GPR177 in A-fiber sensory neurons drives diabetic neuropathic pain via WNT-mediated TRPV1 activation

ART26.12, a novel fatty acid-binding protein 5 inhibitor, shows efficacy in multiple preclinical neuropathy models

BACKGROUND

Painful neuropathy is a pathological condition caused by numerous factors including diabetes, chemotherapy or cancer. ART26.12 is a novel fatty acid-binding protein 5 inhibitor, which our group showed could prevent and treat persistent pain in a preclinical model of oxaliplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy.

METHODS

In the current study, the efficacy of orally dosed ART26.12 was tested in multiple neuropathy models of different aetiology. Paw withdrawal threshold to von Frey monofilaments and latency to escape a cold plate were used as measurements of mechanical and cold sensitivity.

RESULTS

ART26.12 (25 and 50 mg/kg BID), dosed prior to the induction of paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy (PIPN), reversed mechanical allodynia induced by paclitaxel in both male and female rats, and ART26.12 (50 mg/kg BID) prevented the induction of PIPN in female rats. ART26.12 (50 mg/kg BID) also had a protective effect on body weight in the PIPN model. ART26.12 (25 and 100 mg/kg BID) reversed mechanical allodynia when treating established streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy in male rats. In a model of breast cancer-induced bone pain in female rats, ART26.12 (100 mg/kg BID) reversed mechanical allodynia within 1 h of dosing. In the same model, ART26.12 (25 mg/kg BID) reversed mechanical allodynia from day 4 of treatment.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these preclinical data suggest that ART26.12 is a safe and efficacious therapeutic drug for continued development towards the prevention and treatment of peripheral neuropathy.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This work now shows that ART26.12, a novel and selective inhibitor of FABP5, can prevent and treat multiple preclinical models of peripheral neuropathy. Given its excellent safety profile, further work is warranted to develop ART26.12 as a potential therapeutic tool for pain management.

Maladaptive changes in the homeostasis of AEA-TRPV1/CB1R induces pain-related hyperactivity of nociceptors after spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain resulting from spinal cord injury (SCI) is associated with persistent hyperactivity of primary nociceptors. Anandamide (AEA) has been reported to modulate neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission through activation of cannabinoid type-1 receptors (CB1Rs) and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). However, the role of AEA and these receptors in the hyperactivity of nociceptors after SCI remains unclear.

RESULTS

In this study, we investigated the effects of AEA and its receptors on the hyperexcitability of mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons after SCI. Using a whole-cell patch-clamp technique, we found that the timing of SCI-induced hyperexcitability in nociceptors paralleled an increase in the endocannabinoid AEA content. The expression of TRPV1 and CB1R was also upregulated at different time points after SCI. High-dose extracellular administration of AEA increased the excitability of naive DRG neurons, leading to the transition from a rapidly accommodating (RA) hypoexcitable state to a highly excitable non-accommodating (NA) state. These AEA-induced transitions were facilitated by increased TRPV1 transcription. Pharmacological and Ca2+ imaging experiments revealed that AEA induced hyperexcitability in nociceptors after SCI via the AEA-TRPV1-Ca2+ pathway, whereas activation of CB1Rs reduced SCI-induced hyperexcitability and maintained cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyto) at low levels in the early stages of SCI. As the AEA and TRPV1 levels increased after SCI, adaptive neuroprotection transitioned to a maladaptive hyperactive state, leading to sustained pain.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, this study provides new insights into how endocannabinoids regulate nociceptor activity after SCI, offering potential targets for the treatment of neuropathic pain.

TRPV1: A novel target for the therapy of diabetes and diabetic complications

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by abnormally elevated blood glucose levels. Type II diabetes accounts for approximately 90% of all cases. Several drugs are available for hyperglycemia treatment. However, the current therapies for managing high blood glucose do not prevent or reverse the disease progression, which may result in complications and adverse effects, including diabetic neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy. Hence, developing safer and more effective methods for lowering blood glucose levels is imperative. Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) is a significant member of the transient receptor potential family. It is present in numerous body tissues and organs and performs vital physiological functions.

PURPOSE

This review aimed to develop new targeted TRPV1 hypoglycemic drugs by systematically summarizing the mechanism of action of the TRPV1-based signaling pathway in preventing and treating diabetes and its complications.

METHODS

Literature searches were performed in the PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Medline, and Scopus databases for 10 years from 2013 to 2023. The search terms included "diabetes," "TRPV1," "diabetic complications," and "capsaicin."

RESULTS

TRPV1 is an essential potential target for treating diabetes mellitus and its complications. It reduces hepatic glucose production and food intake and promotes thermogenesis, metabolism, and insulin secretion. Activation of TRPV1 ameliorates diabetic nephropathy, retinopathy, myocardial infarction, vascular endothelial dysfunction, gastroparesis, and bladder dysfunction. Suppression of TRPV1 improves diabetes-related osteoporosis. However, the therapeutic effects of activating or suppressing TRPV1 may vary when treating diabetic neuropathy and periodontitis.

CONCLUSION

This review demonstrates that TRPV1 is a potential therapeutic target for diabetes and its complications. Additionally, it provides a theoretical basis for developing new hypoglycemic drugs that target TRPV1.

Histone modifications and Sp1 promote GPR160 expression in bone cancer pain within rodent models

Bone cancer pain (BCP) affects ~70% of patients in advanced stages, primarily due to bone metastasis, presenting a substantial therapeutic challenge. Here, we profile orphan G protein-coupled receptors in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) following tumor infiltration, and observe a notable increase in GPR160 expression. Elevated Gpr160 mRNA and protein levels persist from postoperative day 6 for over 18 days in the affected DRG, predominantly in small-diameter C-fiber type neurons specific to the tibia. Targeted interventions, including DRG microinjection of siRNA or AAV delivery, mitigate mechanical allodynia, cold, and heat hyperalgesia induced by the tumor. Tumor infiltration increases DRG neuron excitability in wild-type mice, but not in Gpr160 gene knockout mice. Tumor infiltration results in reduced H3K27me3 and increased H3K27ac modifications, enhanced binding of the transcription activator Sp1 to the Gpr160 gene promoter region, and induction of GPR160 expression. Modulating histone-modifying enzymes effectively alleviated pain behavior. Our study delineates a novel mechanism wherein elevated Sp1 levels facilitate Gpr160 gene transcription in nociceptive DRG neurons during BCP in rodents.

The potential mechanism of action of gut flora and bile acids through the TGR5/TRPV1 signaling pathway in diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain

Diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain (DPNP) is a major complication of diabetes that markedly affects the quality of life and health status of patients. Recent studies have investigated the potential regulatory influence of gut flora and bile acids on DPNP via the TGR5/TRPV1 signaling pathway. Dysbiosis of the gut flora not only directly affects bile acid metabolism but also significantly correlates with diabetes-associated neuropathy through interactions with the bile acid receptor TGR5 and the ion channel TRPV1. This review describes how alterations in the gut flora and bile acid metabolism contribute to the pathogenesis of DPNP through the TGR5/TRPV1 signaling pathway, revealing potential applications for this pathway in DPNP management. Furthermore, experimental and clinical studies have demonstrated the modulation of gut flora and bile acid metabolism as well as targeting the TGR5/TRPV1 signaling pathway as an innovative therapeutic approach. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanism and develop treatment modalities based on gut flora regulation and signaling pathway interventions, thus providing novel insights and approaches for DPNP therapy.

Wnt5a/Ryk signaling contributes to bone cancer pain by sensitizing the peripheral nociceptors through JNK-mediated TRPV1 pathway in rats

ABSTRACT

Treating bone cancer pain (BCP) continues to be a clinical challenge, and the underlying mechanisms of BCP remain elusive. This study reports that Wnt5a/Ryk signaling in the dorsal root ganglion neurons is critical to the development of BCP. Tibia bone cavity tumor cell implantation produces spontaneous and evoked behaviorally expressed pain as well as ectopic sprouting and activity of Wnt5a/Ryk signaling in the neural soma and peripheral terminals and the tumor-affected bone tissues. Intraplantar, intratibial, or intrathecal injection of Wnt5a/Ryk signaling blockers significantly suppresses the painful symptoms. Peripheral injection of exogenous Wnt5a in naïve rats produces pain, and the dorsal root ganglion neurons become more sensitive to Wnt5a. Wnt5a/Ryk signaling activation increases intracellular calcium response and expression of transient receptors potential vanilloid type-1 and regulates capsaicin-induced intracellular calcium response. Blocking Ryk receptor activation suppresses Wnt5a-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Wnt5a facilitation of transient receptors potential vanilloid type-1 sensitization is blocked by inhibiting c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation. These findings indicate a critical peripheral mechanism of Wnt5a/Ryk signaling underlying the pathogenesis of BCP and suggest that targeting Wnt5a/Ryk in the primary sensory neurons and the tumor-invasive area may be an effective approach for the prevention and treatment of BCP.

A Neuron-Mast Cell Axis Regulates Skin Microcirculation in Diabetes

Changes in microcirculation lead to the progression of organ pathology in diabetes. Although neuroimmune interactions contribute to a variety of conditions, it is still unclear whether abnormal neural activities affect microcirculation related to diabetes. Using laser speckle contrast imaging, we examined the skin of patients with type 2 diabetes and found that their microvascular perfusion was significantly compromised. This phenomenon was replicated in a high-fat diet-driven murine model of type 2 diabetes-like disease. In this setting, although both macrophages and mast cells were enriched in the skin, only mast cells and associated degranulation were critically required for the microvascular impairment. Sensory neurons exhibited enhanced TRPV1 activities, which triggered mast cells to degranulate and compromise skin microcirculation. Chemical and genetic ablation of TRPV1+ nociceptors robustly improved skin microcirculation status. Substance P (SP) is a neuropeptide and was elevated in the skin and sensory neurons in the context of type 2 diabetes. Exogenous administration of SP resulted in impaired skin microcirculation, whereas neuronal knockdown of SP dramatically prevented mast cell degranulation and consequently improved skin microcirculation. Overall, our findings indicate a neuron-mast cell axis underlying skin microcirculation disturbance in diabetes and shed light on neuroimmune therapeutics for diabetes-related complications.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

The Guardian of Vision: Intelligent Bacteriophage-Based Eyedrops for Clinical Multidrug-Resistant Ocular Surface Infections

Clinical multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDR-PA) is the leading cause of refractory bacterial keratitis (BK). However, the reported BK treatment methods lack biosecurity and bioavailability, which usually causes irreversible visual impairment and even blindness. Herein, for BK caused by clinically isolated MDR-PA infection, armed phages are modularized with the type I photosensitizer (PS) ACR-DMT, and an intelligent phage eyedrop is developed for combined phagotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT). These eyedrops maximize the advantages of bacteriophages and ACR-DMT, enabling more robust and specific targeting killing of MDR-PA under low oxygen-dependence, penetrating and disrupting biofilms, and efficiently preventing biofilm reformation. Altering the biofilm and immune microenvironments alleviates inflammation noninvasively, promotes corneal healing without scar formation, protects ocular tissues, restores visual function, and prevents long-term discomfort and pain. This strategy exhibits strong scalability, enables at-home treatment of ocular surface infections with great patient compliance and a favorable prognosis, and has significant potential for clinical application.

Piezoelectric Analgesia Blocks Cancer-Induced Bone Pain

The manipulation of cell surface receptors' activity will open a new frontier for drug development and disease treatment. However, limited by the desensitization of drugs, effective physical intervention strategy remains challenging. Here, the controllable internalization of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) on neural cells by local piezoelectric field is reported. Single-cell-level local electric field is construct by synthesizing piezoelectric BiOIO3 nanosheets (BIONSs). Upon a mild ultrasound of 0.08 W cm-2, an electric field of 15.29 µV is generated on the surface of BIONSs, further inducing TRPV1 internalization in 5 min. The as-downregulated TRPV1 expression results in the reduction of Ca2+ signal in a spinal neuron and the inhibition of the activity of wide range dynamic neurons, therefore effectively preventing the transmission of cancer-induced bone pain (CIBP). This strategy not only charts a new course for CIBP alleviation, but also introduces a promising nanotechnology for regulating cell surface receptors, showing significant potential in neuropathological and receptor-related diseases.

Role of microglia in diabetic neuropathic pain

Approximately one-third of the patients with diabetes worldwide suffer from neuropathic pain, mainly categorized by spontaneous and stimulus-induced pain. Microglia are a class of immune effector cells residing in the central nervous system and play a pivotal role in diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP). Microglia specifically respond to hyperglycemia along with inflammatory cytokines and adenosine triphosphate produced during hyperglycemic damage to nerve fibers. Because of the presence of multiple receptors on the microglial surface, microglia are dynamically and highly responsive to their immediate environment. Following peripheral sensitization caused by hyperglycemia, microglia are affected by the cascade of inflammatory factors and other substances and respond accordingly, resulting in a change in their functional state for DNP pathogenesis. Inhibition of receptors such as P2X reporters, reducing cytokine expression levels in the microglial reactivity mechanisms, and inhibiting their intracellular signaling pathways can effectively alleviate DNP. A variety of drugs attenuate DNP by inhibiting the aforementioned processes induced by microglial reactivity. In this review, we summarize the pathological mechanisms by which microglia promote and maintain DNP, the drugs and therapeutic techniques available, and the latest advances in this field.

Silencing of FTO inhibits oxidative stress to relieve neuropathic pain by m6A modification of GPR177

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a challenging health condition owing to its complex nature and associated multiple etiologies. The occurrence of NP involves the abnormal activity of neurons mediated by oxidative stress (OS). Previous research has demonstrated that m6A methylation plays a role in the regulatory pathway of NP. This study aimed to investigate the specific molecular pathways through which m6A methylation modifiers alleviate NP.

METHODS

For this purpose, an NO rat model was developed via spared nerve injury (SNI), followed by quantifying the animal's pain assessment via paw withdrawal threshold (PWT) and paw withdrawal latency (PWL). The OS in SNI rats was evaluated by measuring reactive oxygen species, superoxide dismutase, and catalase (CAT) in spinal cord tissues. Moreover, quantitative-real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were employed for detecting fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) and GPR177 levels, while m6A levels of GPR117 were analyzed via MeRIP.

RESULTS

The results indicated an enhanced OS with highly expressed FTO in spinal cord tissue samples, where knocking down Fto effectively relieved NP and OS in SNI rats. Mechanistic investigations revealed that Fto-mediated reduction of Grp177 m6A modification was involved in the WNT5a/TRPV1 axis-mediated OS remission of NP. Moreover, in vitro experiment results indicated that YTHDF2 was an important m6A methylated reading protein for this process.

CONCLUSIONS

Fto silencing leads to increased m6A methylation of Grp177 through a YTHDF2-dependent mechanism, resulting in decreased Grp177 stability and ultimately reducing NP in rats by OS suppression.

Caffeic acid and diabetic neuropathy: Investigating protective effects and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-related antioxidative and anti-inflammatory mechanisms in mice

Diabetic neuropathy (DN) represents a common and debilitating complication of diabetes, affecting a significant proportion of patients. Despite available treatments focusing on symptom management, there remains an unmet need for therapies that address the underlying pathophysiology. In pursuit of novel interventions, this study evaluated the therapeutic effects of caffeic acid-a natural phenolic compound prevalent in various foods-on diabetic neuropathy using a mouse model, particularly examining its interaction with the Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling pathway. Caffeic acid was administered orally at two dosages (5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg), and a comprehensive set of outcomes including fasting blood glucose levels, body weight, sensory behavior, spinal cord oxidative stress markers, inflammatory cytokines, and components of the IGF-1 signaling cascade were assessed. Additionally, to determine the specific contribution of IGF-1 signaling to the observed benefits, IGF1R inhibitor Picropodophyllin (PPP) was co-administered with caffeic acid. Our results demonstrated that caffeic acid, at both dosages, effectively reduced hyperglycemia and alleviated sensory behavioral deficits in diabetic mice. This was accompanied by a marked decrease in oxidative stress markers and an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities within the spinal cord. Significantly lowered microglial activation and inflammatory cytokine expression highlighted the potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of caffeic acid. Moreover, increases in both serum and spinal levels of IGF-1, along with elevated phosphorylated IGF1R, implicated the IGF-1 signaling pathway as a mediator of caffeic acid's neuroprotective actions. The partial reversal of caffeic acid's benefits by PPP substantiated the pivotal engagement of IGF-1 signaling in mediating its effects. Our findings delineate the capability of caffeic acid to mitigate DN symptoms, particularly through reducing spinal oxidative stress and inflammation, and pinpoint the integral role of IGF-1 signaling in these protective mechanisms. The insights gleaned from this study not only position caffeic acid as a promising dietary adjunct for managing diabetic neuropathy but also highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting spinal IGF-1 signaling as part of a strategic treatment approach.

TMC6 functions as a GPCR-like receptor to sense noxious heat via Gαq signaling

Thermosensation is vital for the survival, propagation, and adaption of all organisms, but its mechanism is not fully understood yet. Here, we find that TMC6, a membrane protein of unknown function, is highly expressed in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and functions as a Gαq-coupled G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-like receptor to sense noxious heat. TMC6-deficient mice display a substantial impairment in noxious heat sensation while maintaining normal perception of cold, warmth, touch, and mechanical pain. Further studies show that TMC6 interacts with Gαq via its intracellular C-terminal region spanning Ser780 to Pro810. Specifically disrupting such interaction using polypeptide in DRG neurons, genetically ablating Gαq, or pharmacologically blocking Gαq-coupled GPCR signaling can replicate the phenotype of TMC6 deficient mice regarding noxious heat sensation. Noxious heat stimulation triggers intracellular calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of TMC6- but not control vector-transfected HEK293T cell, which can be significantly inhibited by blocking PLC or IP3R. Consistently, noxious heat-induced intracellular Ca2+ release from ER and action potentials of DRG neurons largely reduced when ablating TMC6 or blocking Gαq/PLC/IP3R signaling pathway as well. In summary, our findings indicate that TMC6 can directly function as a Gαq-coupled GPCR-like receptor sensing noxious heat.

Pathology of pain and its implications for therapeutic interventions

Pain is estimated to affect more than 20% of the global population, imposing incalculable health and economic burdens. Effective pain management is crucial for individuals suffering from pain. However, the current methods for pain assessment and treatment fall short of clinical needs. Benefiting from advances in neuroscience and biotechnology, the neuronal circuits and molecular mechanisms critically involved in pain modulation have been elucidated. These research achievements have incited progress in identifying new diagnostic and therapeutic targets. In this review, we first introduce fundamental knowledge about pain, setting the stage for the subsequent contents. The review next delves into the molecular mechanisms underlying pain disorders, including gene mutation, epigenetic modification, posttranslational modification, inflammasome, signaling pathways and microbiota. To better present a comprehensive view of pain research, two prominent issues, sexual dimorphism and pain comorbidities, are discussed in detail based on current findings. The status quo of pain evaluation and manipulation is summarized. A series of improved and innovative pain management strategies, such as gene therapy, monoclonal antibody, brain-computer interface and microbial intervention, are making strides towards clinical application. We highlight existing limitations and future directions for enhancing the quality of preclinical and clinical research. Efforts to decipher the complexities of pain pathology will be instrumental in translating scientific discoveries into clinical practice, thereby improving pain management from bench to bedside.

Peripheral Mechanism of Cancer-Induced Bone Pain

Cancer-induced bone pain (CIBP) is a type of ongoing or breakthrough pain caused by a primary bone tumor or bone metastasis. CIBP constitutes a specific pain state with distinct characteristics; however, it shares similarities with inflammatory and neuropathic pain. At present, although various therapies have been developed for this condition, complete relief from CIBP in patients with cancer is yet to be achieved. Hence, it is urgent to study the mechanism underlying CIBP to develop efficient analgesic drugs. Herein, we focused on the peripheral mechanism associated with the initiation of CIBP, which involves tissue injury in the bone and changes in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and dorsal root ganglion. The nerve-cancer and cancer-immunocyte cross-talk in the TME creates circumstances that promote tumor growth and metastasis, ultimately leading to CIBP. The peripheral mechanism of CIBP and current treatments as well as potential therapeutic targets are discussed in this review.

Curcumin analogue NL04 inhibits spinal cord central sensitization in rats with bone cancer pain by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation and reducing IL-1β production

The management and therapy of bone cancer pain (BCP) remain formidable clinical challenges. Curcumin and its analogues have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. In the present study, we investigated the efficacy of curcumin analogue NL04 (NL04) in modulating inflammation in spinal dorsal horn (SDH), thereby exploring its potential to reduce central sensitization of BCP in a rat model. Differing doses of NL04 and curcumin were administered intrathecally either once (on day 12 of BCP) or over seven consecutive days (from day 6-12 of BCP). Results indicated that the ED50 for NL04 and curcumin ameliorating BCP-induced mechanical hyperalgesia is 49.08 μg/kg and 489.6 μg/kg, respectively. The analgesic effects at various doses of NL04 lasted between 4 and 8 h, with sustained administration over a week maintaining pain relief for 1-4 days, while also ameliorating locomotor gait via gait analysis and reducing depressive and anxiety-like behaviors via open-field and light-dark transition tests. The analgesic effects at various doses of curcumin lasted 4 h, with sustained administration over a week maintaining pain relief for 0-2 days. ELISA, Western blotting, qPCR, and immunofluorescence assays substantiated that intrathecal administration of NL04 on days 6-12 of BCP dose-dependently lowered spinal IL-1β and IL-18 levels and significantly reduced the expression of IKKβ genes and proteins, as well as the downstream cleavage of the trans-Golgi network (TGN). Whole-cell patch-clamp results demonstrated that NL04 inhibits potassium ion efflux in rat primary spinal neurons. Thus, NL04 exhibits significant analgesic effects in a BCP rat model by downregulating IKKβ expression and inhibiting neuronal potassium ion efflux, which, in turn, suppresses the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes and reduces IL-1β production, potentially ameliorating pain management in BCP.

The role of orphan G protein-coupled receptors in pain

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which form the largest family of membrane protein receptors in humans, are highly complex signaling systems with intricate structures and dynamic conformations and locations. Among these receptors, a specific subset is referred to as orphan GPCRs (oGPCRs) and has garnered significant interest in pain research due to their role in both central and peripheral nervous system function. The diversity of GPCR functions is attributed to multiple factors, including allosteric modulators, signaling bias, oligomerization, constitutive signaling, and compartmentalized signaling. This review primarily focuses on the recent advances in oGPCR research on pain mechanisms, discussing the role of specific oGPCRs including GPR34, GPR37, GPR65, GPR83, GPR84, GPR85, GPR132, GPR151, GPR160, GPR171, GPR177, and GPR183. The orphan receptors among these receptors associated with central nervous system diseases are also briefly described. Understanding the functions of these oGPCRs can contribute not only to a deeper understanding of pain mechanisms but also offer a reference for discovering new targets for pain treatment.

Painful diabetic neuropathy: The role of ion channels

Painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN) is a common chronic complication of diabetes that causes neuropathic pain and negatively affects the quality of life. The management of PDN is far from satisfactory. At present, interventions are primarily focused on symptomatic treatment. Ion channel disorders are a major cause of PDN, and a complete understanding of their roles and mechanisms may provide better options for the clinical treatment of PDN. Therefore, this review summarizes the important role of ion channels in PDN and the current drug development targeting these ion channels.

A novel microglia-targeting strategy based on nanoparticle-mediated delivery of miR-26a-5p for long-lasting analgesia in chronic pain

Accumulating evidence supports the notion that microglia play versatile roles in different chronic pain conditions. However, therapeutic strategies of chronic pain by targeting microglia remain largely overlooked. This study seeks to develop a miRNA-loaded nano-delivery system by targeting microglia, which could provide a decent and long-lasting analgesia for chronic pain. Surface aminated mesoporous silica nanoparticles were adopted to load miR-26a-5p, a potent analgesic miRNA, by electrostatic adsorption, which can avoid miR-26a-5p is rapidly released and degraded. Then, targeting peptide MG1 was modified on the surface of aminated mesoporous silica particles for microglia targeting. In peripheral nerve injury induced neuropathic pain model, a satisfactory anti-allodynia effect with about 6 weeks pain-relief duration were achieved through targeting microglia strategy, which decreased microglia activation and inflammation by Wnt5a, a non-canonical Wnt pathway. In inflammatory pain and chemotherapy induced peripheral neuropathic pain, microglia targeting strategy also exhibited more efficient analgesia and longer pain-relief duration than others. Overall, we developed a microglia-targeting nano-delivery system, which facilitates precisely miR-26a-5p delivery to enhance analgesic effect and duration for several chronic pain conditions.

Characterization of sensory and motor dysfunction and morphological alterations in late stages of type 2 diabetic mice

Diabetic neuropathy is the most common complication of diabetes and lacks effective treatments. Although sensory dysfunction during the early stages of diabetes has been extensively studied in various animal models, the functional and morphological alterations in sensory and motor systems during late stages of diabetes remain largely unexplored. In the current work, we examined the influence of diabetes on sensory and motor function as well as morphological changes in late stages of diabetes. The obese diabetic Leprdb/db mice (db/db) were used for behavioral assessments and subsequent morphological examinations. The db/db mice exhibited severe sensory and motor behavioral defects at the age of 32 weeks, including significantly higher mechanical withdrawal threshold and thermal latency of hindpaws compared with age-matched nondiabetic control animals. The impaired response to noxious stimuli was mainly associated with the remarkable loss of epidermal sensory fibers, particularly CGRP-positive nociceptive fibers. Unexpectedly, the area of CGRP-positive terminals in the spinal dorsal horn was dramatically increased in diabetic mice, which was presumably associated with microglial activation. In addition, the db/db mice showed significantly more foot slips and took longer time during the beam-walking examination compared with controls. Meanwhile, the running duration in the rotarod test was markedly reduced in db/db mice. The observed sensorimotor deficits and motor dysfunction were largely attributed to abnormal sensory feedback and muscle atrophy as well as attenuated neuromuscular transmission in aged diabetic mice. Morphological analysis of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) demonstrated partial denervation of NMJs and obvious fragmentation of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs). Intrafusal muscle atrophy and abnormal muscle spindle innervation were also detected in db/db mice. Additionally, the number of VGLUT1-positive excitatory boutons on motor neurons was profoundly increased in aged diabetic mice as compared to controls. Nevertheless, inhibitory synaptic inputs onto motor neurons were similar between the two groups. This excitation-inhibition imbalance in synaptic transmission might be implicated in the disturbed locomotion. Collectively, these results suggest that severe sensory and motor deficits are present in late stages of diabetes. This study contributes to our understanding of mechanisms underlying neurological dysfunction during diabetes progression and helps to identify novel therapeutic interventions for patients with diabetic neuropathy.

Research focus and thematic trends of transient receptor potential vanilloid member 1 research: a bibliometric analysis of the global publications (1990-2023)

Recently, various studies have been devoted to the study of transient receptor potential vanilloid member 1 (TRPV1)-related diseases, potential drugs, and related mechanisms. The objective of this investigation was to examine the significant areas and cutting-edge developments in TRPV1 study within recent decades. Articles or reviews were obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection. VOSviewer 1.6.18 and CiteSpace 6.1 R2 software were utilized to examine publication growth, distribution by country/region, institution, journal, authorship, references, and keywords. The software identified keywords with a high citation burstiness to determine emerging topics. From 1990 to 2023, the annual global publications increased by 62,000%, from 1 to 621. Journal of neuroscience published the most manuscripts and Nature produced the highest citations. The USA, Seoul National University and Di marzo V were the most productive and impactful institution, country, and author, respectively. "TRPV1," "Capsaicin receptor," "Activation," and "Pain" are the most important keywords. The burst keywords "TRPV1 channel," "Oxidative stress," "TRPV1 structure," and "Cancer" are supposed to be the research frontiers. The present study offers valuable insights into the understanding of TRPV1 and pain-related conditions. The research on TRPV1 has demonstrated a steady increase in studies related to pain-related diseases in the past few decades. The significance of TRPV1 in cancer pathogenesis and the resolution of its structure will emerge as a new academic trend in this field, providing direction for more widespread and comprehensive studies in the future.

New concepts drive the development of delivery tools for sustainable treatment of diabetic complications

Diabetic complications, especially diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy and painful diabetic neuropathy, account for a large portion of patients with diabetes and display rising global prevalence. They are the leading causes of blindness, kidney failure and hypersensitivity to pain caused by diabetes. Current approved therapeutics against the diabetic complications are few and exhibit limited efficacy. The enhanced cell-specificity, stability, biocompatibility, and loading capacity of drugs are essential for the mitigation of diabetic complications. In the article, we have critically discussed the recent studies over the past two years in material sciences and biochemistry. The insightful concepts in these studies drive the development of novel nanoparticles and mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles to meet the need for treatment of diabetic complications. Their underlying biochemical principles, advantages and limitations have been in-depth analyzed. The nanoparticles discussed in the article include double-headed nanodelivery system, nanozyme, ESC-HCM-B system, soft polymer nanostars, tetrahedral DNA nanostructures and hydrogels. They ameliorate the diabetic complication through attenuation of inflammation, apoptosis and restoration of metabolic homeostasis. Moreover, mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles efficiently deliver therapeutic proteins to the retinal cells to suppress the angiogenesis, inflammation, apoptosis and oxidative stress to reverse diabetic retinopathy. Collectively, we provide a critical discussion on the concept, mechanism and therapeutic applicability of new delivery tools to treat these three devastating diabetic complications.

Research trends and frontier hotspots of TRPV1 based on bibliometric and visualization analyses

Background

Transient receptor potential vanilloid type1 (TRPV1) is a non-selective cation channel with multiple activation mechanisms, which has received increasing attention since it was first cloned in 1997.

Methods

We used bibliometric and visualization analyses to evaluate the theme trends and knowledge structure of TRPV1 research-papers on TRPV1 from 2002 to 2022 obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection. VOSviewer and CiteSpace were used to analyze authors, institutions, countries, co-cited references, and keywords.

Results

A total of 7413 papers were included. The main research area of TRPV1 was neuroscience; the most published country was the United States, and the University of California, San Francisco, had the highest centrality. Two major collaborative sub-networks were formed between the authors. The distribution of keywords shows that TRPV1 was initially studied extensively, and the recent studies focused on TRPV1 structure and diseases. "Oxidative stress," "TRPV1 structure," "cancer," and "model" have been the research hotspots in recent years.

Conclusions

This research provides valuable information for the study of TRPV1. Disease research was focused on pain, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Both agonists and antagonists of TRPV1 are gradually being used in clinical practice, and acupuncture was effective in treating TRPV1-mediated inflammatory pain. TRPV1 is involved in classical endogenous cannabis system signaling, and new signaling pathways continue to be revealed.

Role of TRP Channels in Metabolism-Related Diseases

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), with its high prevalence and significant impact on cardiovascular disease, poses a substantial threat to human health. The early identification of pathological abnormalities related to MetS and prevention of the risk of associated diseases is of paramount importance. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels, a type of nonselective cation channel, are expressed in a variety of tissues and have been implicated in the onset and progression of numerous metabolism-related diseases. This study aims to review and discuss the expression and function of TRP channels in metabolism-related tissues and blood vessels, and to elucidate the interactions and mechanisms between TRP channels and metabolism-related diseases. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using keywords such as TRP channels, metabolic syndrome, pancreas, liver, oxidative stress, diabetes, hypertension, and atherosclerosis across various academic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Elsevier, Web of Science, and CNKI. Our review of the current research suggests that TRP channels may be involved in the development of metabolism-related diseases by regulating insulin secretion and release, lipid metabolism, vascular functional activity, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response. TRP channels, as nonselective cation channels, play pivotal roles in sensing various intra- and extracellular stimuli and regulating ion homeostasis by osmosis. They present potential new targets for the diagnosis or treatment of metabolism-related diseases.

Therapeutic potential of luteolin-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)/modified magnesium hydroxide microsphere in functional thermosensitive hydrogel for treating neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a debilitating condition stemming from damage to the somatosensory system frequently caused by nerve injuries or lesions. While existing treatments are widely employed, they often lead to side effects and lack specificity. This study aimed to alleviate NP by developing an innovative sustained-release thermosensitive hydrogel system. The system incorporates hyaluronic acid (HA)/Pluronic F127 injectable hydrogel and bupivacaine (Bup, B) in combination with poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid; PLGA)/modified magnesium hydroxide (MH)/luteolin (Lut; PML) microspheres (PML@B/Gel). The PML@B/Gel was designed for localized and prolonged co-delivery of Bup and Lut as an anesthetic and anti-inflammatory agent, respectively. Our studies demonstrated that PML@B/Gel had exceptional biocompatibility, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. In addition, it exhibited efficient pain relief in in vitro cellular assays. Moreover, this functional hydrogel showed substantial sustained drug release while diminishing microglial activation. Consequently, it effectively mitigated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in in vivo rat models of chronic constriction injury (CCI). Based on our research findings, PML@B/Gel emerges as a promising therapeutic approach for the protracted treatment of NP.

Targeting sensory neuron GPCRs for peripheral neuropathic pain

Despite the high prevalence of peripheral neuropathic pain (NP) conditions and significant progress in understanding its underlying mechanisms, the management of peripheral NP remains inadequate. Existing pharmacotherapies for NP act primarily on the central nervous system (CNS) and are often associated with CNS-related adverse effects, limiting their clinical effectiveness. Mounting preclinical evidence indicates that reducing the heightened activity in primary sensory neurons by targeting G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), without activating these receptors in the CNS, relieves pain without central adverse effects. In this review, we focus on recent advancements in GPCR-mediated peripheral pain relief and discuss strategies to advance the development of more effective and safer therapies for peripheral NP by shifting from traditional CNS modulatory approaches toward selective targeting of GPCRs on primary sensory neurons.

Ion Channel Genes in Painful Neuropathies

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a typical symptom of peripheral nerve disorders, including painful neuropathy. The biological mechanisms that control ion channels are important for many cell activities and are also therapeutic targets. Disruption of the cellular mechanisms that govern ion channel activity can contribute to pain pathophysiology. The voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) is the most researched ion channel in terms of NP; however, VGSC impairment is detected in only <20% of painful neuropathy patients. Here, we discuss the potential role of the other peripheral ion channels involved in sensory signaling (transient receptor potential cation channels), neuronal excitation regulation (potassium channels), involuntary action potential generation (hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels), thermal pain (anoctamins), pH modulation (acid sensing ion channels), and neurotransmitter release (calcium channels) related to pain and their prospective role as therapeutic targets for painful neuropathy.

Activation of G-protein-coupled receptor 183 initiates inflammatory pain via macrophage CCL22 secretion

Chronic pain is a major public health problem with limited effective therapeutic options. G-protein-coupled receptors play a significant role in pain modulation; however, whether and how G-protein-coupled receptor 183 participates in pain regulation remain unclear. In the present study, we found that G-protein-coupled receptor 183 expression was specifically upregulated in the hind paws of mice in various inflammatory pain models. Activation of G-protein-coupled receptor 183 induced acute pain, whereas inhibition or silencing of this receptor alleviated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) model. Mechanistically, activating G-protein-coupled receptor 183 triggers pain responses via the upregulation of C-C motif chemokine 22(CCL22) in macrophages while blocking the CCL22 receptor C-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4) attenuates pain hypersensitivity. Taken together, our findings indicate that the G-protein-coupled receptor 183-CCL22 axis has a critical role in the development and maintenance of inflammatory pain.

Microglia cause structural remodeling of noradrenergic axon in the trigeminal spinal subnucleus caudalis after infraorbital nerve injury in rats

The dysfunction of descending noradrenergic (NAergic) modulation in second-order neurons has long been observed in neuropathic pain. In clinical practice, antidepressants that increase noradrenaline levels in the synaptic cleft are used as first-line agents, although adequate analgesia has not been occasionally achieved. One of the hallmarks of neuropathic pain in the orofacial regions is microglial abnormalities in the trigeminal spinal subnucleus caudalis (Vc). However, until now, the direct interaction between descending NAergic system and Vc microglia in orofacial neuropathic pain has not been explored. We found that reactive microglia ingested the dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DβH)-positive fraction, NAergic fibers, in the Vc after infraorbital nerve injury (IONI). Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) was upregulated in Vc microglia after IONI. Interferon-γ (IFNγ) was de novo induced in trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons following IONI, especially in C-fiber neurons, which conveyed to the central terminal of TG neurons. Gene silencing of IFNγ in the TG reduced MHC-I expression in the Vc after IONI. Intracisternal administration of exosomes from IFNγ-stimulated microglia elicited mechanical allodynia and a decrease in DβH in the Vc, which did not occur when exosomal MHC-I was knocked down. Similarly, in vivo MHC-I knockdown in Vc microglia attenuated the development of mechanical allodynia and a decrease in DβH in the Vc after IONI. These results show that microglia-derived MHC-I causes a decrease in NAergic fibers, culminating in orofacial neuropathic pain.

Whole genome sequencing across clinical trials identifies rare coding variants in GPR68 associated with chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy

BACKGROUND

Dose-limiting toxicities significantly impact the benefit/risk profile of many drugs. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) in patients receiving drugs with dose-limiting toxicities can identify therapeutic hypotheses to prevent these toxicities. Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a common dose-limiting neurological toxicity of chemotherapies with no effective approach for prevention.

METHODS

We conducted a genetic study of time-to-first peripheral neuropathy event using 30× germline WGS data from whole blood samples from 4900 European-ancestry cancer patients in 14 randomized controlled trials. A substantial number of patients in these trials received taxane and platinum-based chemotherapies as part of their treatment regimen, either standard of care or in combination with the PD-L1 inhibitor atezolizumab. The trials spanned several cancers including renal cell carcinoma, triple negative breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, small cell lung cancer, bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, and melanoma.

RESULTS

We identified a locus consisting of low-frequency variants in intron 13 of GRID2 associated with time-to-onset of first peripheral neuropathy (PN) indexed by rs17020773 (p = 2.03 × 10^-8, all patients, p = 6.36 × 10^-9, taxane treated). Gene-level burden analysis identified rare coding variants associated with increased PN risk in the C-terminus of GPR68 (p = 1.59 × 10^-6, all patients, p = 3.47 × 10^-8, taxane treated), a pH-sensitive G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR). The variants driving this signal were found to alter predicted arrestin binding motifs in the C-terminus of GPR68. Analysis of snRNA-seq from human dorsal root ganglia (DRG) indicated that expression of GPR68 was highest in mechano-thermo-sensitive nociceptors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our genetic study provides insight into the impact of low-frequency and rare coding genetic variation on PN risk and suggests that further study of GPR68 in sensory neurons may yield a therapeutic hypothesis for prevention of CIPN.

The role of protein kinases in diabetic neuropathic pain: an update review

Objectives

Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is a debilitating symptom of diabetic neuropathy which seriously impairs patient's quality of life. Currently, there is no specific therapy for DNP except for duloxetine and gabapentin that show limited utility in alleviating DNP. The present review aims to discuss the central role of protein kinases in the pathogenesis of DNP and their therapeutic modulation.

Methods

Scopus, PubMed, and Google scholar were searched up to January 2022 to find relevant studies with English language in which the roles of proteins kinases in DNP were examined.

Results

DNP is associated with hyperactivity in pain sensory neurons and therapies aim to specifically suppress redundant discharges in these neurons without affecting the activity of other sensory and motor neurons. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) and purinergic 2 × 7 receptors (P2 × 7R) are two receptor channels, highly expressed in pain sensory neurons and their blockade produces remarkable analgesic effects in DNP. The activities of receptor channels are mainly regulated by the protein kinases whose modulation provides remarkable analgesic effects in DNP models.

Conclusion

Capsaicin, TRPV1 modulator, is the only agent successfully examined in clinical trials with promising effects in patients with DNP. Current data suggest that blocking calcium calmodulin dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is superior to other approaches, considering its pivotal role in regulating the pain neuron potentials. By this means, DNP alleviation is achievable without affecting the activity of other sensory or motor neurons.

The role of Evi/Wntless in exporting Wnt proteins

Intercellular communication by Wnt proteins governs many essential processes during development, tissue homeostasis and disease in all metazoans. Many context-dependent effects are initiated in the Wnt-producing cells and depend on the export of lipidated Wnt proteins. Although much focus has been on understanding intracellular Wnt signal transduction, the cellular machinery responsible for Wnt secretion became better understood only recently. After lipid modification by the acyl-transferase Porcupine, Wnt proteins bind their dedicated cargo protein Evi/Wntless for transport and secretion. Evi/Wntless and Porcupine are conserved transmembrane proteins, and their 3D structures were recently determined. In this Review, we summarise studies and structural data highlighting how Wnts are transported from the ER to the plasma membrane, and the role of SNX3-retromer during the recycling of its cargo receptor Evi/Wntless. We also describe the regulation of Wnt export through a post-translational mechanism and review the importance of Wnt secretion for organ development and cancer, and as a future biomarker.

Multidisciplinary Advances Address the Challenges in Developing Drugs against Transient Receptor Potential Channels to Treat Metabolic Disorders

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are cation channels that regulate key physiological and pathological processes in response to a broad range of stimuli. Moreover, they systemically regulate the release of hormones, metabolic homeostasis, and complications of diabetes, which positions them as promising therapeutic targets to combat metabolic disorders. Nevertheless, there are significant challenges in the design of TRP ligands with high potency and durability. Herein we summarize the four challenges as hydrophobicity, selectivity, mono-target therapy, and interspecies discrepancy. We present 1134 TRP ligands with diversified modes of TRP-ligand interaction and provide a detailed discussion of the latest strategies, especially cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and computational methods. We propose solutions to address the challenges with a critical analysis of advances in membrane partitioning, polypharmacology, biased agonism, and biochemical screening of transcriptional modulators. They are fueled by the breakthrough from cryo-EM, chemoinformatics and bioinformatics. The discussion is aimed to shed new light on designing next-generation drugs to treat obesity, diabetes and its complications, with optimal hydrophobicity, higher mode selectivity, multi-targeting and consistent activities between human and rodents.

Structure-guided peptide engineering of a positive allosteric modulator targeting the outer pore of TRPV1 for long-lasting analgesia

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel is a classic analgesic target, but antagonists of TRPV1 failed in clinical trials due to their side effects like hyperthermia. Here we rationally engineer a peptide s-RhTx as a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of TRPV1. Patch-clamp recordings demonstrate s-RhTx selectively potentiated TRPV1 activation. s-RhTx also slows down capsaicin-induced desensitization of TRPV1 in the presence of calcium to cause more calcium influx in TRPV1-expressing cells. In addition, our thermodynamic mutant cycle analysis shows that E652 in TRPV1 outer pore specifically interacts with R12 and K22 in s-RhTx. Furthermore, we demonstrate in vivo that s-RhTx exhibits long-lasting analgesic effects in noxious heat hyperalgesia and CFA-induced chronic inflammatory pain by promoting the reversible degeneration of intra-epidermal nerve fiber (IENF) expressing TRPV1 channels in mice, while their body temperature remains unaffected. Our results suggest s-RhTx is an analgesic agent as a PAM of TRPV1.

Silencing P2X7R Alleviates Diabetic Neuropathic Pain Involving TRPV1 via PKCε/P38MAPK/NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Rats

Transient receptor potential vanillic acid 1 (TRPV1) is an ion channel activated by heat and inflammatory factors involved in the development of various types of pain. The P2X7 receptor is in the P2X family and is associated with pain mediated by satellite glial cells. There might be some connection between the P2X7 receptor and TRPV1 in neuropathic pain in diabetic rats. A type 2 diabetic neuropathic pain rat model was induced using high glucose and high-fat diet for 4 weeks and low-dose streptozocin (35 mg/kg) intraperitoneal injection to destroy islet B cells. Male Sprague Dawley rats were administrated by intrathecal injection of P2X7 shRNA and p38 inhibitor, and we recorded abnormal mechanical and thermal pain and nociceptive hyperalgesia. One week later, the dorsal root ganglia from the L4-L6 segment of the spinal cord were harvested for subsequent experiments. We measured pro-inflammatory cytokines, examined the relationship between TRPV1 on neurons and P2X7 receptor on satellite glial cells by measuring protein and transcription levels of P2X7 receptor and TRPV1, and measured protein expression in the PKCε/P38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway after intrathecal injection. P2X7 shRNA and p38 inhibitor relieved hyperalgesia in diabetic neuropathic pain rats and modulated inflammatory factors in vivo. P2X7 shRNA and P38 inhibitors significantly reduced TRPV1 expression by downregulating the PKCε/P38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway and inflammatory factors in dorsal root ganglia. Intrathecal injection of P2X7 shRNA alleviates nociceptive reactions in rats with diabetic neuropathic pain involving TRPV1 via PKCε/P38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Wnt3a/YTHDF1 Regulated Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathic Pain Via TNF-α/IL-18 Expression in the Spinal Cord

Oxaliplatin is widely used in cancer treatment, however, many patients will suffer from neuropathic pain (NP) induced by it at the same time. Therefore exploring the mechanism and founding novel target for this problem are needed. In this study, YTHDF1 showed upregulation in oxaliplatin treated mice. As m6A is known as conserved and it widely functions in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Therefore, we focused on exploring the molecular mechanism of whether and how YTHDF1 functions in NP induced by oxaliplatin. IHC and western blotting were conducted to measure proteins. Intrathecal injection for corresponding siRNAs in C57/BL6 mice or spinal microinjection for virus in YTHDF1^flox/flox mice were applied to specially knockdown the expression of molecular. Von Frey, acetone test and ethyl chloride (EC) test were applied to evaluate NP behavior. YTHDF1, Wnt3a, TNF-α and IL-18 were increased in oxaliplatin treated mice, restricted the molecular mentioned above respectively can significantly attenuate oxaliplatin-induced NP, including the mechanical allodynia and cold allodynia. Silencing YTHDF1 and inhibiting Wnt3a and Wnt signaling pathways can reduce the enhancement of TNF-α and IL-18, and the decreasing of the upregulation of YTHDF1 can be found when inhibiting Wnt3a and Wnts signaling pathways in oxaliplatin treated mice. Our study indicated a novel pathway that can contribute to oxaliplatin-induced NP, the Wnt3a/YTHDF1 to cytokine pathway, which upregulating YTHDF1 functioned as the downstream of Wnt3a signal and promoted the translation of TNF-α and IL-18 in oxaliplatin treated mice.

Neuroinflammation Involved in Diabetes-Related Pain and Itch

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a global epidemic with increasing incidence, which results in diverse complications, seriously affects the patient quality of life, and brings huge economic burdens to society. Diabetic neuropathy is the most common chronic complication of DM, resulting in neuropathic pain and chronic itch. The precise mechanisms of diabetic neuropathy have not been fully clarified, hindering the exploration of novel therapies for diabetic neuropathy and its terrible symptoms such as diabetic pain and itch. Accumulating evidence suggests that neuroinflammation plays a critical role in the pathophysiologic process of neuropathic pain and chronic itch. Indeed, researchers have currently made significant progress in knowing the role of glial cells and the pro-inflammatory mediators produced from glial cells in the modulation of chronic pain and itch signal processing. Here, we provide an overview of the current understanding of neuroinflammation in contributing to the sensitization of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS). In addition, we also summarize the inflammation mechanisms that contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetic itch, including activation of glial cells, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory factors. Targeting excessive neuroinflammation may provide potential and effective therapies for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain and itch in DM.