Determinants of seeding and spreading of α-synuclein pathology in the brain

Ion channel dysregulation and cellular adaptations to alpha-synuclein in stressful pacemakers of the parkinsonian brainstem

Parkinson's disease (PD) is diagnosed by its cardinal motor symptoms that are associated with the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). However, PD patients suffer from various non-motor symptoms years before diagnosis. These prodromal symptoms are thought to be associated with the appearance of Lewy body pathologies (LBP) in brainstem regions such as the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV), the locus coeruleus (LC) and others. The neurons in these regions that are vulnerable to LBP are all slow autonomous pacemaker neurons that exhibit elevated oxidative stress due to their perpetual influx of Ca2+ ions. Aggregation of toxic α-Synuclein (aSyn) - the main constituent of LBP - during the long prodromal period challenges these vulnerable neurons, presumably altering their biophysics and physiology. In contrast to pathophysiology of late stage parkinsonism which is well-documented, little is known about the pathophysiology of the brainstem during prodromal PD. In this review, we discuss ion channel dysregulation associated with aSyn aggregation in brainstem pacemaker neurons and their cellular responses to them. While toxic aSyn elevates oxidative stress in SNc and LC pacemaker neurons and exacerbates their phenotype, DMV neurons mount an adaptive response that mitigates the oxidative stress. Ion channel dysregulation and cellular adaptations may be the drivers of the prodromal symptoms of PD. For example, selective targeting of toxic aSyn to DMV pacemakers, elevates the surface density of K+ channels, which slows their firing rate, resulting in reduced parasympathetic tone to the gastrointestinal tract, which resembles the prodromal PD symptoms of dysphagia and constipation. The divergent responses of SNc & LC vs. DMV pacemaker neurons may explain why the latter outlive the former despite presenting LBPs earlier. Elucidation the brainstem pathophysiology of prodromal PD could pave the way for physiological biomarkers, earlier diagnosis and novel neuroprotective therapies for PD.

Efficient characterization of multiple binding sites of small molecule imaging ligands on amyloid-beta, tau and alpha-synuclein

PURPOSE

There is an unmet need for compounds to detect fibrillar forms of alpha-synuclein (αSyn) and 4-repeat tau, which are critical in many neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we aim to develop an efficient surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based assay to facilitate the characterization of small molecules that can bind these fibrils.

METHODS

SPR measurements were conducted to characterize the binding properties of fluorescent ligands/compounds toward recombinant amyloid-beta (Aβ)42, K18-tau, full-length 2N4R-tau and αSyn fibrils. In silico modeling was performed to examine the binding pockets of ligands on αSyn fibrils. Immunofluorescence staining of postmortem brain tissue slices from Parkinson's disease patients and mouse models was performed with fluorescence ligands and specific antibodies.

RESULTS

We optimized the protocol for the immobilization of Aβ42, K18-tau, full-length 2N4R-tau and αSyn fibrils in a controlled aggregation state on SPR-sensor chips and for assessing their binding to ligands. The SPR results from the analysis of binding kinetics suggested the presence of at least two binding sites for all fibrils, including luminescent conjugated oligothiophenes, benzothiazole derivatives, nonfluorescent methylene blue and lansoprazole. In silico modeling studies for αSyn (6H6B) revealed four binding sites with a preference for one site on the surface. Immunofluorescence staining validated the detection of pS129-αSyn positivity in the brains of Parkinson's disease patients and αSyn preformed-fibril injected mice, 6E10-positive Aβ in arcAβ mice, and AT-8/AT-100-positivity in pR5 mice.

CONCLUSION

SPR measurements of small molecules binding to Aβ42, K18/full-length 2N4R-tau and αSyn fibrils suggested the existence of multiple binding sites. This approach may provide efficient characterization of compounds for neurodegenerative disease-relevant proteinopathies.

Research Priorities on the Role of α-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease Pathogenesis

Various forms of Parkinson's disease, including its common sporadic form, are characterized by prominent α-synuclein (αSyn) aggregation in affected brain regions. However, the role of αSyn in the pathogenesis and evolution of the disease remains unclear, despite vast research efforts of more than a quarter century. A better understanding of the role of αSyn, either primary or secondary, is critical for developing disease-modifying therapies. Previous attempts to hone this research have been challenged by experimental limitations, but recent technological advances may facilitate progress. The Scientific Issues Committee of the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society (MDS) charged a panel of experts in the field to discuss current scientific priorities and identify research strategies with potential for a breakthrough. © 2024 The Author(s). Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Aplp1 interacts with Lag3 to facilitate transmission of pathologic α-synuclein

Pathologic α-synuclein (α-syn) spreads from cell-to-cell, in part, through binding to the lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (Lag3). Here we report that amyloid β precursor-like protein 1 (Aplp1) interacts with Lag3 that facilitates the binding, internalization, transmission, and toxicity of pathologic α-syn. Deletion of both Aplp1 and Lag3 eliminates the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the accompanying behavioral deficits induced by α-syn preformed fibrils (PFF). Anti-Lag3 prevents the internalization of α-syn PFF by disrupting the interaction of Aplp1 and Lag3, and blocks the neurodegeneration induced by α-syn PFF in vivo. The identification of Aplp1 and the interplay with Lag3 for α-syn PFF induced pathology deepens our insight about molecular mechanisms of cell-to-cell transmission of pathologic α-syn and provides additional targets for therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease and related α-synucleinopathies.

Sex-dependent interactions between prodromal intestinal inflammation and LRRK2 G2019S in mice promote endophenotypes of Parkinson's disease

Gastrointestinal (GI) disruptions and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are commonly associated with Parkinson's disease (PD), but how they may impact risk for PD remains poorly understood. Herein, we provide evidence that prodromal intestinal inflammation expedites and exacerbates PD endophenotypes in rodent carriers of the human PD risk allele LRRK2 G2019S in a sex-dependent manner. Chronic intestinal damage in genetically predisposed male mice promotes α-synuclein aggregation in the substantia nigra, loss of dopaminergic neurons and motor impairment. This male bias is preserved in gonadectomized males, and similarly conferred by sex chromosomal complement in gonadal females expressing human LRRK2 G2019S. The early onset and heightened severity of neuropathological and behavioral outcomes in male LRRK2 G2019S mice is preceded by increases in α-synuclein in the colon, α-synuclein-positive macrophages in the colonic lamina propria, and loads of phosphorylated α-synuclein within microglia in the substantia nigra. Taken together, these data reveal that prodromal intestinal inflammation promotes the pathogenesis of PD endophenotypes in male carriers of LRRK2 G2019S, through mechanisms that depend on genotypic sex and involve early accumulation of α-synuclein in myeloid cells within the gut.

Effects of local reduction of endogenous α-synuclein using antisense oligonucleotides on the fibril-induced propagation of pathology through the neural network in wild-type mice

In Parkinson's disease and other synucleinopathies, fibrillar forms of α-synuclein (aSyn) are hypothesized to structurally convert and pathologize endogenous aSyn, which then propagates through the neural connections, forming Lewy pathologies and ultimately causing neurodegeneration. Inoculation of mouse-derived aSyn preformed fibrils (PFFs) into the unilateral striatum of wild-type mice causes widespread aSyn pathologies in the brain through the neural network. Here, we used the local injection of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) against Snca mRNA to confine the area of endogenous aSyn protein reduction and not to affect the PFFs properties in this model. We then varied the timing and location of ASOs injection to examine their impact on the initiation and propagation of aSyn pathologies in the whole brain and the therapeutic effect using abnormally-phosphorylated aSyn (pSyn) as an indicator. By injecting ASOs before or 0-14 days after the PFFs were inoculated into the same site in the left striatum, the reduction in endogenous aSyn in the striatum leads to the prevention and inhibition of the regional spread of pSyn pathologies to the whole brain including the contralateral right hemisphere. ASO post-injection inhibited extension from neuritic pathologies to somatic ones. Moreover, injection of ASOs into the right striatum prevented the remote regional spread of pSyn pathologies from the left striatum where PFFs were inoculated and no ASO treatment was conducted. This indicated that the reduction in endogenous aSyn protein levels at the propagation destination site can attenuate pSyn pathologies, even if those at the propagation initiation site are not inhibited, which is consistent with the original concept of prion-like propagation that endogenous aSyn is indispensable for this regional spread. Our results demonstrate the importance of recruiting endogenous aSyn in this neural network propagation model and indicate a possible potential for ASO treatment in synucleinopathies.

A topographical atlas of α-synuclein dosage and cell type-specific expression in adult mouse brain and peripheral organs

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide and presents pathologically with Lewy pathology and dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Lewy pathology contains aggregated α-synuclein (αSyn), a protein encoded by the SNCA gene which is also mutated or duplicated in a subset of familial PD cases. Due to its predominant presynaptic localization, immunostaining for the protein results in a diffuse reactivity pattern, providing little insight into the types of cells expressing αSyn. As a result, insight into αSyn expression-driven cellular vulnerability has been difficult to ascertain. Using a combination of knock-in mice that target αSyn to the nucleus (SncaNLS) and in situ hybridization of Snca in wild-type mice, we systematically mapped the topography and cell types expressing αSyn in the mouse brain, spinal cord, retina, and gut. We find a high degree of correlation between αSyn protein and RNA levels and further identify cell types with low and high αSyn content. We also find high αSyn expression in neurons, particularly those involved in PD, and to a lower extent in non-neuronal cell types, notably those of oligodendrocyte lineage, which are relevant to multiple system atrophy pathogenesis. Surprisingly, we also found that αSyn is relatively absent from select neuron types, e.g., ChAT-positive motor neurons, whereas enteric neurons universally express some degree of αSyn. Together, this integrated atlas provides insight into the cellular topography of αSyn, and provides a quantitative map to test hypotheses about the role of αSyn in network vulnerability, and thus serves investigations into PD pathogenesis and other α-synucleinopathies.

From Synaptic Physiology to Synaptic Pathology: The Enigma of α-Synuclein

Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) has gained significant attention due to its involvement in neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Parkinson's disease. However, its normal function in the human brain is equally fascinating. The α-syn protein is highly dynamic and can adapt to various conformational stages, which differ in their interaction with synaptic elements, their propensity to drive pathological aggregation, and their toxicity. This review will delve into the multifaceted role of α-syn in different types of synapses, shedding light on contributions to neurotransmission and overall brain function. We describe the physiological role of α-syn at central synapses, including the bidirectional interaction between α-syn and neurotransmitter systems.

Alpha-Synuclein Pre-Formed Fibrils Injected into Prefrontal Cortex Primarily Spread to Cortical and Subcortical Structures

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are characterized by diffuse spread of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) throughout the brain. Patients with PDD and DLB have a neuropsychological pattern of deficits that include executive dysfunction, such as abnormalities in planning, timing, working memory, and behavioral flexibility. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a major role in normal executive function and often develops α-syn aggregates in DLB and PDD.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the long-term behavioral and cognitive consequences of α-syn pathology in the cortex and characterize pathological spread of α-syn.

METHODS

We injected human α-syn pre-formed fibrils into the PFC of wild-type male mice. We then assessed the behavioral and cognitive effects between 12- and 21-months post-injection and characterized the spread of pathological α-syn in cortical, subcortical, and brainstem regions.

RESULTS

We report that PFC PFFs: 1) induced α-syn aggregation in multiple cortical and subcortical regions with sparse aggregation in midbrain and brainstem nuclei; 2) did not affect interval timing or spatial learning acquisition but did mildly alter behavioral flexibility as measured by intraday reversal learning; and 3) increased open field exploration.

CONCLUSIONS

This model of cortical-dominant pathology aids in our understanding of how local α-syn aggregation might impact some symptoms in PDD and DLB.

Postsynaptic cell type and synaptic distance do not determine efficiency of monosynaptic rabies virus spread measured at synaptic resolution

Retrograde monosynaptic tracing using glycoprotein-deleted rabies virus is an important component of the toolkit for investigation of neural circuit structure and connectivity. It allows for the identification of first-order presynaptic connections to cell populations of interest across both the central and peripheral nervous system, helping to decipher the complex connectivity patterns of neural networks that give rise to brain function. Despite its utility, the factors that influence the probability of transsynaptic rabies spread are not well understood. While it is well established that expression levels of rabies glycoprotein used to trans-complement G-deleted rabies can result in large changes in numbers of inputs labeled per starter cell (convergence index [CI]), it is not known how typical values of CI relate to the proportions of synaptic contacts or input neurons labeled. And it is not known whether inputs to different cell types, or synaptic contacts that are more proximal or distal to the cell body, are labeled with different probabilities. Here, we use a new rabies virus construct that allows for the simultaneous labeling of pre- and postsynaptic specializations to quantify the proportion of synaptic contacts labeled in mouse primary visual cortex. We demonstrate that with typical conditions about 40% of first-order presynaptic excitatory synapses to cortical excitatory and inhibitory neurons are labeled. We show that using matched tracing conditions there are similar proportions of labeled contacts onto L4 excitatory pyramidal, somatostatin (Sst) inhibitory, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (Vip) starter cell types. Furthermore, we find no difference in the proportions of labeled excitatory contacts onto postsynaptic sites at different subcellular locations.

α-Synuclein pathology disrupts mitochondrial function in dopaminergic and cholinergic neurons at-risk in Parkinson's disease

Background

Pathological accumulation of aggregated α-synuclein (aSYN) is a common feature of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the mechanisms by which intracellular aSYN pathology contributes to dysfunction and degeneration of neurons in the brain are still unclear. A potentially relevant target of aSYN is the mitochondrion. To test this hypothesis, genetic and physiological methods were used to monitor mitochondrial function in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopaminergic and pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) cholinergic neurons after stereotaxic injection of aSYN pre-formed fibrils (PFFs) into the mouse brain.

Methods

aSYN PPFs were stereotaxically injected into the SNc or PPN of mice. Twelve weeks later, mice were studied using a combination of approaches, including immunocytochemical analysis, cell- type specific transcriptomic profiling, electron microscopy, electrophysiology and two-photon-laser- scanning microscopy of genetically encoded sensors for bioenergetic and redox status.

Results

In addition to inducing a significant neuronal loss, SNc injection of PFFs induced the formation of intracellular, phosphorylated aSYN aggregates selectively in dopaminergic neurons. In these neurons, PFF-exposure decreased mitochondrial gene expression, reduced the number of mitochondria, increased oxidant stress, and profoundly disrupted mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate production. Consistent with an aSYN-induced bioenergetic deficit, the autonomous spiking of dopaminergic neurons slowed or stopped. PFFs also up-regulated lysosomal gene expression and increased lysosomal abundance, leading to the formation of Lewy-like inclusions. Similar changes were observed in PPN cholinergic neurons following aSYN PFF exposure.

Conclusions

Taken together, our findings suggest that disruption of mitochondrial function, and the subsequent bioenergetic deficit, is a proximal step in the cascade of events induced by aSYN pathology leading to dysfunction and degeneration of neurons at-risk in PD.

Feed-forward metabotropic signaling by Cav1 Ca2+ channels supports pacemaking in pedunculopontine cholinergic neurons

Like a handful of other neuronal types in the brain, cholinergic neurons (CNs) in the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) are lost during Parkinson's disease (PD). Why this is the case is unknown. One neuronal trait implicated in PD selective neuronal vulnerability is the engagement of feed-forward stimulation of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to meet high bioenergetic demand, leading to sustained oxidant stress and ultimately degeneration. The extent to which this trait is shared by PPN CNs is unresolved. To address this question, a combination of molecular and physiological approaches were used. These studies revealed that PPN CNs are autonomous pacemakers with modest spike-associated cytosolic Ca2+ transients. These Ca2+ transients were partly attributable to the opening of high-threshold Cav1.2 Ca2+ channels, but not Cav1.3 channels. Cav1.2 channel signaling through endoplasmic reticulum ryanodine receptors stimulated mitochondrial OXPHOS to help maintain cytosolic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels necessary for pacemaking. Inhibition of Cav1.2 channels led to the recruitment of ATP-sensitive K+ channels and the slowing of pacemaking. A 'side-effect' of Cav1.2 channel-mediated stimulation of mitochondria was increased oxidant stress. Thus, PPN CNs have a distinctive physiological phenotype that shares some, but not all, of the features of other neurons that are selectively vulnerable in PD.

Targeting α-synuclein and c-Abl in Parkinson's disease

In this forum article we present the latest progress on therapeutic-based research focusing on α-synuclein and c-Abl in Parkinson's disease (PD). We highlight the challenges and potential solutions that may facilitate development of these novel therapies.

Predicting longitudinal brain atrophy in Parkinson's disease using a Susceptible-Infected-Removed agent-based model

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by accumulation of abnormal isoforms of alpha-synuclein. Alpha-synuclein is proposed to act as a prion in Parkinson's disease: In its misfolded pathologic state, it favors the misfolding of normal alpha-synuclein molecules, spreads trans-neuronally, and causes neuronal damage as it accumulates. This theory remains controversial. We have previously developed a Susceptible-Infected-Removed (SIR) computational model that simulates the templating, propagation, and toxicity of alpha-synuclein molecules in the brain. In this study, we test this model with longitudinal MRI collected over 4 years from the Parkinson's Progression Markers Initiative (1,068 T1 MRI scans, 790 Parkinson's disease scans, and 278 matched control scans). We find that brain deformation progresses in subcortical and cortical regions. The SIR model recapitulates the spatiotemporal distribution of brain atrophy observed in Parkinson's disease. We show that connectome topology and geometry significantly contribute to model fit. We also show that the spatial expression of two genes implicated in alpha-synuclein synthesis and clearance, SNCA and GBA, also influences the atrophy pattern. We conclude that the progression of atrophy in Parkinson's disease is consistent with the prion-like hypothesis and that the SIR model is a promising tool to investigate multifactorial neurodegenerative diseases over time.

Synapses do not facilitate prion-like transfer of alpha-synuclein: a quantitative study in reconstructed unidirectional neural networks

Alpha-synuclein (aSyn) aggregation spreads between cells and underlies the progression of neuronal lesions in the brain of patients with synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's diseases. The mechanisms of cell-to-cell propagation of aggregates, which dictate how aggregation progresses at the network level, remain poorly understood. Notably, while prion and prion-like spreading is often simplistically envisioned as a "domino-like" spreading scenario where connected neurons sequentially propagate protein aggregation to each other, the reality is likely to be more nuanced. Here, we demonstrate that the spreading of preformed aSyn aggregates is a limited process that occurs through molecular sieving of large aSyn seeds. We further show that this process is not facilitated by synaptic connections. This was achieved through the development and characterization of a new microfluidic platform that allows reconstruction of binary fully oriented neuronal networks in vitro with no unwanted backward connections, and through the careful quantification of fluorescent aSyn aggregates spreading between neurons. While this allowed us for the first time to extract quantitative data of protein seeds dissemination along neural pathways, our data suggest that prion-like dissemination of proteinopathic seeding aggregates occurs very progressively and leads to highly compartmentalized pattern of protein seeding in neural networks.

Pharmacological interventions targeting α-synuclein aggregation triggered REM sleep behavior disorder and early development of Parkinson's disease

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is a parasomnia characterized by elevated motor behaviors and dream enactments in REM sleep, often preceding the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (PD). As RBD could serve as a biomarker for early PD developments, pharmacological interventions targeting α-synuclein aggregation triggered RBD could be applied toward early PD progression. However, robust therapeutic guidelines toward PD-induced RBD are lacking, owing in part to a historical paucity of effective treatments and trials. We reviewed the bidirectional links between α-synuclein neurodegeneration, progressive sleep disorders, and RBD. We highlighted the correlation between RBD development, α-synuclein aggregation, and neuronal apoptosis in key brainstem regions involved in REM sleep atonia maintenance. The current pharmacological intervention strategies targeting RBD and their effects on progressive PD are discussed, as well as current treatments for progressive neurodegeneration and their effects on RBD. We also evaluated emerging and potential pharmacological solutions to sleep disorders and developing synucleinopathies. This review provides insights into the mechanisms and therapeutic targets underlying RBD and PD, and explores bidirectional treatment effects for both diseases, underscoring the need for further research in this area.

hsa-miR-320a mediated exosome release under PD stress conditions rescue mitochondrial ROS and cell death in the recipient neuronal and glial cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by dopaminergic neuronal cell death. Emerging evidence suggest exosomes as a crucial player in the progression and pathogenesis of PD via intercellular communication between different cell types in brain. Exosome release is enhanced from dysfunctional neurons/glia (source cells) under PD stress and mediates the transfer of biomolecules between different cell types (recipient) in brain leading to unique functional outcomes. Exosome release is modulated by alterations in the autophagy and lysosomal pathways; however, the molecular factors regulating these pathways remain elusive. Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are class of non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally by binding target mRNA and modulate its turnover and translation; however their role in modulating exosome release is not understood. Here, we analyzed the miRNAs-mRNAs network which target cellular processes regulating exosome release. hsa-miR-320a showed the maximum mRNA targets of autophagy, lysosome, mitochondria and exosome release pathways. hsa-miR-320a regulate ATG5 levels and modulate exosome release under PD stress conditions in neuronal SH-SY5Y and glial U-87 MG cells. hsa-miR-320a modulates autophagic flux, lysosomal functions, and mitochondrial ROS in neuronal SH-SY5Y and glial U-87 MG cells. Exosomes derived from hsa-miR-320a expressing source cells under PD stress conditions were actively internalized in the recipient cells and rescued cell death and mitochondrial ROS. These results suggest that hsa-miR-320a regulates autophagy and lysosomal pathways and modulates exosome release in the source cells and derived exosomes under PD stress conditions rescue cell death and mitochondrial ROS in the recipient neuronal and glial cells.

DRD1 signaling modulates TrkB turnover and BDNF sensitivity in direct pathway striatal medium spiny neurons

Disturbed motor control is a hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Cortico-striatal synapses play a central role in motor learning and adaption, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) from cortico-striatal afferents modulates their plasticity via TrkB in striatal medium spiny projection neurons (SPNs). We studied the role of dopamine in modulating the sensitivity of direct pathway SPNs (dSPNs) to BDNF in cultures of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)-enriched D1-expressing SPNs and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-treated rats. DRD1 activation causes enhanced TrkB translocation to the cell surface and increased sensitivity for BDNF. In contrast, dopamine depletion in cultured dSPN neurons, 6-OHDA-treated rats, and postmortem brain of patients with PD reduces BDNF responsiveness and causes formation of intracellular TrkB clusters. These clusters associate with sortilin related VPS10 domain containing receptor 2 (SORCS-2) in multivesicular-like structures, which apparently protects them from lysosomal degradation. Thus, impaired TrkB processing might contribute to disturbed motor function in PD.

Alpha-synuclein pre-formed fibrils injected into prefrontal cortex primarily spread to cortical and subcortical structures and lead to isolated behavioral symptoms

Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) are characterized by diffuse spread of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) throughout the brain. Patients with PDD and DLB have a neuropsychological pattern of deficits that include executive dysfunction, such as abnormalities in planning, timing, working memory, and behavioral flexibility. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a major role in normal executive function and often develops α-syn aggregates in DLB and PDD. To investigate the consequences of α-syn pathology in the cortex, we injected human α-syn pre-formed fibrils into the PFC of wildtype mice. We report that PFC PFFs: 1) induced α-syn aggregation in multiple cortical and subcortical regions with sparse aggregation in midbrain and brainstem nuclei; 2) did not affect interval timing or spatial learning acquisition but did mildly alter behavioral flexibility as measured by intraday reversal learning; 3) increased open field exploration; and 4) did not affect susceptibility to an inflammatory challenge. This model of cortical-dominant pathology aids in our understanding of how local α-syn aggregation might impact some symptoms in PDD and DLB.

Selective neurodegeneration generated by intravenous α-synuclein pre-formed fibril administration is not associated with endogenous α-synuclein levels in the rat brain

Selective loss of discrete neuronal populations is a prominent feature of many neurodegenerative conditions, but the molecular basis of this is poorly understood. A central role of α-synuclein in the selective neurodegeneration of Parkinson's disease has been speculated, as its level of expression critically determines the propensity of this protein to misfold. To investigate whether the propensity of neuronal cell loss is associated with the level of endogenous α-synuclein expression, non-transgenic rats were given a single intravenous administration of α-synuclein pre-formed fibrils (PFFs) reversibly complexed with the rabies virus glycoprotein peptide (RVG9R). The number of surviving cells in different neuronal populations was systematically quantified using unbiased stereology. Our data demonstrated that a non-selective, transvascular delivery of α-synuclein PFFs led to a time-dependent loss of specific populations of midbrain (but not olfactory) dopaminergic neurons, medullary (but not pontine) cholinergic neurons, and brainstem serotonergic neurons. Contrary to the central role of endogenous α-synuclein expression in determining the seeding and aggregation propensity of pathological α-synuclein, we did not observe an association between the levels of α-synuclein expression in different regions of the rodent brain (although did not ascertain this at the individual cell level) and neurodegenerative propensity. The results from our study highlight the complexity of the neurodegenerative process generated by α-synuclein seeding. Further investigations are therefore required to elucidate the molecular basis of neurodegeneration driven by exogenous pathogenic α-synuclein spread.

Anti-α-synuclein c-terminal antibodies block PFF uptake and accumulation of phospho-synuclein in preclinical models of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disease affecting dopaminergic (DA) neurons, is characterized by decline of motor function and cognition. Dopaminergic cell loss is associated with accumulation of toxic alpha synuclein aggregates. As DA neuron death occurs late in the disease, therapeutics that block the spread of alpha synuclein may offer functional benefit and delay disease progression. To test this hypothesis, we generated antibodies to the C terminal region of synuclein with high nanomolar affinity and characterized them in in vitro and in vivo models of spread. Interestingly, we found that only antibodies with high affinity to the distal most portion of the C-terminus robustly reduced uptake of alpha synuclein preformed fibrils (PFF) and accumulation of phospho (S129) alpha synuclein in cell culture. Additionally, the antibody treatment blocked the spread of phospho (S129) alpha synuclein associated-pathology in a mouse model of synucleinopathy. Blockade of neuronal PFF uptake by different antibodies was more predictive of in vivo activity than their binding potency to monomeric or oligomeric forms of alpha synuclein. These data demonstrate that antibodies directed to the C-terminus of the alpha synuclein have differential effects on target engagement and efficacy. Furthermore, our data provides additional support for the development of alpha synuclein antibodies as a therapeutic strategy for PD patients.

Monitoring α-synuclein aggregation

Synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA), are characterized by the misfolding and subsequent aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) that accumulates in cytoplasmic inclusions bodies in the cells of affected brain regions. Since the seminal report of likely-aggregated α-syn presence within the Lewy bodies by Spillantini et al. in 1997, the keyword "synuclein aggregation" has appeared in over 6000 papers (Source: PubMed October 2022). Studying, observing, describing, and quantifying α-syn aggregation is therefore of paramount importance, whether it happens in tubo, in vitro, in post-mortem samples, or in vivo. The past few years have witnessed tremendous progress in understanding aggregation mechanisms and identifying various polymorphs. In this context of growing complexity, it is of utmost importance to understand what tools we possess, what exact information they provide, and in what context they may be applied. Nonetheless, it is also crucial to rationalize the relevance of the information and the limitations of these methods for gauging the final result. In this review, we present the main techniques that have shaped the current views about α-syn structure and dynamics, with particular emphasis on the recent breakthroughs that may change our understanding of synucleinopathies.

⍺-Synuclein Structural Diversity and the Cellular Environment in ⍺-Synuclein Transmission Models and Humans

Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA) are termed synucleinopathies, disorders that are characterized by the intracellular aggregation of the protein ɑ-synuclein. The cellular tropism of synuclein pathology in these syndromes is notably distinct since in the Lewy disorders, PD and DLB, ɑSyn forms aggregates in neurons whereas in MSA ɑSyn forms aggregates in oligodendrocytes. Studies examining ɑSyn pathology in experimental models and in human brain have now identified fibrillar ɑSyn with unique but distinct molecular signatures, suggesting that the structure of these ɑSyn fibrils might be closely tied to their cellular ontogeny. In contrast to the native structural heterogeneity of ɑSyn in vitro, the conformational landscape of fibrillar ɑSyn in human brain and in vivo transmission models appears to be remarkably uniform. Here, we review the studies by which we propose a hypothesis that the cellular host environment might be in part responsible for how ɑSyn filaments assemble into phenotype-specific strains. We postulate that the maturation of ɑSyn strains develops as a function of their in vivo transmission routes and cell-specific risk factors. The impact of the cellular environment on the structural diversity of ɑSyn might have important implications for the design of preclinical studies and their use for the development of ɑSyn-based biomarkers and therapeutic strategies. By combining phenotype-specific fibrils and relevant synucleinopathy transmission models, preclinical models might more closely reflect unique disease phenotypes.

Dystonia-like behaviors and impaired sensory-motor integration following neurotoxic lesion of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in mice

Introduction

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPTg) is a vital interface between the basal ganglia and cerebellum, participating in modulation of the locomotion and muscle tone. Pathological changes of the PPTg have been reported in patients and animal models of dystonia, while its effect and mechanism on the phenotyping of dystonia is still unknown.

Methods

In this study, a series of behavioral tests focusing on the specific deficits of dystonia were conducted for mice with bilateral and unilateral PPTg excitotoxic lesion, including the dystonia-like movements evaluation, different types of sensory-motor integrations, explorative behaviors and gait. In addition, neural dysfunctions including apoptosis, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and neural activation of PPTg-related motor areas in the basal ganglia, reticular formations and cerebellum were also explored.

Results

Both bilateral and unilateral lesion of the PPTg elicited dystonia-like behaviors featured by the hyperactivity of the hindlimb flexors. Moreover, proprioceptive and auditory sensory-motor integrations were impaired in bilaterally lesioned mice, while no overt alterations were found for the tactile sensory-motor integration, explorative behaviors and gait. Similar but milder behavioral deficits were found in the unilaterally lesioned mice, with an effective compensation was observed for the auditory sensory-motor integration. Histologically, no neural loss, apoptosis, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration were found in the substantia nigra pars compacta and caudate putamen (CPu) following PPTg lesion, while reduced neural activity was found in the dorsolateral part of the CPu and striatal indirect pathway-related structures including subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus internus and substantia nigra pars reticular. Moreover, the neural activity was decreased for the reticular formations such as pontine reticular nucleus, parvicellular reticular nucleus and gigantocellular reticular nucleus, while deep cerebellar nuclei were spared.

Conclusion

In conclusion, lesion of the PPTg could elicit dystonia-like behaviors through its effect on the balance of the striatal pathways and the reticular formations.

Observation of α-Synuclein Preformed Fibrils Interacting with SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cell Membranes Using Scanning Ion Conductance Microscopy

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second-most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder in the U.S. α-Synuclein (α-Syn) preformed fibrils (PFFs) have been shown to propagate PD pathology in neuronal populations. However, little work has directly characterized the morphological changes on membranes associated with α-Syn PFFs at a cellular level. Scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) is a noninvasive in situ cell imaging technique and therefore uniquely advantageous to investigate PFF-induced membrane changes in neuroblastoma cells. The present work used SICM to monitor cytoplasmic membrane changes of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells after incubation with varying concentrations of α-Syn PFFs. Cell membrane roughness significantly increased as the concentration of α-Syn PFFs increased. Noticeable protrusions that assumed a more crystalline appearance at higher α-Syn PFF concentrations were also observed. Cell viability was only slightly reduced, though statistically significantly, to about 80% but independent of the dose. These observations indicate that within the 48 h treatment period, PFFs continue to accumulate on the cell membranes, leading to membrane roughness increase without causing prominent cell death. Since PFFs did not induce major cell death, these data suggest that early interventions targeting fibrils before further aggregation may prevent the progression of neuron loss in Parkinson's disease.

Chronic hypoxia leads to cognitive impairment by promoting HIF-2α-mediated ceramide catabolism and alpha-synuclein hyperphosphorylation

Chronic hypoxia leads to irreversible cognitive impairment, primarily due to hippocampal neurodegeneration, for which the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. We administered hypoxia (13%) to C57BL mice for 1-14 days in this study. Chronic hypoxia for 7 or 14 d, but not 1 or 3 d, resulted in alpha-synuclein hyperphosphorylation at serine129 (α-Syn p-S129) and protein aggregation, hippocampal neurodegeneration, and cognitive deficits, whereas the latter could be prevented by alpha-synuclein knockdown or an administered short peptide competing at α-Syn S129. These results suggest that α-Syn p-S129 mediates hippocampal degeneration and cognitive impairment following chronic hypoxia. Furthermore, we found that chronic hypoxia enhanced ceramide catabolism by inducing hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-2α and HIF-2α-dependent transcriptional activation of alkaline ceramidase 2 (Acer2). Thus, the enzymatic activity of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a specific phosphatase for α-syn, is inhibited, leading to the sustained induction of α-Syn p-S129. Finally, we found that intermittent hypoxic preconditioning protected against subsequent chronic hypoxia-induced hippocampal neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment by preventing α-Syn p-S129. These results proved the critical role of α-syn pathology in chronic hypoxia-afforded cognitive impairment and revealed a novel mechanism underlying α-syn hyperphosphorylation during chronic hypoxia. The findings bear implications in developing novel therapeutic interventions for chronic hypoxia-related brain disorders.

Dystonia and the pedunculopontine nucleus: Current evidences and potential mechanisms

Being a major component of the midbrain locomotion region, the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) is known to have various connections with the basal ganglia, the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and motor regions of the brainstem and spinal cord. Functionally, the PPN is associated with muscle tone control and locomotion modulation, including motor initiation, rhythm and speed. In addition to its motor functions, the PPN also contribute to level of arousal, attention, memory and learning. Recent studies have revealed neuropathologic deficits in the PPN in both patients and animal models of dystonia, and deep brain stimulation of the PPN also showed alleviation of axial dystonia in patients of Parkinson's disease. These findings indicate that the PPN might play an important role in the development of dystonia. Moreover, with increasing preclinical evidences showed presence of dystonia-like behaviors, muscle tone changes, impaired cognitive functions and sleep following lesion or neuromodulation of the PPN, it is assumed that the pathological changes of the PPN might contribute to both motor and non-motor manifestations of dystonia. In this review, we aim to summarize the involvement of the PPN in dystonia based on the current preclinical and clinical evidences. Moreover, potential mechanisms for its contributions to the manifestation of dystonia is also discussed base on the dystonia-related basal ganglia-cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit, providing fundamental insight into the targeting of the PPN for the treatment of dystonia in the future.

Mesoscale connections and gene expression empower whole-brain modeling of α-synuclein spread, aggregation, and decay dynamics

An emerging view regarding neurodegenerative diseases is that discreet seeding of misfolded proteins leads to widespread pathology. However, the mechanisms by which misfolded proteins seed distinct brain regions and cause differential whole-brain pathology remain elusive. We used whole-brain tissue clearing and high-resolution imaging to longitudinally map pathology in an α-synuclein pre-formed fibril injection model of Parkinson's disease. Cleared brains at different time points of disease progression were quantitatively segmented and registered to a standardized atlas, revealing distinct phases of spreading and decline. We then fit a computational model with parameters that represent α-synuclein pathology spreading, aggregation, decay, and gene expression pattern to this longitudinal dataset. Remarkably, our model can generalize to predicting α-synuclein spreading patterns from several distinct brain regions and can even estimate their origins. This model empowers mechanistic understanding and accurate prediction of disease progression, paving the way for the development and testing of therapeutic interventions.

Striatal-Inoculation of α-Synuclein Preformed Fibrils Aggravated the Phenotypes of REM Sleep without Atonia in A53T BAC-SNCA Transgenic Mice

Accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) is the pathological hallmark of α-synucleinopathy. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is a pivotal manifestation of α-synucleinopathy including Parkinson's disease (PD). RBD is clinically confirmed by REM sleep without atonia (RWA) in polysomnography. To accurately characterize RWA preceding RBD and their underlying α-syn pathology, we inoculated α-syn preformed fibrils (PFFs) into the striatum of A53T human α-syn BAC transgenic (A53T BAC-SNCA Tg) mice which exhibit RBD-like phenotypes with RWA. RWA phenotypes were aggravated by PFFs-inoculation in A53T BAC-SNCA Tg mice at 1 month after inoculation, in which prominent α-syn pathology in the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) was observed. The intensity of RWA phenotype could be dependent on the severity of the underlying α-syn pathology.

Age-dependent neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in a genetic A30P/A53T double-mutated α-synuclein mouse model of Parkinson's disease

The pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is closely interwoven with the process of aging. Moreover, increasing evidence from human postmortem studies and from animal models for PD point towards inflammation as an additional factor in disease development. We here assessed the impact of aging and inflammation on dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the hm²α-SYN-39 mouse model of PD that carries the human, A30P/A53T double-mutated α-synuclein gene. At 2-3 months of age, no significant differences were observed comparing dopaminergic neuron numbers of the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta of hm²α-SYN-39 mice with wildtype controls. At an age of 16-17 months, however, hm²α-SYN-39 mice revealed a significant loss of dopaminergic SN neurons, of dopaminergic terminals in the striatum as well as a reduction of striatal dopamine levels compared to young, 2-3 months transgenic mice and compared to 16-17 months old wildtype littermates. A significant age-related correlation of infiltrating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell numbers with dopaminergic terminal loss of the striatum was found in hm²α-SYN-39 mice, but not in wildtype controls. In the striatum of 16-17 months old wildtype mice a slightly elevated CD8⁺ T cell count and CD11b⁺ microglia cell count was observed compared to younger aged mice. Additional analyses of neuroinflammation in the nigrostriatal tract of wildtype mice did not yield any significant age-dependent changes of CD4⁺, CD8⁺ T cell and B220⁺ B cell numbers, respectively. In contrast, a significant age-dependent increase of CD8⁺ T cells, GFAP⁺ astrocytes as well as a pronounced increase of CD11b⁺ microglia numbers were observed in the SN of hm²α-SYN-39 mice pointing towards a neuroinflammatory processes in this genetic mouse model for PD. The findings in the hm²α-SYN-39 mouse model strengthen the evidence that T cell and glial cell responses are involved in the age-related neurodegeneration in PD. The slow and age-dependent progression of neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in the hm²α-SYN-39 PD rodent model underlines its translational value and makes it suitable for studying anti-inflammatory therapies.

The roles of connectivity and neuronal phenotype in determining the pattern of α-synuclein pathology in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder, and motor dysfunction has been attributed to loss of dopaminergic neurons. However, motor dysfunction is only one of many symptoms experienced by patients. A neuropathological hallmark of PD is intraneuronal protein aggregates called Lewy pathology (LP). Neuropathological staging studies have shown that dopaminergic neurons are only one of the many cell types prone to manifest LP. Progressive appearance of LP in multiple brain regions, as well as peripheral nerves, has led to the popular hypothesis that LP and misfolded forms of one of its major components - α-synuclein (aSYN) - can spread through synaptically connected circuits. However, not all brain regions or neurons within connected circuits develop LP, suggesting that cell autonomous factors modulate the development of pathology. Here, we review studies about how LP develops and progressively engages additional brain regions. We focus on how connectivity constrains progression and discuss cell autonomous factors that drive pathology development. We propose a mixed model of cell autonomous factors and trans-synaptic spread as mediators of pathology progression and put forward this model as a framework for future experiments exploring PD pathophysiology.

The Mesoscopic Connectome of the Cholinergic Pontomesencephalic Tegmentum

The pontomesencephalic tegmentum, comprising the pedunculopontine nucleus and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, is involved in various functions via complex connections; however, the organizational structure of these circuits in the whole brain is not entirely clear. Here, combining viral tracing with fluorescent micro-optical sectional tomography, we comprehensively investigated the input and output circuits of two cholinergic subregions in a continuous whole-brain dataset. We found that these nuclei receive abundant input with similar spatial distributions but with different quantitative measures and acquire similar neuromodulatory afferents from the ascending reticular activation system. Meanwhile, these cholinergic nuclei project to similar targeting areas throughout multiple brain regions and have different spatial preferences in 3D. Moreover, some cholinergic connections are unidirectional, including projections from the pedunculopontine nucleus and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus to the ventral posterior complex of the thalamus, and have different impacts on locomotion and anxiety. These results reveal the integrated cholinergic connectome of the midbrain, thus improving the present understanding of the organizational structure of the pontine-tegmental cholinergic system from its anatomical structure to its functional modulation.

Modelling α-Synuclein Aggregation and Neurodegeneration with Fibril Seeds in Primary Cultures of Mouse Dopaminergic Neurons

To model α-Synuclein (αS) aggregation and neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease (PD), we established cultures of mouse midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons and chronically exposed them to fibrils 91 (F91) generated from recombinant human αS. We found that F91 have an exquisite propensity to seed the aggregation of endogenous αS in DA neurons when compared to other neurons in midbrain cultures. Until two weeks post-exposure, somal aggregation in DA neurons increased with F91 concentrations (0.01–0.75 μM) and the time elapsed since the initiation of seeding, with, however, no evidence of DA cell loss within this time interval. Neither toxin-induced mitochondrial deficits nor genetically induced loss of mitochondrial quality control mechanisms promoted F91-mediated αS aggregation or neurodegeneration under these conditions. Yet, a significant loss of DA neurons (~30%) was detectable three weeks after exposure to F91 (0.5 μM), i.e., at a time point where somal aggregation reached a plateau. This loss was preceded by early deficits in DA uptake. Unlike αS aggregation, the loss of DA neurons was prevented by treatment with GDNF, suggesting that αS aggregation in DA neurons may induce a form of cell death mimicking a state of trophic factor deprivation. Overall, our model system may be useful for exploring PD-related pathomechanisms and for testing molecules of therapeutic interest for this disorder.

Initiation and progression of α-synuclein pathology in Parkinson’s disease

α-Synuclein aggregation is a critical molecular process that underpins the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Aggregates may originate at synaptic terminals as a consequence of aberrant interactions between α-synuclein and lipids or evasion of proteostatic defences. The nature of these interactions is likely to influence the emergence of conformers or strains that in turn could explain the clinical heterogeneity of Parkinson’s disease and related α-synucleinopathies. For neurodegeneration to occur, α-synuclein assemblies need to exhibit seeding competency, i.e. ability to template further aggregation, and toxicity which is at least partly mediated by interference with synaptic vesicle or organelle homeostasis. Given the dynamic and reversible conformational plasticity of α-synuclein, it is possible that seeding competency and cellular toxicity are mediated by assemblies of different structure or size along this continuum. It is currently unknown which α-synuclein assemblies are the most relevant to the human condition but recent advances in the cryo-electron microscopic characterisation of brain-derived fibrils and their assessment in stem cell derived and animal models are likely to facilitate the development of precision therapies or biomarkers. This review summarises the main principles of α-synuclein aggregate initiation and propagation in model systems, and their relevance to clinical translation.

Cholinergic neurons in the pedunculopontine nucleus guide reversal learning by signaling the changing reward contingency

Cognitive flexibility enables effective switching between mental processes to generate appropriate responses. Cholinergic neurons (CNs) within the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) are associated with many functions, but their contribution to cognitive flexibility remains poorly understood. Here we measure PPN cholinergic activities using calcium indicators during the attentional set-shifting task. We find that PPN CNs exhibit increasing activities correlated with rewards during each stage and error trials in reversal stages, indicating sensitivity to rule switching. Inhibition of PPN cholinergic activity selectively impairs reversal learning, which improves with PPN CN activation. Activation of PPN CNs projecting to the substantia nigra pars compacta, mediodorsal thalamus, and parafascicular nucleus in a time-locked manner with reward improves reversal learning. Therefore, PPN CNs may encode not only reward signals but also the information of changing reward contingency that contributes to guiding reversal learning through output projections to multiple nuclei that participate in flexibility.

Neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation are linked, but independent of alpha‐synuclein inclusions, in a seeding/spreading mouse model of Parkinson's disease

A key pathological process in Parkinson's disease (PD) is the transneuronal spreading of α‐synuclein. Alpha‐synuclein (α‐syn) is a presynaptic protein that, in PD, forms pathological inclusions. Other hallmarks of PD include neurodegeneration and microgliosis in susceptible brain regions. Whether it is primarily transneuronal spreading of α‐syn particles, inclusion formation, or other mechanisms, such as inflammation, that cause neurodegeneration in PD is unclear. We used a model of spreading of α‐syn induced by striatal injection of α‐syn preformed fibrils into the mouse striatum to address this question. We performed quantitative analysis for α‐syn inclusions, neurodegeneration, and microgliosis in different brain regions, and generated gene expression profiles of the ventral midbrain, at two different timepoints after disease induction. We observed significant neurodegeneration and microgliosis in brain regions not only with, but also without α‐syn inclusions. We also observed prominent microgliosis in injured brain regions that did not correlate with neurodegeneration nor with inclusion load. Using longitudinal gene expression profiling, we observed early gene expression changes, linked to neuroinflammation, that preceded neurodegeneration, indicating an active role of microglia in this process. Altered gene pathways overlapped with those typical of PD. Our observations indicate that α‐syn inclusion formation is not the major driver in the early phases of PD‐like neurodegeneration, but that microglia, activated by diffusible, oligomeric α‐syn, may play a key role in this process. Our findings uncover new features of α‐syn induced pathologies, in particular microgliosis, and point to the necessity for a broader view of the process of α‐syn spreading.

How Lazy Reading and Semantic Sloppiness May Harm Progress in Synucleinopathy Research

While confronted with the increasing complexity of the neurobiology of Parkinson’s disease (PD), we face the ever-increasing sloppiness of the conceptual definitions associated with poor methodological characterizations and the use of unacknowledged proxies, all of which are harmful contributors to the overall slow progress of PD research. In this opinion paper, I share part of my frustration, acknowledge how I participate in this trend, and propose a simple remedy. Fighting against semantic or conceptual sloppiness is of paramount importance, notably for the benefit of newcomers to the field who otherwise would take for granted the classic assertions found ad nauseam in the literature.

Phosphorylation of endogenous α-synuclein induced by extracellular seeds initiates at the pre-synaptic region and spreads to the cell body

Accumulation of phosphorylated α-synuclein aggregates has been implicated in several diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and is thought to spread in a prion-like manner. Elucidating the mechanisms of prion-like transmission of α-synuclein is important for the development of therapies for these diseases, but little is known about the details. Here, we injected α-synuclein fibrils into the brains of wild-type mice and examined the early phase of the induction of phosphorylated α-synuclein accumulation. We found that phosphorylated α-synuclein appeared within a few days after the intracerebral injection. It was observed initially in presynaptic regions and subsequently extended its localization to axons and cell bodies.　These results suggest that extracellular α-synuclein fibrils are taken up into the presynaptic region and seed-dependently convert the endogenous normal α-synuclein that is abundant there to an abnormal phosphorylated form, which is then transported through the axon to the cell body.

Stereological estimations and neurochemical characterization of neurons expressing GABAA and GABAB receptors in the rat pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei

To better understand GABAergic transmission at two targets of basal ganglia downstream projections, the pedunculopontine (PPN) and laterodorsal (LDT) tegmental nuclei, the anatomical localization of GABAA and GABAB receptors was investigated in both nuclei. Specifically, the total number of neurons expressing the GABAA receptor γ2 subunit (GABAAR γ2) and the GABAB receptor R2 subunit (GABAB R2) in PPN and LDT was estimated using stereological methods, and the neurochemical phenotype of cells expressing each subunit was also determined. The mean number of non-cholinergic cells expressing GABAAR γ2 was 9850 ± 1856 in the PPN and 8285 ± 962 in the LDT, whereas those expressing GABAB R2 were 7310 ± 1970 and 9170 ± 1900 in the PPN and LDT, respectively. In addition, all cholinergic neurons in both nuclei co-expressed GABAAR γ2 and 95-98% of them co-expressed GABAB R2. Triple labeling using in situ hybridization revealed that 77% of GAD67 mRNA-positive cells in the PPT and 49% in the LDT expressed GABAAR γ2, while 90% (PPN) and 65% (LDT) of Vglut2 mRNA-positive cells also expressed GABAAR γ2. In contrast, a similar proportion (~2/3) of glutamatergic and GABAergic cells co-expressed GABAB R2 in both nuclei. The heterogeneous distribution of GABAAR and GABABR among non-cholinergic cells in PPN and LDT may give rise to physiological differences within each neurochemical subpopulation. In addition, the dissimilar proportion of GABAAR γ2-expressing glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons in the PPN and LDT may contribute to some of the functional differences found between the two nuclei.

Brain regions susceptible to alpha-synuclein spreading

The spreading of misfolded alpha-synuclein (α-syn) protein has been observed in animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD) and other α-synucleinopathies that mimic human PD pathologies. In animal models, the spreading of α-syn has been associated with motor dysfunction and neuronal death. However, variability in both susceptible brain regions and cellular populations limits our understanding of the consequences of α-syn spreading and the development of associated therapies. Here, we have reviewed the physiological and pathological functions of α-syn and summarized the susceptible brain regions and cell types identified from human postmortem studies and exogenous α-syn injection-based animal models. We have reviewed the methods for inducing α-syn aggregation, the specific hosts, the inoculation sites, the routes of propagation, and other experimental settings that may affect the spreading pattern of α-syn, as reported in current studies. Understanding the spread of α-syn to produce a consistent PD animal model is vital for future drug discovery.

Missense Mutations Modify the Conformational Ensemble of the α-Synuclein Monomer Which Exhibits a Two-Phase Characteristic

α-Synuclein is an intrinsically disordered protein occurring in different conformations and prone to aggregate in β-sheet structures, which are the hallmark of the Parkinson disease. Missense mutations are associated with familial forms of this neuropathy. How these single amino-acid substitutions modify the conformations of wild-type α-synuclein is unclear. Here, using coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, we sampled the conformational space of the wild type and mutants (A30P, A53P, and E46K) of α-synuclein monomers for an effective time scale of 29.7 ms. To characterize the structures, we developed an algorithm, CUTABI (CUrvature and Torsion based of Alpha-helix and Beta-sheet Identification), to identify residues in the α-helix and β-sheet from C^α-coordinates. CUTABI was built from the results of the analysis of 14,652 selected protein structures using the Dictionary of Secondary Structure of Proteins (DSSP) algorithm. DSSP results are reproduced with 93% of success for 10 times lower computational cost. A two-dimensional probability density map of α-synuclein as a function of the number of residues in the α-helix and β-sheet is computed for wild-type and mutated proteins from molecular dynamics trajectories. The density of conformational states reveals a two-phase characteristic with a homogeneous phase (state B, β-sheets) and a heterogeneous phase (state HB, mixture of α-helices and β-sheets). The B state represents 40% of the conformations for the wild-type, A30P, and E46K and only 25% for A53T. The density of conformational states of the B state for A53T and A30P mutants differs from the wild-type one. In addition, the mutant A53T has a larger propensity to form helices than the others. These findings indicate that the equilibrium between the different conformations of the α-synuclein monomer is modified by the missense mutations in a subtle way. The α-helix and β-sheet contents are promising order parameters for intrinsically disordered proteins, whereas other structural properties such as average gyration radius, R_g, or probability distribution of R_g cannot discriminate significantly the conformational ensembles of the wild type and mutants. When separated in states B and HB, the distributions of R_g are more significantly different, indicating that global structural parameters alone are insufficient to characterize the conformational ensembles of the α-synuclein monomer.

Differentially targeted seeding reveals unique pathological alpha-synuclein propagation patterns

Parkinson's Disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the intracellular accumulation of insoluble alpha-synuclein aggregates into Lewy bodies and neurites. Increasing evidence indicates that Parkinson's Disease progression results from the spread of pathologic alpha-synuclein through neuronal networks. However, the exact mechanisms underlying the propagation of abnormal proteins in the brain are only partially understood. The objective of this study was first to describe the long-term spatiotemporal distributions of Lewy-related pathology in mice injected with alpha-synuclein preformed fibrils and then to recreate these patterns using a computational model that simulates in silico the spread of pathologic alpha-synuclein. In this study, 87 two-to-three-month-old non-transgenic mice were injected with alpha-synuclein preformed fibrils to generate a comprehensive post-mortem dataset representing the long-term spatiotemporal distributions of hyperphosphorylated alpha-synuclein, an established marker of Lewy pathology, across the 426 regions of the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas. The mice were injected into either the caudoputamen, nucleus accumbens or hippocampus and followed over 24 months with pathologic alpha-synuclein quantified at seven intermediate time points. The pathologic patterns observed at each time point in this high-resolution dataset were then compared to those generated using a Susceptible-Infected-Removed computational model, an agent-based model that simulates the spread of pathologic alpha-synuclein for every brain region taking simultaneously into account the effect of regional brain connectivity and Snca gene expression. Our histopathological findings showed that differentially targeted seeding of pathologic alpha-synuclein resulted in unique propagation patterns over 24 months and that most brain regions were permissive to pathology. We found that the Susceptible-Infected-Removed model recreated the observed distributions of pathology over 24 months for each injection site. Null models showed that both Snca gene expression and connectivity had a significant influence on model fit. In sum, our study demonstrates that the combination of normal alpha-synuclein concentration and brain connectomics contributes to making brain regions more vulnerable to the pathological process, providing support for a prion-like spread of pathologic alpha-synuclein. We propose that this rich dataset and the related computational model will help test new hypotheses regarding mechanisms that may alter the spread of pathologic alpha-synuclein in the brain.

Impact of α-synuclein spreading on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway depends on the onset of the pathology

Misfolded α‐synuclein spreads along anatomically connected areas through the brain, prompting progressive neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway in Parkinson's disease. To investigate the impact of early stage seeding and spreading of misfolded α‐synuclein along with the nigrostriatal pathway, we studied the pathophysiologic effect induced by a single acute α‐synuclein preformed fibrils (PFFs) inoculation into the midbrain. Further, to model the progressive vulnerability that characterizes the dopamine (DA) neuron life span, we used two cohorts of mice with different ages: 2‐month‐old (young) and 5‐month‐old (adult) mice. Two months after α‐synuclein PFFs injection, we found that striatal DA release decreased exclusively in adult mice. Adult DA neurons showed an increased level of pathology spreading along with the nigrostriatal pathway accompanied with a lower volume of α‐synuclein deposition in the midbrain, impaired neurotransmission, rigid DA terminal composition, and less microglial reactivity compared with young neurons. Notably, preserved DA release and increased microglial coverage in the PFFs‐seeded hemisphere coexist with decreased large‐sized terminal density in young DA neurons. This suggests the presence of a targeted pruning mechanism that limits the detrimental effect of α‐synuclein early spreading. This study suggests that the impact of the pathophysiology caused by misfolded α‐synuclein spreading along the nigrostriatal pathway depends on the age of the DA network, reducing striatal DA release specifically in adult mice.

Parkinson Disease: Translating Insights from Molecular Mechanisms to Neuroprotection

Parkinson disease (PD) used to be considered a nongenetic condition. However, the identification of several autosomal dominant and recessive mutations linked to monogenic PD has changed this view. Clinically manifest PD is then thought to occur through a complex interplay between genetic mutations, many of which have incomplete penetrance, and environmental factors, both neuroprotective and increasing susceptibility, which variably interact to reach a threshold over which PD becomes clinically manifested. Functional studies of PD gene products have identified many cellular and molecular pathways, providing crucial insights into the nature and causes of PD. PD originates from multiple causes and a range of pathogenic processes at play, ultimately culminating in nigral dopaminergic loss and motor dysfunction. An in-depth understanding of these complex and possibly convergent pathways will pave the way for therapeutic approaches to alleviate the disease symptoms and neuroprotective strategies to prevent disease manifestations. This review is aimed at providing a comprehensive understanding of advances made in PD research based on leveraging genetic insights into the pathogenesis of PD. It further discusses novel perspectives to facilitate identification of critical molecular pathways that are central to neurodegeneration that hold the potential to develop neuroprotective and/or neurorestorative therapeutic strategies for PD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A comprehensive review of PD pathophysiology is provided on the complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors and biologic processes that contribute to PD pathogenesis. This knowledge identifies new targets that could be leveraged into disease-modifying therapies to prevent or slow neurodegeneration in PD.

A direct interareal feedback-to-feedforward circuit in primate visual cortex

The mammalian sensory neocortex consists of hierarchically organized areas reciprocally connected via feedforward (FF) and feedback (FB) circuits. Several theories of hierarchical computation ascribe the bulk of the computational work of the cortex to looped FF-FB circuits between pairs of cortical areas. However, whether such corticocortical loops exist remains unclear. In higher mammals, individual FF-projection neurons send afferents almost exclusively to a single higher-level area. However, it is unclear whether FB-projection neurons show similar area-specificity, and whether they influence FF-projection neurons directly or indirectly. Using viral-mediated monosynaptic circuit tracing in macaque primary visual cortex (V1), we show that V1 neurons sending FF projections to area V2 receive monosynaptic FB inputs from V2, but not other V1-projecting areas. We also find monosynaptic FB-to-FB neuron contacts as a second motif of FB connectivity. Our results support the existence of FF-FB loops in primate cortex, and suggest that FB can rapidly and selectively influence the activity of incoming FF signals.

Alpha-Synuclein as a Prominent Actor in the Inflammatory Synaptopathy of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is considered the most common disorder of synucleinopathy, which is characterised by intracellular inclusions of aggregated and misfolded α-synuclein (α-syn) protein in various brain regions, and the loss of dopaminergic neurons. During the early prodromal phase of PD, synaptic alterations happen before cell death, which is linked to the synaptic accumulation of toxic α-syn specifically in the presynaptic terminals, affecting neurotransmitter release. The oligomers and protofibrils of α-syn are the most toxic species, and their overexpression impairs the distribution and activation of synaptic proteins, such as the SNARE complex, preventing neurotransmitter exocytosis and neuronal synaptic communication. In the last few years, the role of the immune system in PD has been increasingly considered. Microglial and astrocyte activation, the gene expression of proinflammatory factors, and the infiltration of immune cells from the periphery to the central nervous system (CNS) represent the main features of the inflammatory response. One of the actors of these processes is α-syn accumulation. In light of this, here, we provide a systematic review of PD-related α-syn and inflammation inter-players.

α-Synuclein Responses in the Laterodorsal Tegmentum, the Pedunculopontine Tegmentum, and the Substantia Nigra: Implications for Early Appearance of Sleep Disorders in Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with insoluble pathological aggregates of the protein α-synuclein. While PD is diagnosed by motor symptoms putatively due to aggregated α-synuclein-mediated damage to substantia nigra (SN) neurons, up to a decade before motor symptom appearance, patients exhibit sleep disorders (SDs). Therefore, we hypothesized that α-synuclein, which can be present in monomeric, fibril, and other forms, has deleterious cellular actions on sleep-control nuclei.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated whether native monomer and fibril forms of α-synuclein have effects on neuronal function, calcium dynamics, and cell-death-induction in two sleep-controlling nuclei: the laterodorsal tegmentum (LDT), and the pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT), as well as the motor-controlling SN.

METHODS

Size exclusion chromatography, Thioflavin T emission, and circular dichroism spectroscopy were used to isolate structurally defined forms of recombinant, human α-synuclein. Neuronal and viability effects of characterized monomeric and fibril forms of α-synuclein were determined on LDT, PPT, and SN neurons using electrophysiology, calcium imaging, and neurotoxicity assays.

RESULTS

In LDT and PPT, both forms of α-synuclein induced excitation and increased calcium, and the monomeric form heightened putatively excitotoxic neuronal death, whereas, in the SN we saw inhibition, decreased intracellular calcium, and monomeric α-synuclein was not associated with heightened cell death.

CONCLUSION

Nucleus-specific differential effects suggest mechanistic underpinnings of SDs' prodromal appearance in PD. While speculative, we hypothesize that the monomeric form of α-synuclein compromises functionality of sleep-control neurons, leading to the presence of SDs decades prior to motor dysfunction.