Reactivation of the tumor suppressor PTEN by mRNA nanoparticles enhances antitumor immunity in preclinical models

Lung-targeted delivery of PTEN mRNA combined with anti-PD-1-mediated immunotherapy for In Situ lung cancer treatment

mRNA-based protein replacement therapy has become one of the most widely applied forms of mRNA therapy, with lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) being extensively studied as efficient delivery platforms for mRNA. However, existing LNPs tend to accumulate in the liver or kidneys after intravenous injection, highlighting the need to develop vectors capable of targeting specific organs. In this study, we synthesized a small library of ionizable lipids and identified PPz-2R1 as a promising candidate, exhibiting lung-targeting capabilities, high mRNA transfection efficiency, and good stability through structure-activity relationship studies. In an in situ lung cancer model with PTEN deletion, precise delivery of PTEN mRNA to the lungs restored the cancer-suppressing function of the PTEN protein and successfully alleviated the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in the lungs by modulating immune cell activity and cytokine levels. Additionally, the upregulation of PD-L1 expression at the tumor site was triggered. Building on this, in vivo treatment with PTEN mRNA combined with anti-PD-1 therapy was tested in tumor-bearing mice. The results demonstrated that the combined treatment strategy effectively overcame immune escape, promoted T cell infiltration, improved survival rates over 60 days, and significantly inhibited tumor growth. Furthermore, the combination treatment was more effective than either therapy alone. This study presents an effective and practical strategy for the targeted treatment of lung diseases and relevant combination therapies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been extensively studied as efficient delivery vectors for mRNA. However, it remains essential to develop vectors that can specifically target distinct organs. In this study, we designed and synthesized a series of piperazine-containing ionizable lipids and their analogues, which were initially explored as lung-targeting vectors for PTEN mRNA delivery. Through screening in both in vitro and in vivo experiments, we found that the leading LNPs-assisted PTEN mRNA-mediated protein supplementation therapy effectively downregulated Treg expression and activated immune cells, thereby reversing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in a mouse model of lung cancer. Furthermore, when combined with anti-PD-1-mediated immunotherapy, the combination therapy exhibited the strongest tumor growth inhibition. This approach offers a novel strategy for the targeted treatment of lung diseases and associated combination therapies.

A novel micelleplex for tumour-targeted delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 against KRAS-mutated lung cancer

CRISPR-Cas9 has emerged as a highly effective and customizable genome editing tool, holding significant promise for the treatment of KRAS mutations in lung cancer. In this study, we introduce a novel micelleplex, named C14-PEI, designed to co-deliver Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA efficiently to excise the mutated KRAS allele in lung cancer cells. C14-PEI is synthesised from 1,2-epoxytetradecane and branched PEI 600 Da via a ring-opening reaction. The resulting C14-PEI has a critical micelle concentration (CMC) of approximately 20.86 ± 0.15 mg L-1, indicating its ability to form stable micelles at low concentrations. C14-PEI efficiently encapsulates mRNA into micelleplexes through electrostatic interactions. When the mass ratio is 8 (w/w 8), the C14-PEI formulation exhibits conducive properties, which showed encapsulation efficiency of eGFP mRNA at 99% and led to a 130-fold increase in eGFP expression in A549 cells compared to untreated cells, demonstrating the robust delivery and expression capability of the micelleplexes. Importantly, toxicity tests using intracellular reduction of a tetrazolium salt revealed no significant cytotoxicity, underscoring the biocompatibility of C14-PEI. C14-PEI also shows high efficiency in co-encapsulating Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA, as confirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis. At an sgRNA to Cas9 mRNA molar ratio of 10, the micelleplexes successfully mediate the cutting of mutated KRAS with an indel efficiency exceeding 60%, as determined by the T7 Endonuclease I (T7EI) assay. Droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) further demonstrates that the gene editing efficiency, measured by edited gene copies, is 48.5% in the w/w 4 group and 37.8% in the w/w 8 group. Treatment with C14-PEI micelleplexes containing Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA targeting the KRAS G12S mutation significantly impairs the migration capability of A549 cells and increases apoptosis rates. These findings suggest that C14-PEI effectively disrupts KRAS signalling pathways, leading to reduced tumor cell proliferation and enhanced cell death.

RNA therapies for musculoskeletal conditions

Musculoskeletal conditions impact 1.71 billion individuals, posing significant challenges due to their complexity, varying clinical courses, and unclear molecular mechanisms. Conventional spectrum treatments often prove inadequate, underscoring the importance of targeted therapies. Recently, RNA-based technologies have emerged as a groundbreaking approach in therapeutics, showing applications in joint related ailments. This perspective aims to examine endeavors exploring the use of RNA-based treatments in both experimental and clinical contexts for addressing joint issues like osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cartilage injuries. The cited studies demonstrate how mRNA can stimulate the production of proteins that aid in controlling inflammation, fostering tissue regeneration and repairing cartilage damage. In summary, this perspective offers an overview of the progress made in mRNA-based technologies for treating related conditions by highlighting favorable findings from preclinical research and encouraging results from clinical trials. With advancements in the field, mRNA therapeutics have the potential to revolutionize treatment approaches for musculoskeletal disorders, bringing renewed hope to the future of musculoskeletal conditions.

Size-specific clonidine-loaded liposomes: Advancing melanoma microenvironment suppression with safety and precision

The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in the progression and treatment resistance of melanoma. Modulating the TME is thus a key strategy for enhancing therapeutic outcomes. Previousstudies have identified clonidine (CLD), an α2-adrenergic receptor agonist, as a promising agent that enhances T lymphocyte infiltration and reduces myeloid-derived suppressor cells within the TME, thereby promoting antitumor immune responses. In this study, we discovered that CLD reshaped the melanoma immune microenvironment, facilitating T-cell activation and exerting antitumor effects. However, the high doses of CLD required for effective TME modulation pose significant toxicity concerns, limiting its clinical applicability. To address this, we employed the controllable cavitation-on-a-chip (CCC) platform to formulate CLD-loaded liposomes and optimize their size. This approach aimed to enhance the precision and efficacy of drug delivery while reducing systemic side effects. Our results demonstrated that size-specific CLD liposomes, particularly those at 50 nm, significantly improved tumor growth inhibition and immune cell infiltration within the TME. Moreover, these optimized liposomes mitigate adverse effects associated with high-dose CLD treatment. This study indicates the potential of CCC-optimized CLD liposomes as a safer and more effective melanoma therapy, highlighting the critical interplay between liposome size control and therapeutic outcomes in cancer treatment.

mRNA vaccines in the context of cancer treatment: from concept to application

Immuno-oncology has witnessed remarkable advancements in the past decade, revolutionizing the landscape of cancer therapeutics in an encouraging manner. Among the diverse immunotherapy strategies, mRNA vaccines have ushered in a new era for the therapeutic management of malignant diseases, primarily due to their impressive impact on the COVID-19 pandemic. In this comprehensive review, we offer a systematic overview of mRNA vaccines, focusing on the optimization of structural design, the crucial role of delivery materials, and the administration route. Additionally, we summarize preclinical studies and clinical trials to provide valuable insights into the current status of mRNA vaccines in cancer treatment. Furthermore, we delve into a systematic discussion on the significant challenges facing the current development of mRNA tumor vaccines. These challenges encompass both intrinsic and external factors that are closely intertwined with the successful application of this innovative approach. To pave the way for a more promising future in cancer treatments, a deeper understanding of immunological mechanisms, an increasing number of high-quality clinical trials, and a well-established manufacturing platform are crucial. Collaborative efforts between scientists, clinicians, and industry engineers are essential to achieving these goals.

Poly(ionic liquid)-regulated green one-pot synthesis of Au@Pt porous nanospheres for the smart detection of acid phosphatase and organophosphorus inhibitor

Here, a green poly(ionic liquid)-regulated one-pot method is developed for the synthesis of Au@Pt core-shell nanospheres (PNSs) under mild reaction conditions in water. It is found that the poly(ionic liquid) poly[1-methyl-3-butyl (3-hydroxy) imidazole] chloride (PIL-Cl) is very vital to guide the construction of Au@Pt PNSs. The as-obtained Au@Pt-1 PNSs have perfect spherical outlines, porous core-shell structures and large specific surface area by which they exhibit excellent peroxidase-like activity in acidic media and can be used to develop a simple and reliable colorimetric sensing platform. It is shown that the colorimetric sensing platform constructed with Au@Pt-1 PNSs nanozyme can effectively evaluate ACP activity, achieving a wide linear detection range of 0.1-3.0 U/L and having a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.047 U/L (S/N = 3). Based on the cascade reaction, the Au@Pt-1 PNSs nanozyme and ACP are integrated to develop a biosensor, which can detect organophosphate inhibitor of malathion with a wide linear detection range of 5-80 nM and low LOD of 1.96 nM (S/N = 3). More importantly, this detection method is also practically applied to detect both ACP activity in fetal bovine serum and malathion concentration in cucumber juice with satisfied results. This work presents a simple and green feature for the synthesis of nanozyme with high performance and establishes a biosensing platform based on Au@Pt-1 PNSs nanozyme to effectively monitor the ACP activity and the concentration of its organophosphate inhibitor malathion with high sensitivity, anti-interference capability and good recovery capability.

RNA nanotherapeutics for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, particularly due to the limited effectiveness of current therapeutic options for advanced-stage disease. The efficacy of traditional treatments is often compromised by the intricate liver microenvironment and the inherent heterogeneity. RNA-based therapeutics offer a promising alternative, utilizing the innovative approach of targeting aberrant molecular pathways and modulating the tumor microenvironment. The integration of nanotechnology in this field, through the development of advanced nanocarrier delivery systems, especially lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), polymer nanoparticles (PNPs), and bioinspired vectors, enhances the precision and efficacy of RNA therapies. This review highlights the significant progress in RNA nanotherapeutics for HCC treatment, covering micro RNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), message RNA (mRNA), and small activating RNA (saRNA) mediated gene silencing, therapeutic protein restoration, gene activation, cancer vaccines, and concurrent therapy. It further comprehensively discusses the prevailing challenges within this therapeutic landscape and provides a forward-looking perspective on the potential of RNA nanotherapeutics to transform HCC treatment.

A generative framework for enhanced cell-type specificity in rationally designed mRNAs

mRNA delivery offers new opportunities for disease treatment by directing cells to produce therapeutic proteins. However, designing highly stable mRNAs with programmable cell type-specificity remains a challenge. To address this, we measured the regulatory activity of 60,000 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs) across six cell types and developed PARADE (Prediction And RAtional DEsign of mRNA UTRs), a generative AI framework to engineer untranslated RNA regions with tailored cell type-specific activity. We validated PARADE by testing 15,800 de novo-designed sequences across these cell lines and identified many sequences that demonstrated superior specificity and activity compared to existing RNA therapeutics. mRNAs with PARADE-engineered UTRs also exhibited robust tissue-specific activity in animal models, achieving selective expression in the liver and spleen. We also leveraged PARADE to enhance mRNA stability, significantly increasing protein output and therapeutic durability in vivo. These advancements translated to notable increases in therapeutic efficacy, as PARADE-designed UTRs in oncosuppressor mRNAs, namely PTEN and P16, effectively reduced tumor growth in patient-derived neuroglioma xenograft models and orthotopic mouse models. Collectively, these findings establish PARADE as a versatile platform for designing safer, more precise, and highly stable mRNA therapies.

Current trends in sensitizing immune checkpoint inhibitors for cancer treatment

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have dramatically transformed the treatment landscape for various malignancies, achieving notable clinical outcomes across a wide range of indications. Despite these advances, resistance to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) remains a critical clinical challenge, characterized by variable response rates and non-durable benefits. However, growing research into the complex intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of tumors has advanced our understanding of the mechanisms behind ICI resistance, potentially improving treatment outcomes. Additionally, robust predictive biomarkers are crucial for optimizing patient selection and maximizing the efficacy of ICBs. Recent studies have emphasized that multiple rational combination strategies can overcome immune checkpoint resistance and enhance susceptibility to ICIs. These findings not only deepen our understanding of tumor biology but also reveal the unique mechanisms of action of sensitizing agents, extending clinical benefits in cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we will explore the underlying biology of ICIs, discuss the significance of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and clinical predictive biomarkers, analyze the current mechanisms of resistance, and outline alternative combination strategies to enhance the effectiveness of ICIs, including personalized strategies for sensitizing tumors to ICIs.

Cell-Specific Control of Mammalian Gene Expression Using DNA Repair Inducible Ribozyme Switches

The ability to control gene expression is vital for elucidating gene functions and developing next-generation therapeutics. Current techniques are challenged by the lack of cell-specific control designs or immunogenicity risk from foreign proteins. We develop a DNA repair inducible ribozyme switch that enables cell-specific control of gene expression in cells and in vivo. This strategy designs plasmids with a DNA lesion (8-oxoG and O6-MeG) site-specifically installed within the ribozyme encoding region, generating active hammerhead ribozyme for mRNA degradation due to transcriptional mutagenesis, whereas DNA repair yields a single-base mismatch in the ribozyme to abrogate its activity. This strategy is demonstrated to allow specific control of gene expression in cancer cells with overexpressed DNA repair enzymes such as MutY DNA glycosylase and O6-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferases. It also shows the capability of conditionally regulating the expression of different proteins for signal reporting and gene editing, enabling DNA repair monitoring and targeted gene therapy in cancer cells. This strategy is demonstrated using the inducible CRISPR/Cas9 system for in vivo editing of oncogenic Polo-like kinase 1 in a mouse model, resulting in significant tumor growth suppression. The DNA repair inducible ribozyme switch may provide a compact system for cell-specific gene expression control toward precise gene therapy.

The efficacy of plasma exosomal miRNAs as predictive biomarkers for PD-1 blockade plus chemotherapy in gastric cancer

Background

The response of gastric cancer (GC) patients to first-line programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) blockade and S-1 plus oxaliplatin (SOX) chemotherapy varies considerably, and the underlying mechanisms driving this variability remain elusive. Exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) have emerged as potential biomarkers for efficacy prediction due to their roles in GC biology and stable expression in serum. In this study, we aimed to identify biomarkers to predict patients' response to anti-PD-1 therapy and further elucidate the potential mechanisms by which these exosomal miRNAs modulate the immune response in GC.

Methods

Serum exosomes were extracted from 11 GC patients (five in the primary cohort and six in the validation cohort) treated with SOX and camrelizumab (a PD-1 inhibitor). High-throughput sequencing was performed to identify miRNA expression profiles, after which hierarchical clustering and a differential expression analysis were conducted. Functional enrichment analyses of the target genes for the significantly upregulated miRNAs were performed using the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases. The validation of the candidate miRNAs was carried out by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) in an independent cohort.

Results

MiRNA sequencing identified 3,083 miRNAs, of which 74 (42 upregulated and 32 downregulated) were differentially expressed between the responders and non-responders. The GO and KEGG pathway analyses of the top 20 upregulated miRNAs indicated that the target genes were significantly involved in transcription regulation, cytoplasmic processes, and protein binding, and that key pathways included the PI3K-AKT, MAPK, RAP1, and RAS signaling pathways. Consistent with the sequencing findings, the qPCR validation results showed significant differences in the expression levels of miRNA451a and miRNA142-5p between the responders and non-responders.

Conclusions

This study identified specific plasma exosomal miRNAs in GC patients that differ between responders and non-responders to PD-1 monoclonal antibody therapy combined with chemotherapy. These miRNAs could serve as predictive biomarkers, paving the way for precision medicine and personalized therapy in the treatment of GC.

A hypoxia-activated and microenvironment-remodeling nanoplatform for multifunctional imaging and potentiated immunotherapy of cancer

Activatable theranostic systems combining precise diagnosis and robust immune activation have significant potential in cancer treatment. Herein, we develop a versatile nanoplatform integrating hypoxia-activatable molecular imaging with effective photoimmunotherapy for cancer treatment. Our molecular probe features turn-on near-infrared-II (NIR-II) fluorescence and photoacoustic signals in hypoxic tumor environments. It also induces hypoxia-triggered photodynamic and photothermal effects, promoting immunogenic cell death and activating the STING pathway, engaging both innate and adaptive immunity. The molecular probe is formulated with a vascular disrupting agent to amplify the hypoxia-responsive phototheranostic properties, on which M1-like macrophage membrane is camouflaged to shield against premature release while conferring cancer-targeting affinity. The activatable NIR-II fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging enable precise tumor delineation, while the enhanced phototherapy activates tumor-specific cytotoxic T cells, impeding both primary and distant tumor progression and providing protective immunity against rechallenge in 4T1 tumor-bearing female mice. This work advances activatable theranostic protocols for image-guided immunotherapy.

mRNA compartmentalization via multimodule DNA nanostructure assembly augments the immunogenicity and efficacy of cancer mRNA vaccine

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine has fueled a great hope for cancer immunotherapy. However, low immunogenicity, caused by inefficient mRNA expression and weak immune stimulation, hampers the efficacy of mRNA vaccines. Here, we present an mRNA compartmentalization-based cancer vaccine, comprising a multimodule DNA nanostructure (MMDNS)-assembled compartment for efficient mRNA translation via in situ localizing mRNA concentration and relevant reaction molecules. The MMDNS is constructed via programmable DNA hybridization chain reaction (HCR)-based strategy, with integrating antigen-coded mRNA, CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs), acidic-responsive DNA sequence, and dendritic cells targeting aptamer. MMDNS undergoes in situ assembly in acidic lysosomes to form a micro-sized aggregate, inducing an enhanced CpG ODN adjuvant efficacy. Subsequently, the aggregates escape into cytoplasm, providing a moderate compartment which supports the efficient translation of spatially proximal mRNA transcripts via localizing relevant reaction molecules. The mRNA compartmentalization-based vaccine boosts a strong immune response and effectively inhibits tumor growth and metastasis, offering a robust strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

Machine learning-driven optimization of mRNA-lipid nanoparticle vaccine quality with XGBoost/Bayesian method and ensemble model approaches

To enhance the efficiency of vaccine manufacturing, this study focuses on optimizing the microfluidic conditions and lipid mix ratios of messenger RNA-lipid nanoparticles (mRNA-LNP). Different mRNA-LNP formulations (n = 24) were developed using an I-optimal design, where machine learning tools (XGBoost/Bayesian optimization and self-validated ensemble (SVEM)) were used to optimize the process and predict lipid mix ratio. The investigation included material attributes, their respective ratios, and process attributes. The critical responses like particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), Zeta potential, pKa, heat trend cycle, encapsulation efficiency (EE), recovery ratio, and encapsulated mRNA were evaluated. Overall prediction of SVEM (>97%) was comparably better than that of XGBoost/Bayesian optimization (>94%). Moreover, in actual experimental outcomes, SVEM prediction is close to the actual data as confirmed by the experimental PS (94-96 nm) is close to the predicted one (95-97 nm). The other parameters including PDI and EE were also close to the actual experimental data.

Better, Faster, Stronger: Accelerating mRNA-Based Immunotherapies With Nanocarriers

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) therapeutics are attracting attention as promising tools in cancer immunotherapy due to their ability to leverage the in vivo expression of all known protein sequences. Even small amounts of mRNA can have a powerful effect on cancer vaccines by promoting the synthesis of tumor-specific antigens (TSA) or tumor-associated antigens (TAA) by antigen-presenting cells (APC). These antigens are then presented to T cells, eliciting strong antitumor immune stimulation. The potential of mRNA can be further enhanced by expressing immunomodulatory agents, such as cytokines, antibodies, and chimeric antigen receptors (CAR), enhancing tumor immunity. Recent research also explores mRNA-encoded tumor death inducers or tumor microenvironment (TME) modulators. Despite its promise, the clinical translation of mRNA-based anticancer strategies faces challenges, including inefficient targeted delivery in vivo, failure of endosomal escape, and inadequate intracellular mRNA release, resulting in poor transfection efficiencies. Inspired by the approval of lipid nanoparticle-loaded mRNA vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the encouraging outcomes of mRNA-based cancer therapies in trials, innovative nonviral nanotechnology delivery systems have been engineered. These aim to advance mRNA-based cancer immunotherapies from research to clinical application. This review summarizes recent preclinical and clinical progress in lipid and polymeric nanomedicines for delivering mRNA-encoded antitumor therapeutics, including cytokines and antibody-based immunotherapies, cancer vaccines, and CAR therapies. It also addresses advanced delivery systems for direct oncolysis or TME reprogramming and highlights key challenges in translating these therapies to clinical use, exploring future perspectives, including the role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in their development.

Decoding PTEN: from biological functions to signaling pathways in tumors

The tumor suppressor gene Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN), possessing both protein and lipid phosphatase activities, is frequently mutated in various human cancers. PTEN aberrations disrupt critical cellular processes like proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion, thereby promoting tumor growth. In the cells, PTEN localizes to the nucleus, cytoplasm, or cell membrane, and its roles depends on the subcellular localization. PTEN is regulated at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels, implying that its functions on the tumors are complex. The relationship between PTEN abnormalities and tumors has garnered significant interest in recent years. PTEN regulates essential cellular processes involved in tumorigenesis. Mutations or deletions in the PTEN gene often correlate with unfavorable prognosis and increased cancer recurrence. Numerous studies suggest that PTEN expression levels in tumors could be a valuable biomarker for cancer diagnosis, treatment, and predicting patient outcomes. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the biological function, regulatory mechanisms, and post-translational modifications of PTEN. Furthermore, this review explores the expression and regulation of PTEN in different tumor types, as well as its interactions with environmental factors in tumorigenesis. This comprehensive analysis aims to deepen our understanding of the signaling pathways between PTEN and cancer.

Immunologically effective biomaterials enhance immunotherapy of prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common malignant neoplasms affecting the male population. The onset of the disease is insidious and often associated with severe consequences, such as bone metastases at the time of initial diagnosis. Once it advances to metastatic castration-resistant PCa (mCRPC), conventional treatment methods become ineffective. As research on the mechanism of tumor therapy advances, immunotherapy has been evolving rapidly. However, PCa is a solid tumor type that primarily faces the challenges of poor immunogenicity and inhibitory tumor microenvironment (TME). Fortunately, the extensive use of biomaterials has led to continuous advancement in PCa immunotherapy. These innovative materials aim to address intractable issues, such as immune escape and immune desert, to inhibit tumor progression and metastasis. This detailed review focuses on the regulation of different aspects of tumor immunity by immunologically effective biomaterials, including modulating adaptive immunity, innate immunity, and the immune microenvironment, to enhance the efficacy of PCa immunotherapy. In addition, this review provides a perspective on the future prospects of immunotherapeutic nanoplatforms based on biomaterials in the treatment of PCa.

Recent Advances and Prospects of Nucleic Acid Therapeutics for Anti-Cancer Therapy

Nucleic acid therapeutics are promising alternatives to conventional anti-cancer therapy, such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. While conventional therapies have limitations, such as high side effects, low specificity, and drug resistance, nucleic acid therapeutics work at the gene level to eliminate the cause of the disease. Nucleic acid therapeutics treat diseases in various forms and using different mechanisms, including plasmid DNA (pDNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), anti-microRNA (anti-miR), microRNA mimics (miRNA mimic), messenger RNA (mRNA), aptamer, catalytic nucleic acid (CNA), and CRISPR cas9 guide RNA (gRNA). In addition, nucleic acids have many advantages as nanomaterials, such as high biocompatibility, design flexibility, low immunogenicity, small size, relatively low price, and easy functionalization. Nucleic acid therapeutics can have a high therapeutic effect by being used in combination with various nucleic acid nanostructures, inorganic nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), etc. to overcome low physiological stability and cell internalization efficiency. The field of nucleic acid therapeutics has advanced remarkably in recent decades, and as more and more nucleic acid therapeutics have been approved, they have already demonstrated their potential to treat diseases, including cancer. This review paper introduces the current status and recent advances in nucleic acid therapy for anti-cancer treatment and discusses the tasks and prospects ahead.

Defect-Rich Metastable MoS2 Promotes Macrophage Reprogramming in Breast Cancer: A Clinical Perspective

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a crucial function in solid tumor antigen clearance and immune suppression. Notably, 2D transitional metal dichalcogenides (i.e., molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanozymes) with enzyme-like activity are demonstrated in animal models for cancer immunotherapy. However, in situ engineering of TAMs polarization through sufficient accumulation of free radical reactive oxygen species for immunotherapy in clinical samples remains a significant challenge. In this study, defect-rich metastable MoS2 nanozymes, i.e., 1T2H-MoS2, are designed via reduction and phase transformation in molten sodium as a guided treatment for human breast cancer. The as-prepared 1T2H-MoS2 exhibited enhanced peroxidase-like activity (≈12-fold enhancement) than that of commercial MoS2, which is attributed to the charge redistribution and electronic state induced by the abundance of S vacancies. The 1T2H-MoS2 nanozyme can function as an extracellular hydroxyl radical generator, efficiently repolarizing TAMs into the M1-like phenotype and directly killing cancer cells. Moreover, the clinical feasibility of 1T2H-MoS2 is demonstrated via ex vivo therapeutic responses in human breast cancer samples. The apoptosis rate of cancer cells is 3.4 times greater than that of cells treated with chemotherapeutic drugs (i.e., doxorubicin).

Melanoma genomics - will we go beyond BRAF in clinics?

In the era of next-generation sequencing, the genetic background of cancer, including melanoma, appears to be thoroughly established. However, evaluating the oncogene BRAF mutation in codon V600 is still the only companion diagnostic genomic test commonly implemented in clinics for molecularly targeted treatment of advanced melanoma. Are we wasting the collected genomic data? Will we implement our current genomic knowledge of melanoma in clinics soon? This question is rather urgent because new therapeutic targets and biomarkers are needed to implement more personalized, patient-tailored therapy in clinics. Here, we provide an update on the molecular background of melanoma, including a description of four already established molecular subtypes: BRAF+, NRAS+, NF1+, and triple WT, as well as relatively new NGS-derived melanoma genes such as PREX2, ERBB4, PPP6C, FBXW7, PIK3CA, and IDH1. We also present a comparison of genomic profiles obtained in recent years with a focus on the most common melanoma genes. Finally, we propose our melanoma gene panel consisting of 22 genes that, in our opinion, are "must-have" genes in both melanoma-specific genomic tests and pan-cancer tests established to improve the treatment of melanoma further.

Strategically engineered Au(I) complexes for orchestrated tumor eradication via chemo-phototherapy and induced immunogenic cell death

Cancer is a significant cause of death around the world, and for many varieties, treatment is not successful. Therefore, there is a need for the development of innovative, efficacious, and precisely targeted treatments. Here, we develop a series of Au(I) complexes (1-4) through rational manipulation of ligand structures, thereby achieving tumor cell specific targeting and orchestrated tumor eradication via chemo-phototherapy and induced immunogenic cell death. A comprehensive exploration based on in vitro and in vivo female mice experimentation shows that complex 4 exhibits proficiency in specific tumor imaging, endoplasmic reticulum targeting, and has robust therapeutic capabilities. Mechanistic elucidation indicates that the anticancer effect derives from the synergistic actions of thioredoxin reductase inhibition, highly efficient reactive oxygen species production and immunogenic cell death. This work presents a report on a robust Au(I) complex integrating three therapeutic modalities within a singular system. The strategy presented in this work provides a valuable reference for the development of high-performance therapeutic agents.

Advancements and challenges in mRNA and ribonucleoprotein-based therapies: From delivery systems to clinical applications

The use of mRNA and ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) as therapeutic agents is a promising strategy for treating diseases such as cancer and infectious diseases. This review provides recent advancements and challenges in mRNA- and RNP-based therapies, focusing on delivery systems such as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), which ensure efficient delivery to target cells. Strategies such as microfluidic devices are employed to prepare LNPs loaded with mRNA and RNPs, demonstrating effective genome editing and protein expression in vitro and in vivo. These applications extend to cancer treatment and infectious disease management, with promising results in genome editing for cancer therapy using LNPs encapsulating Cas9 mRNA and single-guide RNA. In addition, tissue-specific targeting strategies offer potential for improved therapeutic outcomes and reduced off-target effects. Despite progress, challenges such as optimizing delivery efficiency and targeting remain. Future research should enhance delivery efficiency, explore tissue-specific targeting, investigate combination therapies, and advance clinical translation. In conclusion, mRNA- and RNP-based therapies offer a promising avenue for treating various diseases and have the potential to revolutionize medicine, providing new hope for patients worldwide.

Tudor-SN exacerbates pathological vascular remodeling by promoting the polyubiquitination of PTEN via NEDD4-1

BACKGROUND

Dysregulation of vascular homeostasis can induce cardiovascular diseases and increase global mortality rates. Although lineage tracing studies have confirmed the pivotal role of modulated vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in the progression of pathological vascular remodeling, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear.

METHODS

The expression of Tudor-SN was determined in VSMCs of artery stenosis, PDGF-BB-treated VSMCs and atherosclerotic plaque. Loss- and gain-of-function approaches were used to explore the role of Tudor-SN in the modulation of VSMCs phenotype both in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

In this study, we demonstrate that Tudor-SN expression is significantly elevated in injury-induced arteries, atherosclerotic plaques, and PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMCs. Tudor-SN deficiency attenuates, but overexpression aggravates the synthetic phenotypic switching of VSMCs and pathological vascular remodeling. Loss of Tudor-SN also reduces atherosclerotic plaque formation and increases plaque stability. Mechanistically, PTEN, the major regulator of the MAPK and PI3K-AKT signaling pathways, plays a vital role in Tudor-SN-mediated regulation on proliferation and migration of VSMCs. Tudor-SN facilitates the polyubiquitination and degradation of PTEN via NEDD4-1, thus exacerbating vascular remodeling under pathological conditions. BpV (HOpic), a specific inhibitor of PTEN, not only counteracts the protective effect of Tudor-SN deficiency on proliferation and migration of VSMCs, but also abrogates the negative effect of carotid artery injury-induced vascular remodeling in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal that Tudor-SN deficiency significantly ameliorated pathological vascular remodeling by reducing NEDD4-1-dependent PTEN polyubiquitination, suggesting that Tudor-SN may be a novel target for preventing vascular diseases.

Enhancing cancer immunotherapy: Nanotechnology-mediated immunotherapy overcoming immunosuppression

Immunotherapy is an important cancer treatment method that offers hope for curing cancer patients. While immunotherapy has achieved initial success, a major obstacle to its widespread adoption is the inability to benefit the majority of patients. The success or failure of immunotherapy is closely linked to the tumor's immune microenvironment. Recently, there has been significant attention on strategies to regulate the tumor immune microenvironment in order to stimulate anti-tumor immune responses in cancer immunotherapy. The distinctive physical properties and design flexibility of nanomedicines have been extensively utilized to target immune cells (including tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), T cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAFs)), offering promising advancements in cancer immunotherapy. In this article, we have reviewed treatment strategies aimed at targeting various immune cells to regulate the tumor immune microenvironment. The focus is on cancer immunotherapy models that are based on nanomedicines, with the goal of inducing or enhancing anti-tumor immune responses to improve immunotherapy. It is worth noting that combining cancer immunotherapy with other treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and photodynamic therapy, can maximize the therapeutic effects. Finally, we have identified the challenges that nanotechnology-mediated immunotherapy needs to overcome in order to design more effective nanosystems.

Multifunctional Biomimetic Nanocarriers for Dual-Targeted Immuno-Gene Therapy Against Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Growing evidences have proved that tumors evade recognition and attack by the immune system through immune escape mechanisms, and PDL1/Pbrm1 genes have a strong correlation with poor response or resistance to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. Herein, a multifunctional biomimetic nanocarrier (siRNA-CaP@PD1-NVs) is developed, which can not only enhance the cytotoxic activity of immune cells by blocking PD1/PDL1 axis, but also reduce tumor immune escape via Pbrm1/PDL1 gene silencing, leading to a significant improvement in tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Consequently, the nanocarrier promotes DC cell maturation, enhances the infiltration and activity of CD8+ T cells, and forms long-term immune memory, which can effectively inhibit tumor growth or even eliminate tumors, and prevent tumor recurrence and metastasis. Overall, this study presents a powerful strategy for co-delivery of siRNA drugs, immune adjuvant, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, and holds great promise for improving the effectiveness and safety of current immunotherapy regimens.

mRNA vaccines in tumor targeted therapy: mechanism, clinical application, and development trends

Malignant tumors remain a primary cause of human mortality. Among the various treatment modalities for neoplasms, tumor vaccines have consistently shown efficacy and promising potential. These vaccines offer advantages such as specificity, safety, and tolerability, with mRNA vaccines representing promising platforms. By introducing exogenous mRNAs encoding antigens into somatic cells and subsequently synthesizing antigens through gene expression systems, mRNA vaccines can effectively induce immune responses. Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman were awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their great contributions to mRNA vaccine research. Compared with traditional tumor vaccines, mRNA vaccines have several advantages, including rapid preparation, reduced contamination, nonintegrability, and high biodegradability. Tumor-targeted therapy is an innovative treatment modality that enables precise targeting of tumor cells, minimizes damage to normal tissues, is safe at high doses, and demonstrates great efficacy. Currently, targeted therapy has become an important treatment option for malignant tumors. The application of mRNA vaccines in tumor-targeted therapy is expanding, with numerous clinical trials underway. We systematically outline the targeted delivery mechanism of mRNA vaccines and the mechanism by which mRNA vaccines induce anti-tumor immune responses, describe the current research and clinical applications of mRNA vaccines in tumor-targeted therapy, and forecast the future development trends of mRNA vaccine application in tumor-targeted therapy.

Nanomedicine-induced programmed cell death in cancer therapy: mechanisms and perspectives

The balance of programmed cell death (PCD) mechanisms, including apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis and others, is pivotal in cancer progression and treatment. Dysregulation of these pathways results in uncontrolled cell growth and resistance to conventional therapies. Nanomedicine offers a promising solution in oncology through targeted drug delivery enabling precise targeting of cancer cells while preserving healthy tissues. This approach reduces the side effects of traditional chemotherapy and enhances treatment efficacy by engaging PCD pathways. We details each PCD pathway, their mechanisms, and innovative nanomedicine strategies to activate these pathways, thereby enhancing therapeutic specificity and minimizing harm to healthy tissues. The precision of nanotechnology in targeting PCD pathways promises significant improvements in cancer treatment outcomes. This synergy between nanotechnology and targeted PCD activation could lead to more effective and less toxic cancer therapies, heralding a new era in cancer treatment.

Advancing mRNA Therapeutics: The Role and Future of Nanoparticle Delivery Systems

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has underscored the critical role of mRNA-based vaccines as powerful, adaptable, readily manufacturable, and safe methodologies for prophylaxis. mRNA-based treatments are emerging as a hopeful avenue for a plethora of conditions, encompassing infectious diseases, cancer, autoimmune diseases, genetic diseases, and rare disorders. Nonetheless, the in vivo delivery of mRNA faces challenges due to its instability, suboptimal delivery, and potential for triggering undesired immune reactions. In this context, the development of effective drug delivery systems, particularly nanoparticles (NPs), is paramount. Tailored with biophysical and chemical properties and susceptible to surface customization, these NPs have demonstrated enhanced mRNA delivery in vivo and led to the approval of several NPs-based formulations for clinical use. Despite these advancements, the necessity for developing a refined, targeted NP delivery system remains imperative. This review comprehensively surveys the biological, translational, and clinical progress in NPs-mediated mRNA therapeutics for both the prevention and treatment of diverse diseases. By addressing critical factors for enhancing existing methodologies, it aims to inform the future development of precise and efficacious mRNA-based therapeutic interventions.

mRNA-Lipid Nanoparticle-Mediated Restoration of PTPN14 Exhibits Antitumor Effects by Overcoming Anoikis Resistance in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) poses a challenging prognosis due to early metastasis driven by anoikis resistance. Identifying crucial regulators to overcome this resistance is vital for improving patient outcomes. In this study, a genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screen in TNBC cells has identified tyrosine-protein phosphatase nonreceptor type 14 (PTPN14) as a key regulator of anoikis resistance. PTPN14 expression has shown a progressive decrease from normal breast tissue to metastatic tumors. Overexpressing PTPN14 has induced anoikis and inhibited cell proliferation in TNBC cells, while normal human breast cells are unaffected. Mechanistically, PTPN14 is identified as a key factor in dephosphorylating breast cancer antiestrogen resistance 3, a novel substrate, leading to the subsequent inhibition of PI3K/AKT and ERK signaling pathways. Local delivery of in vitro transcribed PTPN14 mRNA encapsulated by lipid nanoparticles in a TNBC mouse model has effectively inhibited tumor growth and metastasis, prolonging survival. The study underscores PTPN14 as a potential therapeutic target for metastatic TNBC, with the therapeutic strategy based on mRNA expression of PTPN14 demonstrating clinical application prospects in alleviating the burden of both primary tumors and metastatic disease.

Delivery of mRNA Encoding Interleukin-12 and a Stimulator of Interferon Genes Agonist Potentiates Antitumor Efficacy through Reversing T Cell Exhaustion

T cell exhaustion has emerged as a major hurdle that impedes the clinical translation of stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonists. It is crucial to explore innovative strategies to rejuvenate exhausted T cells and potentiate the antitumor efficacy. Here, we propose an approach utilizing MSA-2 as a STING agonist, along with nanoparticle-mediated delivery of mRNA encoding interleukin-12 (IL-12) to restore the function of T cells. We developed a lipid nanoparticle (DMT7-IL12 LNP) that encapsulated IL12 mRNA. Our findings convincingly demonstrated that the combination of MSA-2 and DMT7-IL12 LNP can effectively reverse the exhausted T cell phenotype, as evidenced by the enhanced secretion of cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha, interferon gamma, and Granzyme B, coupled with reduced levels of inhibitory molecules such as T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-3 and programmed cell death protein-1 on CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, this approach led to improved survival and tumor regression without causing any systemic toxicity in melanoma and lung metastasis models. These findings suggest that mRNA encoding IL-12 in conjunction with STING agonists has the potential to confer superior clinical outcomes, representing a promising advancement in cancer immunotherapy.

Targeted delivery of anti-miRNA21 sensitizes PD-L1high tumor to immunotherapy by promoting immunogenic cell death

Rationale: Growing evidence has demonstrated that miRNA-21 (miR-21) upregulation is closely associated with tumor pathogenesis. However, the mechanisms by which miR-21 inhibition modulates the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and improves tumor sensitivity to immune checkpoint blockade therapies remain largely unexplored. In this study, we demonstrate the precise delivery of anti-miR-21 using a PD-L1-targeting peptide conjugate (P21) to the PD-L1high TME. Methods: Investigating miR-21 inhibition mechanisms involved conducting quantitative real-time PCR, western blot, flow cytometry, and confocal microscopy analyses. The antitumor efficacy and immune profile of P21 monotherapy, or combined with anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors, were assessed in mouse models bearing CT26.CL25 tumors and 4T1 breast cancer. Results Inhibition of oncogenic miR-21 in cancer cells by P21 efficiently activates tumor suppressor genes, inducing autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Subsequent cell-death-associated immune activation (immunogenic cell death) is initiated via the release of damage-associated molecular patterns. The in vivo results also illustrated that the immunogenic cell death triggered by P21 could effectively sensitize the immunosuppressive TME. That is, P21 enhances CD8+ T cell infiltration in tumor tissues by conferring immunogenicity to dying cancer cells and promoting dendritic cell maturation. Meanwhile, combining P21 with an anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitor elicits a highly potent antitumor effect in a CT26.CL25 tumor-bearing mouse model and 4T1 metastatic tumor model. Conclusions: Collectively, we have clarified a miR-21-related immunogenic cell death mechanism through the precise delivery of anti-miR-21 to the PD-L1high TME. These findings highlight the potential of miR-21 as a target for immunotherapeutic interventions.

Carbon Nanotube-Mediated Delivery of PTEN Variants: In Vitro Antitumor Activity in Breast Cancer Cells

Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) is a crucial tumor suppressor protein with frequent mutations and alterations. Although protein therapeutics are already integral to numerous medical fields, their potential remains nascent. This study aimed to investigate the impact of stable, unphosphorylated recombinant human full-length PTEN and its truncated variants, regarding their tumor suppression activity with multiwalled-carbon nanotubes (MW-CNTs) as vehicles for their delivery in breast cancer cells (T-47D, ZR-75-1, and MCF-7). The cloning, overexpression, and purification of PTEN variants were achieved from E. coli, followed by successful binding to CNTs. Cell incubation with protein-functionalized CNTs revealed that the full-length PTEN-CNTs significantly inhibited cancer cell growth and stimulated apoptosis in ZR-75-1 and MCF-7 cells, while truncated PTEN fragments on CNTs had a lesser effect. The N-terminal fragment, despite possessing the active site, did not have the same effect as the full length PTEN, emphasizing the necessity of interaction with the C2 domain in the C-terminal tail. Our findings highlight the efficacy of full-length PTEN in inhibiting cancer growth and inducing apoptosis through the alteration of the expression levels of key apoptotic markers. In addition, the utilization of carbon nanotubes as a potent PTEN protein delivery system provides valuable insights for future applications in in vivo models and clinical studies.

IL-23 inhibitor enhances the effects of PTEN DNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles for metastatic CRPC therapy

Introduction: Metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) patients face challenges due to limited treatment options. About 50% of patients with mCRPC have a functional loss of phosphatase and tensin homology deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN), leading to tumor progression, metastasis, and immune suppression. Moreover, elevated IL-23 produced by myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) is found in CRPC patients, driving tumor progression. Therefore, a combination strategy based on PTEN restoration and IL-23 inhibition may block CRPC progression and metastasis. Methods: The antitumor effect of restoring PTEN expression combined with the IL-23 inhibitor Apilimod was studied in a mouse model of bone metastasis CRPC and mouse prostate cancer RM-1 cells. To verify the targeting ability of PTEN DNA coated with lipid nanoparticles (LNP@PTEN) in vitro and in vivo. In addition, RT-qPCR and flow cytometry were used to investigate the related mechanisms of the antitumor effect of LNP@PTEN combined with Apilimod. Results: LNPs exhibited significant tumor-targeting and tumor accumulation capabilities both in vitro and in vivo, enhancing PTEN expression and therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, the combination of LNP@PTEN with the IL-23 inhibitor Apilimod demonstrated enhanced inhibition of tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis (particularly secondary organ metastasis) compared to other groups, and extended the survival of mice to 41 days, providing a degree of bone protection. These effects may be attributed to the PTEN function restoration combined with IL-23 inhibition, which help reverse immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment by reducing MDSCs recruitment and increasing the CD8+/CD4+ T cell ratio. Discussion: In summary, these findings highlight the potential of LNPs for delivering gene therapeutic agents. And the combination of LNP@PTEN with Apilimod could achieve anti-tumor effects and improve tumor microenvironment. This combinational strategy opens new avenues for the treatment of mCRPC.

Design of PD-L1-Targeted Lipid Nanoparticles to Turn on PTEN for Efficient Cancer Therapy

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) exhibit remarkable mRNA delivery efficiency, yet their majority accumulate in the liver or spleen after injection. Tissue-specific mRNA delivery can be achieved through modulating LNP properties, such as tuning PEGylation or varying lipid components systematically. In this paper, a streamlined method is used for incorporating tumor-targeting peptides into the LNPs; the programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) binding peptides are conjugated to PEGylated lipids via a copper-free click reaction, and directly incorporated into the LNP composition (Pep LNPs). Notably, Pep LNPs display robust interaction with PD-L1 proteins, which leads to the uptake of LNPs into PD-L1 overexpressing cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. To evaluate anticancer immunotherapy mediated by restoring tumor suppressor, mRNA encoding phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is delivered via Pep LNPs to PTEN-deficient triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs). Pep LNPs loaded with PTEN mRNA specifically promotes autophagy-mediated immunogenic cell death in 4T1 tumors, resulting in effective anticancer immune responses. This study highlights the potential of tumor-targeted LNPs for mRNA-based cancer therapy.

Biodegradable Lipid-Modified Poly(Guanidine Thioctic Acid)s: A Fortifier of Lipid Nanoparticles to Promote the Efficacy and Safety of mRNA Cancer Vaccines

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs)-based messenger RNA (mRNA) therapeutics have emerged with promising potentials in the fields of infectious diseases, cancer vaccines, and protein replacement therapies; however, their therapeutic efficacy and safety can still be promoted by the optimization of LNPs formulations. Unfortunately, current LNPs suffer from increased production of reactive oxygen species during translation, which leads to a decreased translation efficiency and the onset of inflammation and other side effects. Herein, we synthesize a lipid-modified poly(guanidine thioctic acid) polymer to fabricate novel LNPs for mRNA vaccines. The acquired G-LNPs significantly promote the translation efficiency of loaded mRNA and attenuate inflammation after vaccination through the elimination of reactive oxygen species that are responsible for translational inhibition and inflammatory responses. In vivo studies demonstrate the excellent antitumor efficacy of the G-LNPs@mRNA vaccine, and two-dose vaccination dramatically increases the population and infiltration of cytotoxic T cells due to the intense antitumor immune responses, thus generating superior antitumor outcomes compared with the mRNA vaccine prepared from traditional LNPs. By synergy with immune checkpoint blockade, the tumor inhibition of G-LNPs@mRNA is further boosted, indicating that G-LNPs-based mRNA vaccines will be powerful and versatile platforms to combat cancer.

Radiation-based immunogenic vaccine combined with a macrophage "checkpoint inhibitor" for boosting innate and adaptive immunity against metastatic colon cancers

Immunogenic dying tumor cells hold promising prospects as cancer vaccines to activate systemic immunity against both primary and metastatic tumors. Especially, X-ray- induced dying tumor cells are rich in highly immunogenic tumor-associated antigens and self-generated dsDNA as potent adjuvants. However, we found that the X-ray induction process can result in the excessive exposure of phosphatidylserine in cancer vaccines, which can specifically bind with the MerTK receptor on macrophages, acting as a "checkpoint" to facilitate immune silence in the tumor microenvironment. Therefore, we developed a novel strategy combining X-ray-induced cancer vaccines with UNC2250, a macrophage MerTK "checkpoint inhibitor," for treating peritoneal carcinomatosis in colon cancer. By incorporating UNC2250 into the treatment regimen, immunosuppressive efferocytosis of macrophages, which relies on MerTK-directed recognition of phosphatidylserine on vaccines, was effectively blocked. Consequently, the immune analysis revealed that this combination strategy promoted the maturation of dendritic cells and M1-like repolarization of macrophages, thereby simultaneously eliciting robust adaptive and innate immunity. This innovative approach utilizing X-ray-induced vaccines combined with a checkpoint inhibitor may provide valuable insights for developing effective cancer vaccines and immunotherapies targeting colon cancer.

Nanoparticles in tumor microenvironment remodeling and cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy and vaccine development have significantly improved the fight against cancers. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in the clinical delivery of immunomodulatory compounds. The tumor microenvironment (TME), comprising macrophages, fibroblasts, and immune cells, plays a crucial role in immune response modulation. Nanoparticles, engineered to reshape the TME, have shown promising results in enhancing immunotherapy by facilitating targeted delivery and immune modulation. These nanoparticles can suppress fibroblast activation, promote M1 macrophage polarization, aid dendritic cell maturation, and encourage T cell infiltration. Biomimetic nanoparticles further enhance immunotherapy by increasing the internalization of immunomodulatory agents in immune cells such as dendritic cells. Moreover, exosomes, whether naturally secreted by cells in the body or bioengineered, have been explored to regulate the TME and immune-related cells to affect cancer immunotherapy. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, activated by pH, redox, and light conditions, exhibit the potential to accelerate immunotherapy. The co-application of nanoparticles with immune checkpoint inhibitors is an emerging strategy to boost anti-tumor immunity. With their ability to induce long-term immunity, nanoarchitectures are promising structures in vaccine development. This review underscores the critical role of nanoparticles in overcoming current challenges and driving the advancement of cancer immunotherapy and TME modification.

Nanocarriers address intracellular barriers for efficient drug delivery, overcoming drug resistance, subcellular targeting and controlled release

The cellular barriers are major bottlenecks for bioactive compounds entering into cells to accomplish their biological functions, which limits their biomedical applications. Nanocarriers have demonstrated high potential and benefits for encapsulating bioactive compounds and efficiently delivering them into target cells by overcoming a cascade of intracellular barriers to achieve desirable therapeutic and diagnostic effects. In this review, we introduce the cellular barriers ahead of drug delivery and nanocarriers, as well as summarize recent advances and strategies of nanocarriers for increasing internalization with cells, promoting intracellular trafficking, overcoming drug resistance, targeting subcellular locations and controlled drug release. Lastly, the future perspectives of nanocarriers for intracellular drug delivery are discussed, which mainly focus on potential challenges and future directions. Our review presents an overview of intracellular drug delivery by nanocarriers, which may encourage the future development of nanocarriers for efficient and precision drug delivery into a wide range of cells and subcellular targets.

Engineered nanomicelles inhibit the tumour progression via abrogating the prostaglandin-mediated immunosuppression

Cancer treatment is challenged due to immunosuppressive inflammatory tumour microenvironment (TME) caused by infiltration of tumour-promoting and inhibition of tumour-inhibiting immune cells. Here, we report the engineering of chimeric nanomicelles (NMs) targeting the cell proliferation using docetaxel (DTX) and inflammation using dexamethasone (DEX) that alters the immunosuppressive TME. We show that a combination of phospholipid-DTX conjugate and PEGylated-lipid-DEX conjugate can self-assemble to form sub-100 nm chimeric NMs (DTX-DEX NMs). Anti-cancer activities against syngeneic and xenograft mouse models showed that the DTX-DEX NMs are more effective in tumour regression, enhance the survival of mice over other treatment modes, and alter the tumour stroma. DTX-DEX NMs cause a significant reduction in myeloid-derived suppressor cells, alter the polarization of macrophages, and enhance the accumulation of cytotoxic CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in tumour tissues, along with alterations in cytokine expression. We further demonstrated that these DTX-DEX NMs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins, especially PGE2, by targeting the cyclooxygenase 2 that is partly responsible for immunosuppressive TME. Therefore, this study presents, for the first time, the engineering of lithocholic acid-derived chimeric NMs that affect the prostaglandin pathway, alter the TME, and mitigate tumour progression with enhanced mice survival.

Gene engineered exosome reverses T cell exhaustion in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer patients by immune checkpoint therapy have achieved long-term remission, with no recurrence of clinical symptoms of cancer for many years. Nevertheless, more than half of cancer patients are not responsive to this therapy due to immune exhaustion. Here, we report a novel gene engineered exosome which is rationally designed by engineering PD1 gene and simultaneously enveloping an immune adjuvant imiquimod (PD1-Imi Exo) for boosting response of cancer immune checkpoint blockage therapy. The results showed that PD1-Imi Exo had a vesicular round shape (approximately 139 nm), revealed a significant targeting and a strong binding effect with both cancer cell and dendritic cell, and demonstrated a remarkable therapeutic efficacy in the melanoma-bearing mice and in the breast cancer-bearing mice. The mechanism was associated with two facts that PD1-Imi Exo blocked the binding of CD8+ T cell with cancer cell, displaying a PD1/PDL1 immune checkpoint blockage effect, and that imiquimod released from PD1-Imi Exo promoted the maturation of immature dendritic cell, exhibiting a reversing effect on the immune exhaustion through activating and restoring function of CD8+ T cell. In conclusion, the gene engineered exosome could be used for reversing T cell exhaustion in cancer immunotherapy. This study also offers a promising new strategy for enhancing PD1/PDL1 therapeutic efficacy, preventing tumor recurrence or metastasis after surgery by rebuilding the patients' immunity, thus consolidating the overall prognosis.

Molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of tumour suppressor genes in lung cancer

Tumour suppressor genes play a cardinal role in the development of a large array of human cancers, including lung cancer, which is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers worldwide. Therefore, extensive studies have been committed to deciphering the underlying mechanisms of alterations of tumour suppressor genes in governing tumourigenesis, as well as resistance to cancer therapies. In spite of the encouraging clinical outcomes demonstrated by lung cancer patients on initial treatment, the subsequent unresponsiveness to first-line treatments manifested by virtually all the patients is inherently a contentious issue. In light of the aforementioned concerns, this review compiles the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms of some of the tumour suppressor genes implicated in lung cancer that are either frequently mutated and/or are located on the chromosomal arms having high LOH rates (1p, 3p, 9p, 10q, 13q, and 17p). Our study identifies specific genomic loci prone to LOH, revealing a recurrent pattern in lung cancer cases. These loci, including 3p14.2 (FHIT), 9p21.3 (p16INK4a), 10q23 (PTEN), 17p13 (TP53), exhibit a higher susceptibility to LOH due to environmental factors such as exposure to DNA-damaging agents (carcinogens in cigarette smoke) and genetic factors such as chromosomal instability, genetic mutations, DNA replication errors, and genetic predisposition. Furthermore, this review summarizes the current treatment landscape and advancements for lung cancers, including the challenges and endeavours to overcome it. This review envisages inspired researchers to embark on a journey of discovery to add to the list of what was known in hopes of prompting the development of effective therapeutic strategies for lung cancer.

From structural design to delivery: mRNA therapeutics for cancer immunotherapy

mRNA therapeutics have emerged as powerful tools for cancer immunotherapy in accordance with their superiority in expressing all sequence-known proteins in vivo. In particular, with a small dosage of delivered mRNA, antigen-presenting cells (APCs) can synthesize mutant neo-antigens and multi-antigens and present epitopes to T lymphocytes to elicit antitumor effects. In addition, expressing receptors like chimeric antigen receptor (CAR), T-cell receptor (TCR), CD134, and immune-modulating factors including cytokines, interferons, and antibodies in specific cells can enhance immunological response against tumors. With the maturation of in vitro transcription (IVT) technology, large-scale and pure mRNA encoding specific proteins can be synthesized quickly. However, the clinical translation of mRNA-based anticancer strategies is restricted by delivering mRNA into target organs or cells and the inadequate endosomal escape efficiency of mRNA. Recently, there have been some advances in mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy, which can be roughly classified as modifications of the mRNA structure and the development of delivery systems, especially the lipid nanoparticle platforms. In this review, the latest strategies for overcoming the limitations of mRNA-based cancer immunotherapies and the recent advances in delivering mRNA into specific organs and cells are summarized. Challenges and opportunities for clinical applications of mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy are also discussed.

A combination of PD-L1-targeted IL-15 mRNA nanotherapy and ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction for tumor immunotherapy

PD-1/PD-L1-based immune checkpoint blockade therapy has shown limited benefits in tumor patients, partially attributed to the inadequate infiltration of immune effector cells within tumors. Here, we established a nanoplatform named DPPA/IL-15 NPs to target PD-L1 for the tumor delivery of IL-15 messenger RNA (mRNA). DPPA/IL-15 NPs were endowed with ultrasound responsiveness and contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) imaging performance. They effectively protected IL-15 mRNA from degradation and specifically transfected it into tumor cells through the utilization of ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction (UTMD). This resulted in the activation of IL-15-related immune effector cells while blocking the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway. In addition, UTMD could generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-driven immunogenic cell death (ICD), initiating anti-tumor immunity. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed that this combination therapy could induce a robust systemic immune response and enhance anti-tumor efficacy. Thus, this combination therapy has the potential for clinical translation through enhanced immunotherapy and provides real-time ultrasound imaging guidance.

Monoclonal antibody-based systematic identification of SUMO1-modification sites reveals TFII-I SUMOylation is involved in tumor growth

SUMOylation plays an essential role in diverse physiological and pathological processes. Identification of wild-type SUMO1-modification sites by mass spectrometry is still challenging. In this study, we produced a monoclonal SUMO1C-K antibody recognizing SUMOylated peptides and proposed an efficient streamline for identification of SUMOylation sites. We identified 471 SUMOylation sites in 325 proteins from five raw data. These identified sites exhibit a high positive rate when evaluated by mutation-verified SUMOylation sites. We identified many SUMOylated proteins involved in mitochondrial metabolism and non-membrane-bounded organelles formation. We proposed a SUMOylation motif, ΨKXD/EP, where proline is required for efficient SUMOylation. We further revealed SUMOylation of TFII-I was stimulated by growth signals and was required for nucleus-localization of p-ERK1/2. Mutation of SUMOylation sites of TFII-I suppressed tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, we provided a strategy for personalized identification of wild-type SUMO1-modification sites and revealed the physiological significance of TFII-I SUMOylation in this study.

Advances and prospects of mRNA vaccines in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer vaccines, designed to activate the body's own immune system to fight against tumors, are a current trend in cancer treatment and receiving increasing attention. Cancer vaccines mainly include oncolytic virus vaccine, cell vaccine, peptide vaccine and nucleic acid vaccine. Over the course of decades of research, oncolytic virus vaccine T-VEC, cellular vaccine sipuleucel-T, various peptide vaccines, and DNA vaccine against HPV positive cervical cancer have brought encouraging results for cancer therapy, but are losing momentum in development due to their respective shortcomings. In contrast, the advantages of mRNA vaccines such as high safety, ease of production, and unmatched efficacy are on full display. In addition, advances in technology such as pseudouridine modification have cracked down the bottleneck for developing mRNA vaccines including instability, innate immunogenicity, and low efficiency of in vivo delivery. Several cancer mRNA vaccines have achieved promising results in clinical trials, and their usage in conjunction with other immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has further boosted the efficiency of anti-tumor immune response. We expect a rapid development of mRNA vaccines for cancer immunotherapy in the near future. This review provides a brief overview of the current status of mRNA vaccines, highlights the action mechanism of cancer mRNA vaccines, their recent advances in clinical trials, and prospects for their clinical applications.

Use of antioxidant nanoliposomes for co-delivery of PTEN plasmids and plumbagin to induce apoptosis in hepatic cancer cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma remains a challenging contributor to the global cancer and related mortality, and claims approximately 800,000 deaths each year. Dysregulation or loss of function mutations involving the tumor suppressor gene, phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN), has been well-characterized in various cancers to elicit anomalous cell proliferation and oncogenic transformation. However, the delivery and bioavailability of genes/drugs of interest to carcinomas remains a serious bottleneck behind the success of any anti-cancer formulation. In this study, we have engineered nanoliposomes containing PTEN plasmids, plumbagin, and antioxidant cerium oxide nanoparticles (Lipo-PTEN-Plum) to restore the PTEN expression and inhibit the AKT/PI3K pathway. The Lipo-PTEN-Plum was quasi-spherical in shape with ∼110 nm diameter and ∼64% plumbagin loading efficiency. The Lipo-PTEN-Plum was successfully internalized HepG2 cells, restore PTEN expression and inhibit PI3K/AKT pathway to induce death in cells grown in monolayer and in form of spheroids. Mechanistically, the formulation showed G2/M cell cycle arrest, DNA damage and apoptosis in hepatic cancer cells. Other cellular events such as Caspase-7 overexpression and PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase), AKT (a serine/threonine protein kinase), PARP [Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases], and mTOR (Mammalian target of rapamycin) inhibition led to the apoptosis in hepatic cancer cells. The mRNA expression profile of PTEN, PI3K, AKT3, Caspase-7, PARP and mTOR proteins, primarily controlling the cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis, suggest that exogenous supply of PTEN could regulate the expression of oncogenic proteins and thus cancer progression.

Tumor immunotherapy resistance: Revealing the mechanism of PD-1 / PD-L1-mediated tumor immune escape

Tumor immunotherapy, an innovative anti-cancer therapy, has showcased encouraging outcomes across diverse tumor types. Among these, the PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway is a well-known immunological checkpoint, which is significant in the regulation of immune evasion by tumors. Nevertheless, a considerable number of patients develop resistance to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy, rendering it ineffective in the long run. This research focuses on exploring the factors of PD-1/PD-L1-mediated resistance in tumor immunotherapy. Initially, the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway is characterized by its role in facilitating tumor immune evasion, emphasizing its role in autoimmune homeostasis. Next, the primary mechanisms of resistance to PD-1/PD-L1-based immunotherapy are analyzed, including tumor antigen deletion, T cell dysfunction, increased immunosuppressive cells, and alterations in the expression of PD-L1 within tumor cells. The possible ramifications of altered metabolism, microbiota, and DNA methylation on resistance is also described. Finally, possible resolution strategies for dealing with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy resistance are discussed, placing particular emphasis on personalized therapeutic approaches and the exploration of more potent immunotherapy regimens.

RNA-based modulation of macrophage-mediated efferocytosis potentiates antitumor immunity in colorectal cancer

Tumor-associated macrophages play pivotal roles in tumor progression and metastasis. Macrophage-mediated clearance of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis) supports inflammation resolution, contributing to immune evasion in colorectal cancers. To reverse this immunosuppressive process, we propose a readily translatable RNA therapy to selectively inhibit macrophage-mediated efferocytosis in tumor microenvironment. A clinically approved lipid nanoparticle platform (LNP) is employed to encapsulate siRNA for the phagocytic receptor MerTK (siMerTK), enabling selective MerTK inhibition in the diseased organ. Decreased MerTK expression in tumor-associated macrophages results in apoptotic cell accumulation and immune activation in tumor microenvironment, leading to suppressed tumor growth and better survival in both liver and peritoneal metastasis models of colorectal cancers. siMerTK delivery combined with PD-1 blockade further produces enhanced antimetastatic efficacy with reactivated intratumoral immune milieu. Collectively, LNP-based siMerTK delivery combined with immune checkpoint therapy may present a feasible modality for metastatic colorectal cancer therapy.

RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment

RNA therapeutics are a class of drugs that use RNA molecules to treat diseases, including cancer. RNA therapeutics work by targeting specific genes or proteins involved in the disease process, with the aim of blocking or altering their activity to ultimately halt or reverse the disease progression. The use of RNA therapeutics in cancer treatment has shown great potential, as they offer the ability to specifically target cancer cells while leaving healthy cells intact. This is in contrast to traditional chemotherapy and radiation treatments, which can damage healthy cells and cause unpleasant side effects. The field of RNA therapeutics is rapidly advancing, with several types of RNA molecules being developed for cancer treatment, including small interfering RNA, microRNA, mRNA, and RNA aptamers. Each type of RNA molecule has unique properties and mechanisms of action, allowing for targeted and personalized cancer treatments. In this chapter, we will explore the different types of RNA therapeutics used in cancer treatment, their mechanisms of action, and their potential applications in treating different types of cancer. We will also discuss the challenges and opportunities in the development and research of RNA therapeutics for cancer, as well as the future outlook for this promising field.

OX40L-expressing M1-like macrophage exosomes for cancer immunotherapy

With only limited clinical patient benefit, focusing on new immune checkpoint pathways could be an important complement to current immune checkpoint drugs. In addition, not only does T cell-mediated adaptive immunity play an important role, but also macrophage-mediated innate immunity, due to its abundant presence in solid tumors. Here, we developed an engineered M1-like macrophage exosome, OX40L M1-exos. OX40L M1-exos can activate the adaptive immunity by activating the OX40/OX40L pathway and can reprogram M2-like tumor-associated macrophages into M1-like macrophages, thereby restoring and enhancing macrophage-mediated innate immunity. Our OX40L M1-exos achieved an effective synergistic effect of innate and adaptive immunity and achieved a potent therapeutic effect in a mouse breast cancer model, effectively inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis. These results suggest that OX40L M1-exos are an attractive therapeutic strategy and may be an important complement to current cancer immunotherapies.