and predicted to contain six extracellular leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domains, a transmembrane domain and an intracellular Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that SpToll2 clustered with Drosophila Toll1, and shared high homology with PtToll4. Real-time qPCR analysis showed that SpToll2 was widely expressed in all tissues tested, with the highest level found in hemocytes and hepatopancreas while the lowest in heart and muscle. The transcript levels of both SpToll1 and SpToll2 in mud crabs hemocytes was induced following challenge with Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, Polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C) and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). In addition, recombinant SpToll1-LRR and SpToll2-LRR proteins could bind to V. parahaemolyticus, S. aureus, Escherichia coli, and Beta Streptococcus. In order to study the signaling pathway of AMPs' expression in mud crab, RNA interference were used to test the expression of SpAMPs after the challenges with V. parahaemolyticus or S. aureus. The data suggested that SpToll1and SpToll2 could regulate the transcripts of several AMPs and four immune related mediators (SpMyD88, SpTube, SpPelle and SpTRAF6) at different scale. While silencing of SpToll1 post pathogens challenge attenuated the expression of SpHistin, SpALF1 and SpALF5 in mud crab's hemocytes, depletion of SpToll2 post pathogens challenge inhibited the expression of SpALF1-6, SpGRP, SpArasin and SpHyastastin. Furthermore, the results of overexpression assay also showed SpToll1 and SpToll2 could enhance the promoter activities of SpALFs in mud crab. Taken together, these results indicated that SpToll1 and SpToll2 might play important roles in host defense against pathogen invasions in S. paramamosain.

Type I and III Interferon Productions Are Impaired in X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia Patients Toward Poliovirus but Not Influenza Virus

Background

X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) is a primary immunodeficiency caused by Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) mutation. Patients are susceptible to severe enterovirus infections. The underlying mechanism remains unknown. BTK is involved in toll-like receptors pathway, which initiates antiviral responses including interferon (IFN) productions.

Objective

To demonstrate type I and III IFN productions in dendritic cells of XLA patients is decreased in response to oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) but not H1N1 virus.

Methods

Monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs) were derived from nine XLA patients aged 22-32 years old and 23 buffy coats from Hong Kong Red Cross blood donors. LFM-A13 was used to inhibit BTK. OPV Sabin type 1 and H1N1 influenza virus were used to stimulate MoDCs with RPMI as mock stimulation. The antiviral cytokine productions and phenotypic maturation of MoDCs were determined 24 h post-stimulation. OPV RNA was determined at 0, 6, 12, and 24 h post-stimulation.

Results

Upon OPV stimulation, IFN-α2, IFN-β, and IFN-λ1 productions in MoDCs from XLA patients and BTK-inhibited MoDCs of healthy controls were significantly lower than that from healthy controls. Whereas upon H1N1 stimulation, the IFN-α2, IFN-β, and IFN-λ1 productions were similar in MoDCs from XLA patients, BTK-inhibited MoDCs of healthy controls and healthy controls. The mean fluorescent intensities (MFI) of CD83, CD86, and MHC-II in MoDCs from XLA patients in response to OPV was similar to that in response to mock stimulation, while the MFI of CD83, CD86, and MHC-II were significantly higher in response to H1N1 stimulation than that in response to mock stimulation. Whereas, the MFI of CD83, CD86, and MHC-II in MoDCs of healthy controls were significantly higher in response to both OPV and H1N1 stimulation compared to that in response to mock stimulation.

Conclusion

Production of type I and III IFN in response to OPV was deficient in MoDCs from XLA patients, but was normal in response to H1N1 due to deficient BTK function. Moreover, phenotypic maturation of MoDCs from XLA patients was impaired in response to OPV but not to H1N1. These selective impairments may account for the unique susceptibility of XLA patients toward severe enterovirus infections.

Toll-Like Receptor Signaling Contributes to Proinflammatory Mediator Production in Localized Provoked Vulvodynia

OBJECTIVES

Localized provoked vulvodynia (LPV) afflicts approximately 8% of women in the United States and represents a huge financial, physical, and psychological burden. Women with LPV experience intense pain localized to the vulvar vestibule (area immediately surrounding vaginal opening). We have identified mechanisms involved in the development of LPV whereby vulvar fibroblasts respond to proinflammatory stimuli to perpetuate an inflammatory response that causes pain. However, these mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Therefore, we explored the role of toll-like receptors (TLRs), a class of innate immune receptors that rapidly respond to microbial assaults.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To determine whether TLRs are expressed by vulvar fibroblasts and whether these contribute to proinflammatory mediator production and pain in LPV, we examined TLR expression and innate immune responses in fibroblasts derived from painful vestibular regions compared with nonpainful external vulvar regions.

RESULTS

Human vulvar fibroblasts express functional TLRs that trigger production of inflammatory mediators associated with chronic pain. We focused on the TLR-7-imiquimod proinflammatory interaction, because imiquimod, a ligand of TLR-7, may exacerbate pain in women during treatment of human papillomavirus-associated disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Human vulvar fibroblasts express a broad spectrum of TLRs (a new finding). A significantly higher TLR-mediated proinflammatory response was observed in LPV case vestibular fibroblasts, and with respect to the imiquimod-TLR 7 interaction, development of chronic vestibular pain and inflammation may be a possible sequelae of treatment of vulvar human papillomavirus-associated disease. Suppressing enhanced TLR-associated innate immune responses to a spectrum of pathogen-associated molecular patterns may represent a new/effective therapeutic approach for vulvodynia.

Integrated Metabolomics and Network Pharmacology Approach to Explain Possible Action Mechanisms of Xin-Sheng-Hua Granule for Treating Anemia

As a well-known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescription, Xin-Sheng-Hua Granule (XSHG) has been applied in China for more than 30 years to treat postpartum diseases, especially anemia. However, underlying therapeutic mechanisms of XSHG for anemia were still unclear. In this study, plasma metabolomics profiling with UHPLC-QTOF/MS and multivariate data method was firstly analyzed to discover the potential regulation mechanisms of XSHG on anemia rats induced by bleeding from the orbit. Afterward, the compound-target-pathway network of XSHG was constructed by the use of network pharmacology, thus anemia-relevant signaling pathways were dissected. Finally, the crucial targets in the shared pathways of metabolomics and network pharmacology were experimentally validated by ELISA and Western Blot analysis. The results showed that XSHG could exert excellent effects on anemia probably through regulating coenzyme A biosynthesis, sphingolipids metabolism and HIF-1α pathways, which was reflected by the increased levels of EPOR, F2, COASY, as well as the reduced protein expression of HIF-1α, SPHK1, and S1PR1. Our work successfully explained the polypharmcological mechanisms underlying the efficiency of XSHG on treating anemia, and meanwhile, it probed into the potential treatment strategies for anemia from TCM prescription.

The Vitamin D3 analogue calcipotriol suppresses CpG-activated TLR9-MyD88 signalling in murine plasmacytoid dendritic cells

BACKGROUND

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are involved in the pathogenesis of psoriasis by secreting interferon-α. Vitamin D3 analogues are widely used to treat psoriasis, and the representative analogue calcipotriol (CAL) uniquely downregulates the cytokine production and chemotactic activity of pDCs. However, the molecular mechanism of action of CAL is not well understood.

AIM

To investigate effects of CAL on the Toll-like receptor 9-myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (TLR9-MyD88) signalling pathway, which induces cytokine production, in murine pDCs.

METHODS

pDCs were isolated from mouse spleen cells by negative selection or were generated from mouse bone-marrow cells, and were stimulated with CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) with or without CAL for 24 h. mRNA expression of TLR9 and MyD88 was assessed by real-time PCR, and the amount of TLR9 was measured by western blotting.

RESULTS

CAL suppressed the CpG-ODN-induced increased expression of MyD88 and TLR9 in pDCs.

CONCLUSIONS

CAL may downregulate pDCs by inhibiting TLR9-MyD88 signalling.

CqToll participates in antiviral response against white spot syndrome virus via induction of anti-lipopolysaccharide factor in red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus

It is well known that Tolls/Toll like receptors (TLRs), a family of pattern recognition receptors, play important roles in immune responses. Previously, we found that a Toll transcript was increased in a transcriptome library of haematopoietic tissue (Hpt) cells from the red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus post white spot syndrome virus infection. In the present study, a full-length cDNA sequence of Toll receptor (named as CqToll) was identified with 3482 bp which contained an open reading frame of 3021 bp encoding 1006 amino acids. The predicted structure of CqToll protein was composed of three domains, including an extracellular domain of 19 leucine-rich repeats residues, a transmembrane domain and an intracellular domain of 138 amino acids. Tissue distribution analysis revealed that CqToll was expressed widely in various tissues determined from red claw crayfish with highest expression in haemocyte but lowest expression in eyestalk. Importantly, significant lower expression of the anti-lipopolysacchride factor (CqALF), an antiviral antimicrobial peptide (AMP) in crustaceans, but not CqCrustin was observed after gene silencing of CqToll in crayfish Hpt cell cultures, indicating that the CqALF was likely to be positively regulated via Toll pathway in red claw crayfish. Furthermore, the transcription of both an immediate early gene and a late envelope protein gene VP28 of WSSV were clearly enhanced in Hpt cells if silenced with CqToll, suggesting that the increase of WSSV replication was likely to be caused by the lower expression of the CqALF resulted from the loss-of-function of CqToll. Taken together, these data implied that CqToll might play a key role in anti-WSSV response via induction of CqALF in a crustacean C. quadricarinatus.

Modeling DNA damage-induced pneumopathy in mice: insight from danger signaling cascades

Radiation-induced pneumonitis and fibrosis represent severe and dose-limiting side effects in the radiotherapy of thorax-associated neoplasms leading to decreased quality of life or - as a consequence of treatment with suboptimal radiation doses - to fatal outcomes by local recurrence or metastatic disease. It is assumed that the initial radiation-induced damage to the resident cells triggers a multifaceted damage-signalling cascade in irradiated normal tissues including a multifactorial secretory program. The resulting pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic microenvironment triggers a cascade of events that can lead within weeks to a pronounced lung inflammation (pneumonitis) or after months to excessive deposition of extracellular matrix molecules and tissue scarring (pulmonary fibrosis).The use of preclinical in vivo models of DNA damage-induced pneumopathy in genetically modified mice has helped to substantially advance our understanding of molecular mechanisms and signalling molecules that participate in the pathogenesis of radiation-induced adverse late effects in the lung. Herein, murine models of whole thorax irradiation or hemithorax irradiation nicely reproduce the pathogenesis of the human disease with respect to the time course and the clinical symptoms. Alternatively, treatment with the radiomimetic DNA damaging chemotherapeutic drug Bleomycin (BLM) has frequently been used as a surrogate model of radiation-induced lung disease. The advantage of the BLM model is that the symptoms of pneumonitis and fibrosis develop within 1 month.Here we summarize and discuss published data about the role of danger signalling in the response of the lung tissue to DNA damage and its cross-talk with the innate and adaptive immune systems obtained in preclinical studies using immune-deficient inbred mouse strains and genetically modified mice. Interestingly we observed differences in the role of molecules involved in damage sensing (TOLL-like receptors), damage signalling (MyD88) and immune regulation (cytokines, CD73, lymphocytes) for the pathogenesis and progression of DNA damage-induced pneumopathy between the models of pneumopathy induced by whole thorax irradiation or treatment with the radiomimetic drug BLM. These findings underline the importance to pursue studies in the radiation model(s) if we are to unravel the mechanisms driving radiation-induced adverse late effects.A better understanding of the cross-talk of danger perception and signalling with immune activation and repair mechanisms may allow a modulation of these processes to prevent or treat radiation-induced adverse effects. Vice-versa an improved knowledge of the normal tissue response to injury is also particularly important in view of the increasing interest in combining radiotherapy with immune checkpoint blockade or immunotherapies to avoid exacerbation of radiation-induced normal tissue toxicity.

Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: Current and Emerging Therapeutics

Primary immunodeficiency diseases (PID) result from defects in genes affecting the immune and other systems in many and varied ways (1, 2). Until the last few years, treatments have been largely supportive, with the exception of bone marrow transplantation. However, recent advances in immunobiology, genetics, and the explosion of discovery and commercialization of biologic modifiers have drastically altered the landscape and opportunities in clinical immunology. Therapeutic options and life expectancy of PID patients have also improved dramatically, in large part as a result of better prevention and treatment of infections as well as better understanding and treatment of autoimmune complications (3). As early-life infection-related mortality declines we should anticipate the emergence of other conditions that were previously not appreciated, including malignancies and degenerative disorders unmasked by increasing longevity (4). The genomic revolution has identified literally hundreds of new genetic etiologies of immune dysfunction, many of which are or will soon be eligible for targeted therapies. These emerging immunomodulatory agents represent new therapeutic options in PIDs (5).

Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

Pharmacological regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) responses holds great promise in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. However, there have been limited compounds available so far to attenuate TLR signaling and there have been no clinically approved TLR inhibitors (except the anti-malarial drug hydroxychloroquine) in clinical use. In light of rapid advances in nanotechnology, manipulation of immune responsiveness using nano-devices may provide a new strategy to treat these diseases. Herein, we present a high throughput screening method for quickly identifying novel bioactive nanoparticles that inhibit TLR signaling in phagocytic immune cells. This screening platform is built on THP-1 cell-based reporter cells with colorimetric and luciferase assays. The reporter cells are engineered from the human THP-1 monocytic cell line by stable integration of two inducible reporter constructs. One expresses a secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) gene under the control of a promoter inducible by the transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1, and the other expresses a secreted luciferase reporter gene under the control of promoters inducible by interferon regulatory factors (IRFs).Upon TLR stimulation, the reporter cells activate transcription factors and subsequently produce SEAP and/or luciferase, which can be detected using their corresponding substrate reagents. Using a library of peptide-gold nanoparticle (GNP) hybrids established in our previous studies as an example, we identified one peptide-GNP hybrid that could effectively inhibit the two arms of TLR4 signaling cascade triggered by its prototypical ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The findings were validated by standard biochemical techniques including immunoblotting. Further analysis established that this lead hybrid had a broad inhibitory spectrum, acting on multiple TLR pathways, including TLR2, 3, 4, and 5. This experimental approach allows a rapid assessment of whether a nanoparticle (or other therapeutic compounds) can modulate specific TLR signaling in phagocytic immune cells.

Epilepsy surgery for epileptic encephalopathy as a sequela of herpes simplex encephalitis: case report

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis can manifest with different clinical presentations, including acute monophasic illness and biphasic chronic granulomatous HSV encephalitis. Chronic encephalitis is much less common, and very rare late relapses are associated with intractable epilepsy and progressive neurological deficits with or without evidence of HSV in the cerebrospinal fluid. The authors report on an 8-year-old girl with a history of treated HSV-1 encephalitis when she was 13 months of age and focal epilepsy when she was 2 years old. Although free of clinical seizures, when she was 5, she experienced behavioral and academic dysfunction, which was later attributed to electrographic focal seizures and worsening electroencephalography (EEG) findings with electrical status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep (ESES). Following a right temporal lobectomy, chronic granulomatous encephalitis was diagnosed. The patient's clinical course improved with the resolution of seizures and EEG abnormalities.

Salvia miltiorrhiza polysaccharide activates T Lymphocytes of cancer patients through activation of TLRs mediated -MAPK and -NF-κB signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia miltiorrhiza polysaccharide (SMP) is one of the most important components in the water extract of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, which has been mainly applied for the prevention or treatment of ischemic encephalopathy and cardiac diseases including myocardial infarction and coronary heart diseases in clinical practice.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our object is to investigate the immune regulation effects of SMP, specifically on the proliferation and cytotoxicity of T lymphocytes through MAPK and NF-κB pathway in peripheral blood of cancer patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SMP was prepared through refluxing with ethanol, refluxing with water, Sevage treatment and ethanol precipitation. The lymphocytes were obtained from the peripheral blood of cancer patients. The effect of SMP on T lymphocyte proliferation was investigated by cell counting and flow cytometry. The effect of SMP on the proliferation of cancer cell lines A549, hepG2 and HCT116 was examined by MTT assay. The cytotoxic activity of T lymphocytes treated with SMP was detected by Calcein-acetoxymethyl (Calcein-AM) release. The gene expression of IL-4, IL-6, IFN-γ and toll like receptors (TLRs) was detected by semi-quantitative PCR. The protein expression of mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway were detected by western blotting. To further verify whether SMP functions through the indicated pathways,, T lymphocytes were treated with SMP and an extracellular regulated protein kinase (ERK) inhibitor (U0126), a c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor (SP600125) or an inhibitor of NF-κB inhibitor-α (IκBα) (BAY11-7082), respectively. After 24 h co-treatment, the expressions of p-JNK, p-ERK, IκBα, inhibitory kappa B kinase α (IKKα) and inhibitory kappa B kinase β (IKKβ) protein were detected by western blotting, meanwhile cell numbers of T lymphocytes after inhibition were calculated again by cell counter.

RESULTS

SMP dose-dependently promoted the proliferation of T lymphocytes of the cancer patients and significantly improved the cytotoxicity of T lymphocytes against cancer cells. However, SMP showed no effect on the proliferation of the tumor cells from the same source. Furthermore, the gene expression of cytokines including IL-4, IL-6 and IFN-γ were also up-regulated. Moreover, SMP enhanced gene expression of TLR1, TLR2 and TLR4; elevated protein expression of p-JNK and p-ERK; increased protein expression of IKKα, and IKKβ and decreased IκBα levels. Meanwhile, knockdown of ERK、JNK or IκBα expression with specific inhibitor significantly depressed the proliferation of T lymphocytes treated with SMP, corroborating the specific regulation effect of SMP on T lymphocytes through MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

SMP specifically promotes the proliferation and enhances cytotoxicity of T lymphocytes in peripheral blood of cancer patients through activation of TLRs mediated -MAPK and -NF-κB signaling pathways.

An Update on the Use of Immunomodulators in Primary Immunodeficiencies

The genomic revolution in the past decade fuelled by breathtaking advances in sequencing technologies has defined several new genetic diseases of the immune system. Many of these newly characterized diseases are a result of defects in genes involved in immune regulation. The discovery of these diseases has opened a vista of new therapeutic possibilities. Immunomodulatory agents, a hitherto unexplored therapeutic option in primary immunodeficiency diseases have been tried in a host of these newly described maladies. These agents have been shown conclusively to favorably modulate immune responses, resulting in abatement of clinical manifestations both in experimental models and patients. While some of the treatment options have been approved for therapeutic use or have been shown to be of merit in open-label trials, others have been shown to be efficacious in a handful of clinical cases, animal models, and cell lines. Interferon γ is approved for use in chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) to reduce the burden of infection and and has a good long-term efficacy. Recombinant human IL7 therapy has been shown increase the peripheral CD4 and CD8 T cell counts in patients with idiopathic CD4. Anti-IL1 agents are approved for the management of cryopyrin-related autoinflammatory syndrome, and their therapeutic efficacy is being increasingly recognized in other autoinflammatory syndromes and CGD. Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors have been proven useful in autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) and in IPEX syndrome. Therapies reported to be potential use in case reports include abatacept in CTLA4 haploinsufficiency and LRBA deficiency, ruxolitinib in gain-of-function STAT1, tocilizumab in gain-of-function STAT3 defect, mTOR inhibitors in PIK3CD activation, magnesium in XMEN syndrome, and pioglitazone in CGD. Treatment options of merit in human cell lines include interferon α and interferon β in TLR3 and UNC-93B deficiencies, anti-interferon therapy in SAVI, and Rho-kinase inhibitors in TTC7A deficiency. Anti-IL17 agents have show efficacy in animal models of leukocyte adhesion defect (LAD) and ALPS. This topical review explores the use of various immunomodulators and other biological agents in the context of primary immunodeficiency and autoinflammatory diseases.

Microbiome and food allergy

Food allergy is a common disease affecting approximately 8% of children and 5% of adults. The prevalence has increased over the last two decades, suggesting an important environmental contribution to susceptibility. Studies have identified mode of birth, pet exposure, and having older siblings as being significant risk modifying factors in the development of food allergy. With the discovery that these factors significantly impact the composition of the intestinal microbiome, which is known to play a critical role in shaping the immune system, recent studies have begun to address the role of the intestinal microbiota in the development of food allergy. Studies in human cohorts support a dysbiosis in food allergy, and limited data suggest that this dysbiosis occurs early in life, preceding the onset of sensitization. Studies from animal models have clearly shown that the composition of the intestinal microbiota confers susceptibility to food allergy, and that there are organisms such as Clostridia species that are protective in the development of food allergy. Our understanding of microbial regulation of food allergy is in its nascency, but the state of the field supports an important contribution of intestinal microbes to susceptibility. Challenges going forward are to identify commensal-derived microorganisms that could be used therapeutically to prevent or perhaps treat food allergy.

Chemokine, cytokine and type I interferon production induced by Toll-like receptor activation in common variable immune deficiency

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most common symptomatic primary antibody deficiency and is associated with recurrent infections and chronic inflammatory diseases. We evaluated the ability of Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands to induce secretion of chemokines, cytokines and type I interferons by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from CVID patients. High levels of CXCL10, CCL2, CXCL9, CCL5, CXCL8, and IL-6 were detected in sera of CVID patients compared with healthy controls. Increased chemokine levels were observed in unstimulated PBMCs, but after stimulation with TLR2 and TLR4 agonists, equivalent chemokine and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, as in healthy controls, was observed, whereas TLR4 agonist induced a decreased secretion of CCL2 and CXCL8 and increased secretion of TNF. Decreased IFN-α secretion induced by TLR7/TLR8 activation was observed in CVID, which was recovered with TLR9 signaling. Our findings revealed that TLR9 activation has an adjuvant effect on the altered type I response in CVID.