Three distinct muscarinic signalling pathways for cationic channel activation in mouse gut smooth muscle cells

Molecular mechanisms of cholinergic neurotransmission in visceral smooth muscles with a focus on receptor-operated TRPC4 channel and impairment of gastrointestinal motility by general anaesthetics and anxiolytics

Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in visceral smooth muscles, wherein it binds to and activates two muscarinic receptors subtypes, M2 and M3, thus causing smooth muscle excitation and contraction. The first part of this review focuses on the types of cells involved in cholinergic neurotransmission and on the molecular mechanisms underlying acetylcholine-induced membrane depolarisation, which is the central event of excitation-contraction coupling causing Ca2+ entry via L-type Ca2+ channels and smooth muscle contraction. Studies of the muscarinic cation current in intestinal myocytes (mICAT) revealed its main molecular counterpart, receptor-operated TRPC4 channel, which is activated in synergy by both M2 and M3 receptors. M3 receptors activation is of permissive nature, while activation of M2 receptors via Gi/o proteins that are coupled to them plays a direct role in TRPC4 opening. Our understanding of signalling pathways underlying mICAT generation has vastly expanded in recent years through studies of TRPC4 gating in native cells and its regulation in heterologous cells. Recent studies using muscarinic receptor knockout have established that at low agonist concentration activation of both M2 receptor and the M2/M3 receptor complex elicits smooth muscle contraction, while at high agonist concentration M3 receptor function becomes dominant. Based on this knowledge, in the second part of this review we discuss the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the numerous anticholinergic effects on neuroactive drugs, in particular general anaesthetics and anxiolytics, which can significantly impair gastrointestinal motility. This article is part of the Special Issue on "Ukrainian Neuroscience".

General anaesthesia-related complications of gut motility with a focus on cholinergic mechanisms, TRP channels and visceral pain

General anesthesia produces multiple side effects. Notably, it temporarily impairs gastrointestinal motility following surgery and causes the so-called postoperative ileus (POI), a multifactorial and complex condition that develops secondary to neuromuscular failure and mainly affects the small intestine. There are currently limited medication options for POI, reflecting a lack of comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved in this complex condition. Notably, although acetylcholine is one of the major neurotransmitters initiating excitation-contraction coupling in the gut, cholinergic stimulation by prokinetic drugs is not very efficient in case of POI. Acetylcholine when released from excitatory motoneurones of the enteric nervous system binds to and activates M2 and M3 types of muscarinic receptors in smooth muscle myocytes. Downstream of these G protein-coupled receptors, muscarinic cation TRPC4 channels act as the major focal point of receptor-mediated signal integration, causing membrane depolarisation accompanied by action potential discharge and calcium influx via L-type Ca²⁺ channels for myocyte contraction. We have recently found that both inhalation (isoflurane) and intravenous (ketamine) anesthetics significantly inhibit this muscarinic cation current (termed mI _CAT) in ileal myocytes, even when G proteins are activated directly by intracellular GTPγS, i.e., bypassing muscarinic receptors. Here we aim to summarize Transient Receptor Potential channels and calcium signalling-related aspects of the cholinergic mechanisms in the gut and visceral pain, discuss exactly how these may be negatively impacted by general anaesthetics, while proposing the receptor-operated TRPC4 channel as a novel molecular target for the treatment of POI.

Molecular architecture of the Gαi-bound TRPC5 ion channel

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and ion channels serve as key molecular switches through which extracellular stimuli are transformed into intracellular effects, and it has long been postulated that ion channels are direct effector molecules of the alpha subunit of G-proteins (Gα). However, no complete structural evidence supporting the direct interaction between Gα and ion channels is available. Here, we present the cryo-electron microscopy structures of the human transient receptor potential canonical 5 (TRPC5)-Gαi3 complexes with a 4:4 stoichiometry in lipid nanodiscs. Remarkably, Gαi3 binds to the ankyrin repeat edge of TRPC5 ~ 50 Å away from the cell membrane. Electrophysiological analysis shows that Gαi3 increases the sensitivity of TRPC5 to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), thereby rendering TRPC5 more easily opened in the cell membrane, where the concentration of PIP2 is physiologically regulated. Our results demonstrate that ion channels are one of the direct effector molecules of Gα proteins triggered by GPCR activation-providing a structural framework for unraveling the crosstalk between two major classes of transmembrane proteins: GPCRs and ion channels.

Contribution of Postjunctional M2 Muscarinic Receptors to Cholinergic Nerve-Mediated Contractions of Murine Airway Smooth Muscle

Postjunctional M2Rs on airway smooth muscle (ASM) outnumber M3Rs by a ratio of 4:1 in most species, however, it is the M3Rs that are thought to mediate the bronchoconstrictor effects of acetylcholine. In this study, we describe a novel and profound M2R-mediated hypersensitization of M3R-dependent contractions of ASM at low stimulus frequencies.. Contractions induced by 2Hz EFS were augmented by > 2.5-fold when the stimulus interval was reduced from 100 to 10 s. This effect was reversed by the M2R antagonists, methoctramine, and AFDX116, and was absent in M2R null mice. The M3R antagonist 4-DAMP abolished the entire response in both WT and M2R KO mice. The M2R-mediated potentiation of EFS-induced contractions was not observed when the stimulus frequency was increased to 20 Hz. A subthreshold concentration of carbachol enhanced the amplitude of EFS-evoked contractions in WT, but not M2R null mice. These data highlight a significant M2R-mediated potentiation of M3R-dependent contractions of ASM at low frequency stimulation that could be relevant in diseases such as asthma and COPD.

Functions of Muscarinic Receptor Subtypes in Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle: A Review of Studies with Receptor-Knockout Mice

Parasympathetic signalling via muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) regulates gastrointestinal smooth muscle function. In most instances, the mAChR population in smooth muscle consists mainly of M2 and M3 subtypes in a roughly 80% to 20% mixture. Stimulation of these mAChRs triggers a complex array of biochemical and electrical events in the cell via associated G proteins, leading to smooth muscle contraction and facilitating gastrointestinal motility. Major signalling events induced by mAChRs include adenylyl cyclase inhibition, phosphoinositide hydrolysis, intracellular Ca2+ mobilisation, myofilament Ca2+ sensitisation, generation of non-selective cationic and chloride currents, K+ current modulation, inhibition or potentiation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ currents and membrane depolarisation. A lack of ligands with a high degree of receptor subtype selectivity and the frequent contribution of multiple receptor subtypes to responses in the same cell type have hampered studies on the signal transduction mechanisms and functions of individual mAChR subtypes. Therefore, novel strategies such as genetic manipulation are required to elucidate both the contributions of specific AChR subtypes to smooth muscle function and the underlying molecular mechanisms. In this article, we review recent studies on muscarinic function in gastrointestinal smooth muscle using mAChR subtype-knockout mice.

Analysis of interaction between intracellular spermine and transient receptor potential canonical 4 channel: multiple candidate sites of negatively charged amino acids for the inward rectification of transient receptor potential canonical 4

Transient receptor potential canonical 4 (TRPC4) channel is a nonselective calcium-permeable cation channels. In intestinal smooth muscle cells, TRPC4 currents contribute more than 80% to muscarinic cationic current (mIcat). With its inward-rectifying current-voltage relationship and high calcium permeability, TRPC4 channels permit calcium influx once the channel is opened by muscarinic receptor stimulation. Polyamines are known to inhibit nonselective cation channels that mediate the generation of mIcat. Moreover, it is reported that TRPC4 channels are blocked by the intracellular spermine through electrostatic interaction with glutamate residues (E728, E729). Here, we investigated the correlation between the magnitude of channel inactivation by spermine and the magnitude of channel conductance. We also found additional spermine binding sites in TRPC4. We evaluated channel activity with electrophysiological recordings and revalidated structural significance based on Cryo-EM structure, which was resolved recently. We found that there is no correlation between magnitude of inhibitory action of spermine and magnitude of maximum current of the channel. In intracellular region, TRPC4 attracts spermine at channel periphery by reducing access resistance, and acidic residues contribute to blocking action of intracellular spermine; channel periphery, E649; cytosolic space, D629, D649, and E687.

Structure-Function Relationship and Physiological Roles of Transient Receptor Potential Canonical (TRPC) 4 and 5 Channels

The study of the structure–function relationship of ion channels has been one of the most challenging goals in contemporary physiology. Revelation of the three-dimensional (3D) structure of ion channels has facilitated our understanding of many of the submolecular mechanisms inside ion channels, such as selective permeability, voltage dependency, agonist binding, and inter-subunit multimerization. Identifying the structure–function relationship of the ion channels is clinically important as well since only such knowledge can imbue potential therapeutics with practical possibilities. In a sense, recent advances in the understanding of the structure–relationship of transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels look promising since human TRPC channels are calcium-permeable, non-selective cation channels expressed in many tissues such as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, kidney, heart, vasculature, and brain. TRPC channels are known to regulate GI contractility and motility, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy, podocyte injury, seizure, fear, anxiety-like behavior, and many others. In this article, we tried to elaborate recent findings of Cryo-EM (cryogenic-electron microscopy) based structural information of TRPC 4 and 5 channels and domain-specific functions of the channel, such as G-protein mediated activation mechanism, extracellular modification of the channel, homo/hetero-tetramerization, and pharmacological gating mechanisms.

Further characterization of the synergistic activation mechanism of cationic channels by M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors in mouse intestinal smooth muscle cells

In mouse ileal myocytes, muscarinic receptor-mediated cationic current (mI_cat) occurs mainly through synergism of M₂ and M₃ subtypes involving G_i/o-type GTP-binding proteins and phospholipase C (PLC). We have further studied the M₂/M₃ synergistic pathway. Carbachol-induced mI_cat was markedly depressed by YM-254890, a G_q/11 protein inhibitor. However, the mI_cat was unaffected by heparin, calphostin C, or chelerythrine, suggesting that mI_cat activation does not involve signaling molecules downstream of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) breakdown. M₂-knockout (KO) mice displayed a reduced mI_cat (~10% of wild-type mI_cat) because of the lack of M₂-G_i/o signaling. The impaired mI_cat was insensitive to neuropeptide Y possessing a G_i/o-stimulating activity. M₃-KO mice also displayed a reduced mI_cat (~6% of wild-type mI_cat) because of the lack of M₃-G_q/11 signaling, and the mI_cat was insensitive to prostaglandin F_2α possessing a G_q/11-stimulating activity. These results suggest the importance of G_q/11/PLC-hydrolyzed PIP₂ breakdown itself in mI_cat activation and also support the idea that the M₂/M₃ synergistic pathway represents a signaling complex consisting of M₂-G_i/o and M₃-G_q/11-PLC systems in which both G proteins are special for this pathway but not general in receptor coupling.

TRPC1 as a negative regulator for TRPC4 and TRPC5 channels

Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are calcium permeable, non-selective cation channels with wide tissue-specific distribution. Among 7 TRPC channels, TRPC 1/4/5 and TRPC3/6/7 are subdivided based on amino acid sequence homology. TRPC4 and TRPC5 channels exhibit cationic current with homotetrameric form, but they also form heterotetrameric channel such as TRPC1/4 or TRPC1/5 once TRPC1 is incorporated. The expression of TRPC1 is ubiquitous whereas the expressions of TRPC4 and TRPC5 are rather focused in nervous system. With the help of conditional knock-out of TPRC1, 4 and/or 5 genes, TRPC channels made of these constituents are reported to be involved in various pathophysiological functions such as seizure, anxiety-like behaviour, fear, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease and many others. In heterologous expression system, many issues such as activation mechanism, stoichiometry and relative cation permeabilites of homomeric or heteromeric channels have been addressed. In this review, we discussed the role of TRPC1 channel per se in plasma membrane, role of TRPC1 in heterotetrameric conformation (TRPC1/4 or TRPC1/5) and relationship between TRPC1/4/5 channels, calcium influx and voltage-gated calcium channels.

Involvement of transient receptor potential melastatin 4 channels in the resting membrane potential setting and cholinergic contractile responses in mouse detrusor and ileal smooth muscles

Here, we investigated the effects of 9-hydroxyphenanthrene (9-phenanthrol), a potent and selective transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) channel blocker, on the resting membrane potential and cholinergic contractile responses to elucidate the functional role of TRPM4 channels in the contractile activities of mouse detrusor and ileal longitudinal smooth muscles. We observed that, 9-phenanthrol (3-30 µM) did not significantly inhibit high K⁺-induced contractions in both preparations; however, 9-phenanthrol (10 µM) strongly inhibited cholinergic contractions evoked by electrical field stimulation in detrusor preparations compared to inhibitions in ileal preparations. 9-Phenanthrol (10 µM) significantly inhibited the muscarinic agonist, carbachol-induced contractile responses and slowed the maximum upstroke velocities of the contraction in detrusor preparations. However, the agent (10 µM) did not inhibit the contractions due to intracellular Ca²⁺ release evoked by carbachol, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of 9-phenanthrol may primarily be due to the inhibition of the membrane depolarization process incurred by TRPM4 channels. On the other hand, 9-phenanthrol (10 µM) did not affect carbachol-induced contractile responses in ileal preparations. Further, 9-phenanthrol (10 µM) significantly hyperpolarized the resting membrane potential and decreased the basal tone in both detrusor and ileal muscle preparations. Taken together, our results suggest that TRPM4 channels are constitutively active and are involved in setting of the resting membrane potential, thereby regulating the basal tone in detrusor and ileal smooth muscles. Thus, TRPM4 channels play a significant role in cholinergic signaling in detrusor, but not ileal, smooth muscles.

Muscarinic suppression of ATP-sensitive K+ channels mediated by the M3/Gq/11/phospholipase C pathway contributes to mouse ileal smooth muscle contractions

ATP-sensitive K⁺ (K_ATP) channels are expressed in gastrointestinal smooth muscles, and their activity is regulated by muscarinic receptor stimulation. However, the physiological significance and mechanisms of muscarinic regulation of K_ATP channels are not fully understood. We examined the effects of the K_ATP channel opener cromakalim and the K_ATP channel blocker glibenclamide on electrical activity of single mouse ileal myocytes and on mechanical activity in ileal segment preparations. To explore muscarinic regulation of K_ATP channel activity and its underlying mechanisms, the effect of carbachol (CCh) on cromakalim-induced K_ATP channel currents ( I_KATP) was studied in myocytes of M₂ or M₃ muscarinic receptor-knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice. Cromakalim (10 µM) induced membrane hyperpolarization in single myocytes and relaxation in segment preparations from WT mice, whereas glibenclamide (10 µM) caused membrane depolarization and contraction. CCh (100 µM) induced sustained suppression of I_KATP in cells from both WT and M₂KO mice. However, CCh had a minimal effect on I_KATP in M₃KO and M₂/M₃ double-KO cells. The G_q/11 inhibitor YM-254890 (10 μM) and PLC inhibitor U73122 (1 μM), but not the PKC inhibitor calphostin C (1 μM), markedly decreased CCh-induced suppression of I_KATP in WT cells. These results indicated that K_ATP channels are constitutively active and contribute to the setting of resting membrane potential in mouse ileal smooth muscles. M₃ receptors inhibit the activity of these channels via a G_q/11/PLC-dependent but PKC-independent pathways, thereby contributing to membrane depolarization and contraction of smooth muscles. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We systematically investigated the regulation of ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels by muscarinic receptors expressed on mouse ileal smooth muscles. We found that M₃ receptors inhibit the activity of ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels via a G_q/11/PLC-dependent, but PKC-independent, pathway. This muscarinic suppression of ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels contributes to membrane depolarization and contraction of smooth muscles.

Possible antagonistic effects of the TRPC4 channel blocker ML204 on M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors in mouse ileal and detrusor smooth muscles and atrial myocardium

ML204, a potent transient receptor potential canonical 4 (TRPC4) channel blocker, is often used to elucidate the involvement of TRPC4 channels in receptor-operated signaling processes in visceral smooth muscles. In the present study, we investigated the possible antagonistic actions of ML204 on M₂ and M₃ muscarinic receptors, which mediate contractions in mouse ileal and detrusor smooth muscles. In ileal and detrusor smooth muscle preparations, ML204 (3 or 10 µM) significantly inhibited electrical field stimulation (EFS)-evoked cholinergic contractions. However, it did not significantly inhibit high K⁺-induced and EFS-evoked non-cholinergic contractions in the ileal preparations. When the muscarinic agonist, carbachol was cumulatively applied, ML204 (1, 3 and 10 µM) caused a rightward parallel shift of the concentration-response curves of carbachol. Additionally, ML204 (1, 3 and 10 µM) inhibited carbachol-induced negative chronotropic response in atrial preparations, which is mediated by M₂ muscarinic receptors. Furthermore, ML204 significantly inhibited the contractions evoked by carbachol-induced intracellular Ca²⁺ release, which is mediated by M₃ muscarinic receptors. These results suggested that ML204 might exhibit antagonistic actions on M₂ and M₃ muscarinic receptors; in addition, the inhibitory effects of ML204 against EFS-induced cholinergic contractions might be attributed to this receptor antagonism rather than inhibition of TRPC4 channel activity. Therefore, these effects should be considered when ML204 is used as a TRPC4 channel blocker.

Intracellular spermine blocks TRPC4 channel via electrostatic interaction with C-terminal negative amino acids

Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) 4 channels are calcium-permeable, nonselective cation channels and are widely expressed in mammalian tissue, especially in the GI tract and brain. TRPC4 channels are known to be involved in neurogenic contraction of ileal smooth muscle cells via generating cationic current after muscarinic stimulation (muscarinic cationic current (mIcat)). Polyamines exist in numerous tissues and are believed to be involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, scar formation, wound healing, and carcinogenesis. Besides, physiological polyamines are essential to maintain inward rectification of cardiac potassium channels (Kir2.1). At membrane potentials more positive than equilibrium potential, intracellular polyamines plug the cytosolic surface of the Kir2.1 so that potassium ions cannot pass through the pore. Recently, it was reported that polyamines inhibit not only cardiac potassium channels but also nonselective cation channels that mediate the generation of mIcat. Here, we report that TRPC4, a definite mIcat mediator, is inhibited by intracellular spermine with great extent. The inhibition was specific to TRPC4 and TRPC5 channels but was not effective to TRPC1/4, TRPC1/5, and TRPC3 channels. For this inhibition to occur, we found that glutamates at 728th and 729th position of TRPC4 channels are essential whereby we conclude that spermine blocks the TRPC4 channel with electrostatic interaction between negative amino acids at the C-terminus of the channel.

Inhibitory effects of SKF96365 on the activities of K(+) channels in mouse small intestinal smooth muscle cells

In order to investigate the effects of SKF96365 (SKF), which is a non-selective cationic channel blocker, on K⁺ channel currents, we recorded currents through ATP sensitive K⁺ (I_KATP), voltage-gated K⁺ (I_Kv) and Ca²⁺ activated K⁺ channels (I_BK) in the absence and presence of SKF in single small intestinal myocytes of mice with patch-clamp techniques. SKF (10 µM) reversibly abolished I_KATP that was induced by cromakalim (10 µM), which is a selective ATP sensitive K⁺ channel opener. These inhibitory effects were induced in a concentration-dependent and voltage-independent manner. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was 0.85 µM, which was obviously lower than that reported for the muscarinic cationic current. In addition, SKF (1 µM ≈ the IC₅₀ value in I_KATP suppression) reversibly inhibited the I_Kv that was induced by repetitive depolarizing pulses from −80 to 20 mV. However, the extent of the inhibitory effects was only ~30%. In contrast, SKF (1 µM) had no significant effects on spontaneous transient I_BK and caffeine-induced I_BK. These results indicated that SKF inhibited ATP sensitive K⁺ channels and voltage-gated K⁺ channels, with the ATP sensitive K⁺ channels being more sensitive than the voltage-gated K⁺ channels. These inhibitory effects on K⁺ channels should be considered when SKF is used as a cationic channel blocker.

Functional alterations in gut contractility after connexin36 ablation and evidence for gap junctions forming electrical synapses between nitrergic enteric neurons

Neurons in the enteric nervous system utilize numerous neurotransmitters to orchestrate rhythmic gut smooth muscle contractions. We examined whether electrical synapses formed by gap junctions containing connexin36 also contribute to communication between enteric neurons in mouse colon. Spontaneous contractility properties and responses to electrical field stimulation and cholinergic agonist were altered in gut from connexin36 knockout vs. wild-type mice. Immunofluorescence revealed punctate labelling of connexin36 that was localized at appositions between somata of enteric neurons immunopositive for the enzyme nitric oxide synthase. There is indication for a possible functional role of gap junctions between inhibitory nitrergic enteric neurons.

TRPC4- and TRPC4-containing channels

TRPC4 proteins comprise six transmembrane domains, a putative pore-forming region, and an intracellularly located amino- and carboxy-terminus. Among eleven splice variants identified so far, TRPC4α and TRPC4β are the most abundantly expressed and functionally characterized. TRPC4 is expressed in various organs and cell types including the soma and dendrites of numerous types of neurons; the cardiovascular system including endothelial, smooth muscle, and cardiac cells; myometrial and skeletal muscle cells; kidney; and immune cells such as mast cells. Both recombinant and native TRPC4-containing channels differ tremendously in their permeability and other biophysical properties, pharmacological modulation, and mode of activation depending on the cellular environment. They vary from inwardly rectifying store-operated channels with a high Ca(2+) selectivity to non-store-operated channels predominantly carrying Na(+) and activated by Gαq- and/or Gαi-coupled receptors with a complex U-shaped current-voltage relationship. Thus, individual TRPC4-containing channels contribute to agonist-induced Ca(2+) entry directly or indirectly via depolarization and activation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. The differences in channel properties may arise from variations in the composition of the channel complexes, in the specific regulatory pathways in the corresponding cell system, and/or in the expression pattern of interaction partners which comprise other TRPC proteins to form heteromultimeric channels. Additional interaction partners of TRPC4 that can mediate the activity of TRPC4-containing channels include (1) scaffolding proteins (e.g., NHERF) that may mediate interactions with signaling molecules in or in close vicinity to the plasma membrane such as Gα proteins or phospholipase C and with the cytoskeleton, (2) proteins in specific membrane microdomains (e.g., caveolin-1), or (3) proteins on cellular organelles (e.g., Stim1). The diversity of TRPC4-containing channels hampers the development of specific agonists or antagonists, but recently, ML204 was identified as a blocker of both recombinant and endogenous TRPC4-containing channels with an IC50 in the lower micromolar range that lacks activity on most voltage-gated channels and other TRPs except TRPC5 and TRPC3. Lanthanides are specific activators of heterologously expressed TRPC4- and TRPC5-containing channels but can block individual native TRPC4-containing channels. The biological relevance of TRPC4-containing channels was demonstrated by knockdown of TRPC4 expression in numerous native systems including gene expression, cell differentiation and proliferation, formation of myotubes, and axonal regeneration. Studies of TRPC4 single and TRPC compound knockout mice uncovered their role for the regulation of vascular tone, endothelial permeability, gastrointestinal contractility and motility, neurotransmitter release, and social exploratory behavior as well as for excitotoxicity and epileptogenesis. Recently, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the Trpc4 gene was associated with a reduced risk for experience of myocardial infarction.

Activation of TRPC4β by Gαi subunit increases Ca2+ selectivity and controls neurite morphogenesis in cultured hippocampal neuron

The ubiquitous transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels function as non-selective, Ca(2+)-permeable channels. TRPC channels are activated by stimulation of Gαq-PLC-coupled receptors. Here, we report that TRPC4/TRPC5 can be activated by Gαi. We studied the essential role of Gαi subunits in TRPC4 activation and investigated changes in ion selectivity and pore dilation of the TRPC4 channel elicited by the Gαi2 subunit. Activation of TRPC4 by Gαi2 increased Ca2+ permeability and Ca2+ influx through TRPC4 channels. Co-expression of the muscarinic receptor (M2) and TRPC4 in HEK293 cells induced TRPC4-mediated Ca2+ influx. Moreover, both TRPC4β and the TRPC4β-Gαi2 signaling complex induced inhibition of neurite growth and arborization in cultured hippocampal neurons. Cells treated with KN-93, a CaMKII inhibitor, prevented TRPC4- and TRPC4-Gαi2(Q205L)-mediated inhibition of neurite branching and growth. These findings indicate an essential role of Gαi proteins in TRPC4 activation and extend our knowledge of the functional role of TRPC4 in hippocampal neurons.

Evidence for M2 and M3 muscarinic receptor involvement in cholinergic excitatory junction potentials through synergistic activation of cation channels in the longitudinal muscle of mouse ileum

Cholinergic nerve-mediated excitatory junction potentials (EJPs) in the longitudinal muscle of mouse ileum were characterized by using M2 or M3 muscarinic receptor-knockout (KO) mice and 1-[β-[3-(4-methoxyphenyl) propoxy]-4-methoxyphenethyl]-1H-imidazole hydrochloride (SK&F 96365) and pertussis toxin (PTX). EJPs evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS) in wild-type preparations, initially determined to be cholinergic in origin using tetrodotoxin, atropine, and eserine, were profoundly depressed after SK&F 96365 treatment known to block muscarinic receptor-operated cation channels. A similar depression of the EJPs was also observed by PTX treatment, which is predicted to disrupt M2-mediated pathways linked to cation channel activation. In M2-KO mouse preparations, cholinergic EJPs were evoked by EFS with their relative amplitude of 20%-30% to the wild-type EJP and strongly inhibited by SK&F 96365. No cholinergic EJP was seen in M3-KO as well as M2/M3 double-KO preparations. The results suggest that the wild-type cholinergic EJP is not a simple mixture of M2 and M3 responses, but due to synergistic activation of cation channels by both M2 and M3 receptors in the murine ileal longitudinal muscle.

Muscarinic agonists and antagonists: effects on gastrointestinal function

Muscarinic agonists and antagonists are used to treat a handful of gastrointestinal (GI) conditions associated with impaired salivary secretion or altered motility of GI smooth muscle. With regard to exocrine secretion, the major muscarinic receptor expressed in salivary, gastric, and pancreatic glands is the M₃ with a small contribution of the M₁ receptor. In GI smooth muscle, the major muscarinic receptors expressed are the M₂ and M₃ with the M₂ outnumbering the M₃ by a ratio of at least four to one. The antagonism of both smooth muscle contraction and exocrine secretion is usually consistent with an M₃ receptor mechanism despite the major presence of the M₂ receptor in smooth muscle. These results are consistent with the conditional role of the M₂ receptor in smooth muscle. That is, the contractile role of the M₂ receptor depends on that of the M₃ so that antagonism of the M₃ receptor eliminates the response of the M₂. The physiological roles of muscarinic receptors in the GI tract are consistent with their known signaling mechanisms. Some so-called tissue-selective M₃ antagonists may owe their selectivity to a highly potent interaction with a nonmuscarinic receptor target.

Selective Gαi subunits as novel direct activators of transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC)4 and TRPC5 channels

The ubiquitous transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels function as non-selective, Ca(2+)-permeable channels and mediate numerous cellular functions. It is commonly assumed that TRPC channels are activated by stimulation of Gα(q)-PLC-coupled receptors. However, whether the Gα(q)-PLC pathway is the main regulator of TRPC4/5 channels and how other Gα proteins may regulate these channels are poorly understood. We previously reported that TRPC4/TRPC5 can be activated by Gα(i). In the current work, we found that Gα(i) subunits, rather than Gα(q), are the primary and direct activators of TRPC4 and TRPC5. We report a novel molecular mechanism in which TRPC4 is activated by several Gα(i) subunits, most prominently by Gα(i2), and TRPC5 is activated primarily by Gα(i3). Activation of Gα(i) by the muscarinic M2 receptors or expression of the constitutively active Gα(i) mutants equally and fully activates the channels. Moreover, both TRPC4 and TRPC5 are activated by direct interaction of their conserved C-terminal SESTD (SEC14-like and spectrin-type domains) with the Gα(i) subunits. Two amino acids (lysine 715 and arginine 716) of the TRPC4 C terminus were identified by structural modeling as mediating the interaction with Gα(i2). These findings indicate an essential role of Gα(i) proteins as novel activators for TRPC4/5 and reveal the molecular mechanism by which G-proteins activate the channels.

Muscarinic receptor subtypes involved in regulation of colonic motility in mice: functional studies using muscarinic receptor-deficient mice

Although muscarinic M(2) and M(3) receptors are known to be important for regulation of gastric and small intestinal motility, muscarinic receptor subtypes regulating colonic function remain to be investigated. The aim of this study was to characterize muscarinic receptors involved in regulation of colonic contractility. M(2) and/or M(3) receptor knockout (KO) and wild-type mice were used in in vivo (defecation, colonic propulsion) and in vitro (contraction) experiments. Amount of feces was significantly decreased in M(3)R-KO and M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice but not in M(2)R-KO mice. Ranking of colonic propulsion was wild-type=M(2)R-KO>M(3)R-KO>M(2)/M(3)R-KO. In vitro, the amplitude of migrating motor complexes in M(2)R-KO, M(3)R-KO and M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice was significantly lower than that in wild-type mice. Carbachol caused concentration-dependent contraction of the proximal colon and distal colon from wild-type mice. In M(2)R-KO mice, the concentration-contraction curves shifted to the right and downward. In contrast, carbachol caused non-sustained contraction and relaxation in M(3)R-KO mice depending on its concentration. Carbachol did not cause contraction but instead caused relaxation of colonic strips from M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice. 4-[[[(3-chlorophenyl)amino]carbonyl]oxy]-N,N,N-trimethyl-2-butyn-1-aminium chloride (McN-A-343) caused a non-sustained contraction of colonic strips from wild-type mice, and this contraction was changed to a sustained contraction by tetrodotoxin, pirenzepine and L-nitroarginine methylester (L-NAME). In the colon of M(2)/M(3)R-KO mice, McN-A-343 caused only relaxation, which was decreased by tetrodotoxin, pirenzepine and L-NAME. In conclusion, M(1), M(2) and M(3) receptors regulate colonic motility of the mouse. M(2) and M(3) receptors mediate cholinergic contraction, but M(1) receptors on inhibitory nitrergic nerves counteract muscarinic contraction.

Arecoline excites the contraction of distal colonic smooth muscle strips in rats via the M3 receptor – extracellular Ca2+ influx – Ca2+ store release pathway

Areca is a Chinese herbal medicine that is widely used for constipation. However the mechanisms of its action are not clear. We investigated the effects of arecoline, the most active component of areca, on the motility of rat distal colonic smooth muscle strips. In longitudinal muscle of distal colon (LMDC) and circular muscle of distal colon (CMDC), arecoline increased the contraction in a dose-dependent manner. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) did not inhibit the effects of arecoline. The contractile response to arecoline was completely antagonized by atropine. 4-Diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methiodide (4-DAMP) strongly depressed the response to arecoline, but gallamine and methoctramine did not. Nifedipine, 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), and Ca2+-free Krebs solution with EGTA partly inhibited the effects of arecoline. The sum of Ca2+-free Krebs solution, EGTA, and 2-APB completely inhibited the effects of arecoline. The results show that arecoline stimulates distal colonic contraction in rats via the muscarinic (M3) receptor – extracellular Ca2+ influx – Ca2+ store release pathway. It is likely that the action of areca in relieving constipation is due to its stimulation of muscle contraction.

Impaired M3 and enhanced M2 muscarinic receptor contractile function in a streptozotocin model of mouse diabetic urinary bladder

We investigated the contractile roles of M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors in urinary bladder from streptozotocin-treated mice. Wild-type and M2 muscarinic receptor knockout (M2 KO) mice were given a single injection of vehicle or streptozotocin (125 mg kg(-1)) 2-24 weeks prior to bladder assays. The effect of forskolin on contractions elicited to the muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine-M, was measured in isolated urinary bladder (intact or denuded of urothelium). Denuded urinary bladder from vehicle-treated wild-type and M2 KO mice exhibited similar contractile responses to oxotremorine-M, when contraction was normalized relative to that elicited by KCl (50 mM). Eight to 9 weeks after streptozotocin treatment, the EC(50) value of oxotremorine-M increased 3.1-fold in urinary bladder from the M2 KO mouse (N = 5) compared to wild type (N = 6; P < 0.001). Analogous changes were observed in intact bladder. In denuded urinary bladder from vehicle-treated mice, forskolin (5 microM) caused a much greater inhibition of contraction in M2 KO bladder compared to wild type. Following streptozotocin treatment, this forskolin effect increased 1.6-fold (P = 0.032). At the 20- to 24-week time point, the forskolin effect increased 1.7-fold for denuded as well as intact bladders (P = 0.036, 0.01, respectively). Although streptozotocin treatment inhibits M3 receptor-mediated contraction in denuded urinary bladder, muscarinic contractile function is maintained in wild-type bladder by enhanced M2 contractile function. M2 receptor activation opposes forskolin-induced relaxation of the urinary bladder, and this M(2) function is enhanced following streptozotocin treatment.

Multiple muscarinic pathways mediate the suppression of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in mouse intestinal smooth muscle cells

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Stimulation of muscarinic receptors in intestinal smooth muscle cells results in suppression of voltage-gated Ca2+ channel currents (I(Ca)). However, little is known about which receptor subtype(s) mediate this effect.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The effect of carbachol on I(Ca) was studied in single intestinal myocytes from M2 or M3 muscarinic receptor knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice.

KEY RESULTS

In M2KO cells, carbachol (100 microM) induced a sustained I(Ca) suppression as seen in WT cells. However, this suppression was significantly smaller than that seen in WT cells. Carbachol also suppressed I(Ca) in M3KO cells, but with a phasic time course. In M2/M3-double KO cells, carbachol had no effect on I(Ca). The extent of the suppression in WT cells was greater than the sum of the I(Ca) suppressions in M2KO and M3KO cells, indicating that it is not a simple mixture of M2 and M3 receptor responses. The G(i/o) inhibitor, Pertussis toxin, abolished the I(Ca) suppression in M3KO cells, but not in M2KO cells. In contrast, the G(q/11) inhibitor YM-254890 strongly inhibited only the I(Ca) suppression in M2KO cells. Suppression of I(Ca) in WT cells was markedly reduced by either Pertussis toxin or YM-254890.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

In intestinal myocytes, M2 receptors mediate a phasic I(Ca) suppression via G(i/o) proteins, while M3 receptors mediate a sustained I(Ca) suppression via G(q/11) proteins. In addition, another pathway that requires both M2/G(i/o) and M3/G(q/11) systems may be operative in inducing a sustained I(Ca) suppression.

Muscarinic receptor subtypes mediating Ca2+ sensitization of intestinal smooth muscle contraction: studies with receptor knockout mice

In the present study, we have characterized muscarinic receptor subtypes that mediate carbachol-induced Ca2+ sensitization of contraction in intestinal smooth muscle, using mutant mice lacking M(2) or M(3) muscarinic receptors or both receptor subtypes. In alpha-toxin-permeabilized muscle strips from wild-type (WT) mice, isometric tension responses to Ca2+ applied cumulatively (pCa 7.0-5.0) were increased when the muscarinic agonist carbachol (100 microM) was added to the medium, as judged from shifts of pCa-tension curves in both 50% effective concentration (EC(50)) and maximum response (E(max)) of pCa-tension curve. In preparations from M(2)-knockout (KO) mice, pCa-tension curves were also shifted by carbachol (100 microM), and the extents of the EC(50) and E(max) changes resembled those observed in preparations from WT mice. In preparations from M(3)-KO or M(2)/M(3)-double KO mice, however, no significant changes in pCa-tension curves were obtained after carbachol application. The G(q/11)-type G-protein inhibitor YM-254890 (1 microM) completely blocked the Ca2+ sensitization of contraction induced by carbachol in M(2)-KO or WT preparations. The results strongly support the idea that the muscarinic activation of Ca2+ sensitization in intestinal smooth muscles is mediated by the M(3) muscarinic receptor coupled to G(q/11)-type G-proteins, without any significant involvement of the other muscarinic receptor subtypes including M(2).

Deletion of TRPC4 and TRPC6 in mice impairs smooth muscle contraction and intestinal motility in vivo

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Downstream effects of muscarinic receptor stimulation in intestinal smooth muscle include contraction and intestinal transit. We thought to determine whether classic transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels integrate the intracellular signaling cascades evoked by the stimulated receptors and thereby contribute to the control of the membrane potential, Ca-influx, and cell responses.

METHODS

We created trpc4-, trpc6-, and trpc4/trpc6-gene-deficient mice and analyzed them for intestinal smooth muscle function in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

In intestinal smooth muscle cells TRPC4 forms a 55 pS cation channel and underlies more than 80% of the muscarinic receptor-induced cation current (mI(CAT)). The residual mI(CAT) depends on the expression of TRPC6, indicating that TRPC6 and TRPC4 determine mI(CAT) channel activity independent of other channel subunits. In TRPC4-deficient ileal myocytes the carbachol-induced membrane depolarizations are diminished greatly and the atropine-sensitive contraction elicited by acetylcholine release from excitatory motor neurons is reduced greatly. Additional deletion of TRPC6 aggravates these effects. Intestinal transit is slowed down in mice lacking TRPC4 and TRPC6.

CONCLUSIONS

In intestinal smooth muscle cells TRPC4 and TRPC6 channels are gated by muscarinic receptors and are responsible for mI(CAT). They couple muscarinic receptors to depolarization of intestinal smooth muscle cells and voltage-activated Ca(2+)-influx and contraction, and thereby accelerate small intestinal motility in vivo.

The guinea pig ileum lacks the direct, high-potency, M(2)-muscarinic, contractile mechanism characteristic of the mouse ileum

We explored whether the M(2) muscarinic receptor in the guinea pig ileum elicits a highly potent, direct-contractile response, like that from the M(3) muscarinic receptor knockout mouse. First, we characterized the irreversible receptor-blocking activity of 4-DAMP mustard in ileum from muscarinic receptor knockout mice to verify its M(3) selectivity. Then, we used 4-DAMP mustard to inactivate M(3) responses in the guinea pig ileum to attempt to reveal direct, M(2) receptor-mediated contractions. The muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine-M, elicited potent contractions in ileum from wild-type, M(2) receptor knockout, and M(3) receptor knockout mice characterized by negative log EC(50) (pEC (50)) values +/- SEM of 6.75 +/- 0.03, 6.26 +/- 0.05, and 6.99 +/- 0.08, respectively. The corresponding E (max) values in wild-type and M(2) receptor knockout mice were approximately the same, but that in the M(3) receptor knockout mouse was only 36% of wild type. Following 4-DAMP mustard treatment, the concentration-response curve of oxotremorine-M in wild-type ileum resembled that of the M(3) knockout mouse in terms of its pEC (50), E (max), and inhibition by selective muscarinic antagonists. Thus, 4-DAMP mustard treatment appears to inactivate M(3) responses selectively and renders the muscarinic contractile behavior of the wild-type ileum similar to that of the M(3) knockout mouse. Following 4-DAMP mustard treatment, the contractile response of the guinea pig ileum to oxotremorine-M exhibited low potency and a competitive-antagonism profile consistent with an M(3) response. The guinea pig ileum, therefore, lacks a direct, highly potent, M(2)-contractile component but may have a direct, lower potency M(2) component.

The specific activation of TRPC4 by Gi protein subtype

The classical type of transient receptor potential channel (TRPC) is a molecular candidate for Ca(2+)-permeable cation channels in mammalian cells. Especially, TRPC4 has the similar properties to Ca(2+)-permeable nonselective cation channels (NSCCs) activated by muscarinic stimulation in visceral smooth muscles. In visceral smooth muscles, NSCCs activated by muscarinic stimulation were blocked by anti-Galphai/o antibodies. However, there is still no report which Galpha proteins are involved in the activation process of TRPC4. Among Galpha proteins, only Galphai protein can activate TRPC4 channel. The activation effect of Galphai was specific for TRPC4 because Galphai has no activation effect on TRPC5, TRPC6 and TRPV6. Coexpression with muscarinic receptor M2 induced TRPC4 current activation by muscarinic stimulation with carbachol, which was inhibited by pertussis toxin. These results suggest that Galphai is involved specifically in the activation of TRPC4.

A non-selective cationic channel activated by diacylglycerol in mouse intestinal myocytes

Application of 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), an analogue of diacylglycerol (DAG) formed via M(3) muscarinic receptors, induced inward cationic currents via a protein kinase C-independent mechanism and produced membrane depolarization with increased action potential discharges in mouse intestinal myocytes. Outside-out patches from the myocytes responded to OAG with openings of 115-pS channels characterized by a mean open time (O(tau)) of 0.15 ms. M(3) receptor stimulation is reportedly capable of causing brief openings (O(tau)=0.23 ms) of 120-pS cationic channels in intestinal myocytes, thus the present results strongly support the idea that the M(3)-mediated 120-pS channel opening is brought about via DAG-dependent mechanisms.