Compounds with Therapeutic Potential against Novel Respiratory 2019 Coronavirus

Assessment of remdesivir and its nucleoside metabolite in beagle dogs and healthy humans by liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

The aim of this study was to assess the pharmacokinetics of the existing remdesivir intravenous formulation (100 mg dose) against the newly developed oral formulation (20 mg dose) for remdesivir and its active nucleoside metabolite (GS-441524) in beagle dogs followed by healthy human volunteers. A quantification method for remdesivir and its active nucleoside metabolite (GS-441524) in beagle dog and human plasma has been developed and validated using liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry detection. The analytical methods for beagle dogs and human differ in the calibration curve range, plasma matrix, processing volume, reconstitution volume and injection volume; however all other parameters were same in both methods. A simple protein precipitation extraction was carried out using acetonitrile containing the internal standard remdesivir D5. Remdesivir and GS-441524 were separated on an Endurus C-18P, 100 × 4.6 mm, 3 μm column and detected using a mass spectrometer with electrospray ionization in positive ion mode. The ion transitions used were m/z 603.1 → m/z 200.0 for remdesivir, m/z 292.0 → m/z 202.2 for GS-441524 and m/z 608.2 → m/z 205.1 for remdesivir D5. The calibration curve results were linear in beagle dog plasma (2.0-2,000.8 ng/ml range for remdesivir and 2.0-1,500.4 ng/ml for GS-441524) and human plasma (30.0-4,503.9 ng/ml range for remdesivir and 2.0-200.4 ng/ml for GS-441524). The recovery was >90% in beagle dog and human plasma. These methods were successfully used to determine the pharmacokinetic parameters of the intravenous injection and subcutaneous tablets dosage forms in beagle dogs and healthy humans.

BPR3P0128, a non-nucleoside RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor, inhibits SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern and exerts synergistic antiviral activity in combination with remdesivir

Viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), a highly conserved molecule in RNA viruses, has recently emerged as a promising drug target for broad-acting inhibitors. Through a Vero E6-based anti-cytopathic effect assay, we found that BPR3P0128, which incorporates a quinoline core similar to hydroxychloroquine, outperformed the adenosine analog remdesivir in inhibiting RdRp activity (EC50 = 0.66 µM and 3 µM, respectively). BPR3P0128 demonstrated broad-spectrum activity against various severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concern. When introduced after viral adsorption, BPR3P0128 significantly decreased SARS-CoV-2 replication; however, it did not affect the early entry stage, as evidenced by a time-of-drug-addition assay. This suggests that BPR3P0128's primary action takes place during viral replication. We also found that BPR3P0128 effectively reduced the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in human lung epithelial Calu-3 cells infected with SARS-CoV-2. Molecular docking analysis showed that BPR3P0128 targets the RdRp channel, inhibiting substrate entry, which implies it operates differently-but complementary-with remdesivir. Utilizing an optimized cell-based minigenome RdRp reporter assay, we confirmed that BPR3P0128 exhibited potent inhibitory activity. However, an enzyme-based RdRp assay employing purified recombinant nsp12/nsp7/nsp8 failed to corroborate this inhibitory activity. This suggests that BPR3P0128 may inhibit activity by targeting host-related RdRp-associated factors. Moreover, we discovered that a combination of BPR3P0128 and remdesivir had a synergistic effect-a result likely due to both drugs interacting with separate domains of the RdRp. This novel synergy between the two drugs reinforces the potential clinical value of the BPR3P0128-remdesivir combination in combating various SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.

Ritonavir Has Reproductive Toxicity Depending on Disrupting PI3K/PDK1/AKT Signaling Pathway

Ritonavir (RTV) is an antiviral and a component of COVID-19 treatments. Moreover, RTV demonstrates anti-cancer effects by suppressing AKT. However, RTV has cytotoxicity and suppresses sperm functions by altering AKT activity. Although abnormal AKT activity is known for causing detrimental effects on sperm functions, how RTV alters AKT signaling in spermatozoa remains unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate reproductive toxicity of RTV in spermatozoa through phosphoinositide 3-kinase/phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1/protein kinase B (PI3K/PDK1/AKT) signaling. Duroc spermatozoa were treated with various concentrations of RTV, and capacitation was induced. Sperm functions (sperm motility, motion kinematics, capacitation status, and cell viability) and expression levels of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins and PI3K/PDK1/AKT pathway-related proteins were evaluated. In the results, RTV significantly suppressed sperm motility, motion kinematics, capacitation, acrosome reactions, and cell viability. Additionally, RTV significantly increased levels of phospho-tyrosine proteins and PI3K/PDK1/AKT pathway-related proteins except for AKT and PI3K. The expression level of AKT was not significantly altered and that of PI3K was significantly decreased. These results suggest RTV may suppress sperm functions by induced alterations of PI3K/PDK1/AKT pathway through abnormally increased tyrosine phosphorylation. Therefore, we suggest people who use or prescribe RTV need to consider its male reproductive toxicity.

Strategies for the development and approval of COVID-19 vaccines and therapeutics in the post-pandemic period

The spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has resulted in significant casualties and put immense strain on public health systems worldwide, leading to economic recession and social unrest. In response, various prevention and control strategies have been implemented globally, including vaccine and drug development and the promotion of preventive measures. Implementing these strategies has effectively curbed the transmission of the virus, reduced infection rates, and gradually restored normal social and economic activities. However, the mutations of SARS-CoV-2 have led to inevitable infections and reinfections, and the number of deaths continues to rise. Therefore, there is still a need to improve existing prevention and control strategies, mainly focusing on developing novel vaccines and drugs, expediting medical authorization processes, and keeping epidemic surveillance. These measures are crucial to combat the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and achieve sustained, long-term prevention, management, and disease control. Here, we summarized the characteristics of existing COVID-19 vaccines and drugs and suggested potential future directions for their development. Furthermore, we discussed the COVID-19-related policies implemented over the past years and presented some strategies for the future.

Efficacy and Safety of Remdesivir in Hospitalized Pediatric COVID-19: A Retrospective Case-Controlled Study

Introduction

While most children experience mild coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections, a minority of cases progress to severe or critical illness. This study aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of Remdesivir (RDV) therapy in children with moderate to severe COVID-19, enhancing clinical decision-making and expanding our understanding of antiviral treatments for pediatric patients.

Methods

The study included 60 patients, 38 receiving RDV treatment and 22 serving as the control group. Data was collected retrospectively from January 2021 to January 2022 through electronic hospital records.

Results

Regarding the main clinical symptoms reported, most patients experienced Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (93.3%), indicating respiratory involvement. Additional symptoms included Central Nervous System (11.7%) and Gastrointestinal (10.0%). Among the 38 cases in the RDV group included in the study, the adverse effects associated with using RDV: Hypoalbuminemia in 19 cases (50.0%) and anemia in 18 cases (47.4%), making them the most common adverse effects. Only one case in the RDV group experienced non-RDV-related death with a different clinical diagnosis. The results showed that RDV treatment was well-tolerated in pediatric patients, with no significant differences in hospital stay and oxygen treatment compared to the control group with P values (0.2, 0.18), respectively.

Conclusion

The outcomes indicate that Remdesivir may represent a safe and therapeutic choice for children with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Heparan Sulfate-Mimicking Glycopolymers Bind SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein in a Length- and Sulfation Pattern-Dependent Manner

Heparan sulfate-mimicking glycopolymers, composed of glucosamine (GlcN)-glucuronic acid (GlcA) repeating units, bind to the receptor-binding subunit (S1) and spike glycoprotein (S) domains of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in a length- and sulfation pattern-dependent fashion. A glycopolymer composed of 12 repeating GlcNS6S-GlcA units exhibits a much higher affinity to the S1 protein (IC50 = 13 ± 1.1 nM) compared with the receptor-binding domain (RBD). This glycopolymer does not interfere in angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 binding of the RBD. Although this compound binds strongly to the S1/membrane-fusion subunit (S2) junction (KD = 29.7 ± 4.18 nM), it does not shield the S1/S2 site from cleavage by furin-a behavior contrary to natural heparin. This glycopolymer lacks iduronic acid, which accounts for 70% of heparin. Further, this compound, unlike natural heparin, is well defined in both sulfation pattern and length, which results in fewer off-target interactions with heparin-binding proteins. The results highlight the potential of using polymeric heparan sulfate (HS) mimetics for the therapeutic agent development.

Insights into COVID-19: Perspectives on Drug Remedies and Host Cell Responses

In light of the COVID-19 global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, ongoing research has centered on minimizing viral spread either by stopping viral entry or inhibiting viral replication. Repurposing antiviral drugs, typically nucleoside analogs, has proven successful at inhibiting virus replication. This review summarizes current information regarding coronavirus classification and characterization and presents the broad clinical consequences of SARS-CoV-2 activation of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor expressed in different human cell types. It provides publicly available knowledge on the chemical nature of proposed therapeutics and their target biomolecules to assist in the identification of potentially new drugs for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

SARS-CoV-2 Syncytium under the Radar: Molecular Insights of the Spike-Induced Syncytia and Potential Strategies to Limit SARS-CoV-2 Replication

SARS-CoV-2 infection induces non-physiological syncytia when its spike fusogenic protein on the surface of the host cells interacts with the ACE2 receptor on adjacent cells. Spike-induced syncytia are beneficial for virus replication, transmission, and immune evasion, and contribute to the progression of COVID-19. In this review, we highlight the properties of viral fusion proteins, mainly the SARS-CoV-2 spike, and the involvement of the host factors in the fusion process. We also highlight the possible use of anti-fusogenic factors as an antiviral for the development of therapeutics against newly emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants and how the fusogenic property of the spike could be exploited for biomedical applications.

Immunomodulatory approaches in managing lung inflammation in COVID-19: A double-edge sword

INTRODUCTION

The novel coronavirus infectious disease 2019 (COVID-19) which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has emerged as a gigantic problem. The lung is the major target organ of SARS-CoV-2 and some of its variants like Delta and Omicron variant adapted in such a way that these variants can significantly damage this vital organ of the body. These variants raised a few eyebrows as the outbreaks have been seen in the vaccinated population. Patients develop severe respiratory illnesses which eventually prove fatal unless treated early.

MAIN BODY

Studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2 causes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α which are mediators of lung inflammation, lung damage, fever, and fibrosis. Additionally, various chemokines have been found to play an important role in the disease progression. A plethora of pro-inflammatory cytokines "cytokine storm" has been observed in severe cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pneumonia that may prove fatal. To counteract cytokine storm-inducing lung inflammation, several promising immunomodulatory approaches are being investigated in numerous clinical trials. However, the benefits of using these strategies should outweigh the risks involved as the use of certain immunosuppressive approaches might lead the host susceptible to secondary bacterial infections.

CONCLUSION

The present review discusses promising immunomodulatory approaches to manage lung inflammation in COVID-19 cases which may serve as potential therapeutic options in the future and may prove lifesaving.

Prolonged Exposure to Remdesivir Inhibits the Human Ether-A-Go-Go-Related Gene Potassium Current

ABSTRACT

Remdesivir, approved for the treatment of COVID-19, has been associated with heart-rate corrected QT interval (QTc) prolongation and torsade de pointes in case reports. However, data are conflicting regarding the ability of remdesivir to inhibit the human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) -related current. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects remdesivir and its primary metabolite, GS-441524, on hERG-related currents. Human embryonic kidney 293 cells stably expressing hERG were treated with various concentrations of remdesivir and GS-441524. The effects of acute and prolonged exposure on hERG-related current were assessed using whole-cell configuration of voltage-clamp protocols. Acute exposure to remdesivir and GS-441524 had no effect on hERG currents and the half-activation voltage (V 1/2 ). Prolonged treatment with 100 nM and 1 µM remdesivir significantly reduced peak tail currents and hERG current density. The propensity for remdesivir to prolong QTc intervals and induce torsade de pointes in predisposed patients warrants further investigation.

Theoretical insights into the binding interaction of Nirmatrelvir with SARS-CoV-2 Mpro mutants (C145A and C145S): MD simulations and binding free-energy calculation to understand drug resistance

Mpro, the main protease and a crucial enzyme in SARS-CoV-2 is the most fascinating molecular target for pharmacological treatment and is also liable for viral protein maturation. For antiviral therapy, no drugs have been approved clinically to date. Targeting the Mpro with a compound having inhibitory properties against it can hinder viral replication. The therapeutic potential of the antiviral compound Nirmatrelvir (NMV) against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro was investigated using a systematic approach of molecular docking, MD simulations, and binding free energy calculation based on the MM-GBSA method. NMV, a covalent inhibitor with a recently revealed chemical structure, is a promising oral antiviral clinical candidate with significant in vitro anti-SARS-CoV-2 action in third-phase clinical trials. To explore the therapeutic ability and possible drug resistance, the Mpro system was studied for WT and two of its primary mutants (C145A & C145S). The protein-ligand (Mpro/NMV) complexes were further examined through long MD simulations to check the possible drug resistance in the mutants. To understand the binding affinity, the MM-GBSA method was applied to the Mpro/NMV complexes. Moreover, PCA analysis confirms the detachment of the linker region from the major domains in C145S and C145A mutants allowing for conformational alterations in the active-site region. Based on the predicted biological activities and binding affinities of NMV to WT and mutant (C145A & C145S) Mpro, it can be stipulated that NMV may have conventional potency to act as an anti-viral agent against WT Mpro, while the catalytic-dyad mutations may show substantial mutation-induced drug resistance.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Multidimensional futuristic approaches to address the pandemics beyond COVID-19

Globally, the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been enormous and unrelenting with ∼6.9 million deaths and ∼765 million infections. This review mainly focuses on the recent advances and potentially novel molecular tools for viral diagnostics and therapeutics with far-reaching implications in managing the future pandemics. In addition to briefly highlighting the existing and recent methods of viral diagnostics, we propose a couple of potentially novel non-PCR-based methods for rapid, cost-effective, and single-step detection of nucleic acids of viruses using RNA mimics of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and nuclease-based approaches. We also highlight key innovations in miniaturized Lab-on-Chip (LoC) devices, which in combination with cyber-physical systems, could serve as ideal futuristic platforms for viral diagnosis and disease management. We also discuss underexplored and underutilized antiviral strategies, including ribozyme-mediated RNA-cleaving tools for targeting viral RNA, and recent advances in plant-based platforms for rapid, low-cost, and large-scale production and oral delivery of antiviral agents/vaccines. Lastly, we propose repurposing of the existing vaccines for newer applications with a major emphasis on Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG)-based vaccine engineering.

Antiviral Therapy of COVID-19

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, the scientific community has focused on prophylactic vaccine development. In parallel, the experience of the pharmacotherapy of this disease has increased. Due to the declining protective capacity of vaccines against new strains, as well as increased knowledge about the structure and biology of the pathogen, control of the disease has shifted to the focus of antiviral drug development over the past year. Clinical data on safety and efficacy of antivirals acting at various stages of the virus life cycle has been published. In this review, we summarize mechanisms and clinical efficacy of antiviral therapy of COVID-19 with drugs based on plasma of convalescents, monoclonal antibodies, interferons, fusion inhibitors, nucleoside analogs, and protease inhibitors. The current status of the drugs described is also summarized in relation to the official clinical guidelines for the treatment of COVID-19. In addition, here we describe innovative drugs whose antiviral effect is provided by antisense oligonucleotides targeting the SARS-CoV-2 genome. Analysis of laboratory and clinical data suggests that current antivirals successfully combat broad spectra of emerging strains of SARS-CoV-2 providing reliable defense against COVID-19.

Impact of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease on clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19 among persons living with HIV: A multicenter research network study

BACKGROUND

People living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) are at an increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) but how these patients react to COVID-19 infection is unclear. We examined the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with and without nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) diagnosed with COVID-19.

METHODS

A multicenter, retrospective cohort study was conducted using TriNetX. Participants diagnosed with COVID-19 between January 20, 2020, and October 31, 2021, in PLWH were identified and divided into cohorts based on preexisting NAFLD. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality, and secondary outcomes were hospitalization, severe disease, critical care, need for mechanical ventilation, and acute kidney injury(AKI). Propensity score matching (PSM) mitigated the imbalance among group covariates. Risk ratios (RR) with 95 % confidence intervals (CI) were calculated.

RESULTS

Of the 5012 PLWH identified with confirmed COVID-19 during the study period, 563 had a diagnosis of NAFLD. After PSM, both groups were well-matched with 561 patients. The primary outcome did not differ between the cohorts at 30-days, even after a fully adjusted analysis, and the risk of all-cause mortality did not differ at 60 and 90 days. NAFLD had a significantly higher risk for hospitalization rates (RR 1.32; 95 % CI, 1.06-1.63) and AKI (RR 2.55; 95 % CI 1.42-4.57) than the non-NAFLD group at 30 days. No other differences were detected in other secondary outcome measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Preexisting NAFLD is associated with an increased risk for hospitalization and AKI among PLWH infected with COVID-19. The potential role of NAFLD in developing severe COVID-19 among PLWH remains to be elucidated in future studies. Still, this study indicates the need for careful monitoring of this at-risk population.

Does climate change affect the transmission of COVID-19? A Bayesian regression analysis

Aim

Coronavirus is an airborne and infectious disease and it is crucial to check the impact of climatic risk factors on the transmission of COVID-19. The main objective of this study is to determine the effect of climate risk factors using Bayesian regression analysis.

Methods

Coronavirus disease 2019, due to the effect of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has become a serious global public health issue. This disease was identified in Bangladesh on March 8, 2020, though it was initially identified in Wuhan, China. This disease is rapidly transmitted in Bangladesh due to the high population density and complex health policy setting. To meet our goal, The MCMC with Gibbs sampling is used to draw Bayesian inference, which is implemented in WinBUGS software.

Results

The study revealed that high temperatures reduce confirmed cases and deaths from COVID-19, but low temperatures increase confirmed cases and deaths. High temperatures have decreased the proliferation of COVID-19, reducing the virus's survival and transmission.

Conclusions

Considering only the existing scientific evidence, warm and wet climates seem to reduce the spread of COVID-19. However, more climate variables could account for explaining most of the variability in infectious disease transmission.

Lopinavir/ritonavir for treatment of non-hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVES

Effective and widely available therapies are still needed for outpatients with COVID-19. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) for early treatment of non-hospitalized individuals diagnosed with COVID-19.

METHODS

This randomized, placebo (Plb)-controlled, double-blind, multi-site decentralized clinical trial enrolled non-hospitalized adults with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection and six or fewer days of acute respiratory infection symptoms who were randomized to either twice-daily oral LPV/r (400 mg/100 mg) or Plb for 14 days. Daily surveys on study days 1 through 16 and again on study day 28 evaluated symptoms, daily activities, and hospitalization status. The primary outcome was longitudinal change in an ordinal scale based on a combination of symptoms, activity, and hospitalization status through day 15 and was analyzed by use of a Bayesian longitudinal proportional odds logistic regression model for estimating the probability of a superior recovery for LPV/r over Plb (odds ratio >1).

RESULTS

Between June 2020 and December 2021, 448 participants were randomized to receive either LPV/r (n = 216) or Plb (n = 221). The mean symptom duration before randomization was 4.3 days (SD 1.3). There were no differences between treatment groups through the first 15 days for the ordinal primary outcome (odds ratio 0.96; 95% credible interval: 0.66 to 1.41). There were 3.2% (n = 7) of LPV/r and 2.7% (n = 6) of Plb participants hospitalized by day 28. Serious adverse events did not differ between groups.

CONCLUSION

LPV/r did not significantly improve symptom resolution or reduce hospitalization in non-hospitalized participants with COVID-19.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04372628.

The investigation of the complex population-drug-drug interaction between ritonavir-boosted lopinavir and chloroquine or ivermectin using physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling

OBJECTIVES

Therapy failure caused by complex population-drug-drug (PDDI) interactions including CYP3A4 can be predicted using mechanistic physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. A synergy between ritonavir-boosted lopinavir (LPVr), ivermectin, and chloroquine was suggested to improve COVID-19 treatment. This work aimed to study the PDDI of the two CYP3A4 substrates (ivermectin and chloroquine) with LPVr in mild-to-moderate COVID-19 adults, geriatrics, and pregnancy populations.

METHODS

The PDDI of LPVr with ivermectin or chloroquine was investigated. Pearson's correlations between plasma, saliva, and lung interstitial fluid (ISF) levels were evaluated. Target site (lung epithelial lining fluid [ELF]) levels of ivermectin and chloroquine were estimated.

RESULTS

Upon LPVr coadministration, while the chloroquine plasma levels were reduced by 30, 40, and 20%, the ivermectin plasma levels were increased by a minimum of 425, 234, and 453% in adults, geriatrics, and pregnancy populations, respectively. The established correlation equations can be useful in therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) and dosing regimen optimization.

CONCLUSIONS

Neither chloroquine nor ivermectin reached therapeutic ELF levels in the presence of LPVr despite reaching toxic ivermectin plasma levels. PBPK modeling, guided with TDM in saliva, can be advantageous to evaluate the probability of reaching therapeutic ELF levels in the presence of PDDI, especially in home-treated patients.

Identification of structural scaffold from interbioscreen (IBS) database to inhibit 3CLpro, PLpro, and RdRp of SARS-CoV-2 using molecular docking and dynamic simulation studies

A novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has caused a worldwide pandemic and remained a severe threat to the entire human population. Researchers worldwide are struggling to find an effective drug treatment to combat this deadly disease. Many FDA-approved drugs from varying inhibitory classes and plant-derived compounds are screened to combat this virus. Still, due to the lack of structural information and several mutations of this virus, initial drug discovery efforts have limited success. A high-resolution crystal structure of important proteins like the main protease (3CLpro) that are required for SARS-CoV-2 viral replication and polymerase (RdRp) and papain-like protease (PLpro) as a vital target in other coronaviruses still presents important targets for the drug discovery. With this knowledge, scaffold library of Interbioscreen (IBS) database was explored through molecular docking, MD simulation and postdynamic binding free energy studies. The 3D docking structures and simulation data for the IBS compounds was studied and articulated. The compounds were further evaluated for ADMET studies using QikProp and SwissADME tools. The results revealed that the natural compounds STOCK2N-00385, STOCK2N-00244, and STOCK2N-00331 interacted strongly with 3CLpro, PLpro, and RdRp, respectively, and ADMET data was also observed in the range of limits for almost all the compounds with few exceptions. Thus, it suggests that these compounds may be potential inhibitors of selected target proteins, or their structural scaffolds can be further optimized to obtain effective drug candidates for SARS-CoV-2. The findings of in-silico data need to be supported by in-vivo studies which could shed light on understanding the exact mode of inhibitory action.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

An overview on the treatments and prevention against COVID-19

BACKGROUND

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to plague the world. While COVID-19 is asymptomatic in most individuals, it can cause symptoms like pneumonia, ARDS (acute respiratory distress syndrome), and death in others. Although humans are currently being vaccinated with several COVID-19 candidate vaccines in many countries, however, the world still is relying on hygiene measures, social distancing, and approved drugs.

RESULT

There are many potential therapeutic agents to pharmacologically fight COVID-19: antiviral molecules, recombinant soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), monoclonal antibodies, vaccines, corticosteroids, interferon therapies, and herbal agents. By an understanding of the SARS-CoV-2 structure and its infection mechanisms, several vaccine candidates are under development and some are currently in various phases of clinical trials.

CONCLUSION

This review describes potential therapeutic agents, including antiviral agents, biologic agents, anti-inflammatory agents, and herbal agents in the treatment of COVID-19 patients. In addition to reviewing the vaccine candidates that entered phases 4, 3, and 2/3 clinical trials, this review also discusses the various platforms that are used to develop the vaccine COVID-19.

The Role of Cyclodextrins in COVID-19 Therapy-A Literature Review

Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) emerged in December 2019 and quickly spread, giving rise to a pandemic crisis. Therefore, it triggered tireless efforts to identify the mechanisms of the disease, how to prevent and treat it, and to limit and hamper its global dissemination. Considering the above, the search for prophylactic approaches has led to a revolution in the reglementary pharmaceutical pipeline, with the approval of vaccines against COVID-19 in an unprecedented way. Moreover, a drug repurposing scheme using regulatory-approved antiretroviral agents is also being pursued. However, their physicochemical characteristics or reported adverse events have sometimes limited their use. Hence, nanotechnology has been employed to potentially overcome some of these challenges, particularly cyclodextrins. Cyclodextrins are cyclic oligosaccharides that present hydrophobic cavities suitable for complexing several drugs. This review, besides presenting studies on the inclusion of antiviral drugs in cyclodextrins, aims to summarize some currently available prophylactic and therapeutic schemes against COVID-19, highlighting those that already make use of cyclodextrins for their complexation. In addition, some new therapeutic approaches are underscored, and the potential application of cyclodextrins to increase their promising application against COVID-19 will be addressed. This review describes the instances in which the use of cyclodextrins promotes increased bioavailability, antiviral action, and the solubility of the drugs under analysis. The potential use of cyclodextrins as an active ingredient is also covered. Finally, toxicity and regulatory issues as well as future perspectives regarding the use of cyclodextrins in COVID-19 therapy will be provided.

Clinical Profile of COVID-19 Patients Admitted at a Private Hospital During Three Surges in Mandalay, Myanmar

Introduction During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, private hospitals in Mandalay started to manage COVID-19 infections according to national treatment guidelines since February 2021. Variations of clinical characteristics and their outcomes in different surges could be evaluated in the private hospital. This study aimed to assess the clinical profile and outcomes of COVID-19 patients admitted at a private hospital during three surges in Mandalay. Methods This study is a retrospective record review of the case series of COVID-19 patients admitted at City Hospital, Mandalay. The study was conducted from January to December 2022. All of the hospital records of COVID-19 patients admitted during the second wave from February 2020 to 26 May 2021, the third wave from 27 May 2021 to 27 January 2022, and the fourth wave from 28 January to April 2022 were included in the study. Results A total of 1606 admitted cases were included in the study. The mean with standard deviation (SD) of age was 55.7±18.5, and males were 778 (48.4%). The mean duration of hospital stay in days was 10.8±5.94, 10.6±6.11, and 7.3±2.88 in second, third, and fourth waves, respectively. The mean duration of hospital stay was shortened in the fourth wave. Comorbid conditions with hypertension and/or diabetes diseases were mostly observed in three waves of COVID-19 infection. Fever was the most presented symptom in three waves. Cough, sore throat, and rhinorrhea were observed more in the fourth wave compared with previous waves. Complication with pneumonia (71.3%), liver dysfunction (21.0%), acute respiratory distress syndrome (10.0%), thrombocytopenia (6.2%), acute kidney injury (5.5%), bleeding (3.9%), and pulmonary embolism (2.9%) were investigated. Antiviral treatment such as remdesivir or molnupiravir was used more in the patients of third and fourth waves than those of the second wave. Oxygen therapy (59.9%), prone position (35.5%), non-invasive ventilation (9.5%), invasive ventilation (0.5%), inotropes (4.6%), and renal replacement therapy (1.1%) were recorded in serious cases. Only 7.9% and 9.4% died in the hospital in second and third waves. No mortality was observed in the fourth wave. Conclusions The study recommended that COVID-19 patients with comorbid conditions of hypertension or diabetes and ages 65 and older should be taken with intensive care support at the hospital. This study also concluded that a private hospital in Mandalay could tackle with COVID-19 severe cases in line with national treatment guidelines since the second wave and could provide better management in the fourth wave. Antiviral treatment should be used in severe COVID-19 cases for further emergency management. In conclusion, private hospital involvement in the COVID-19 pandemic is supportive of the healthcare provision in Myanmar in an emergency situation.

The COVID-19, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS: Ménage à Trois

In December 2019, a novel pneumonic condition, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID- 19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), broke out in China and spread globally. The presentation of COVID-19 is more severe in persons with underlying medical conditions such as Tuberculosis (TB), Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) and other pneumonic conditions. All three diseases are of global concern and can significantly affect the lungs with characteristic cytokine storm, immunosuppression, and respiratory failure. Co-infections of SARS-CoV-2 with HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) have been reported, which may influence their pathogenesis and disease progression. Pulmonary TB and HIV/AIDS patients could be more susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection leading to lethal synergy and disease severity. Therefore, the biological and epidemiological interactions of COVID-19, HIV/AIDS, and TB need to be understood holistically. While data is needed to predict the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on these existing diseases, it is necessary to review the implications of the evolving COVID-19 management on HIV/AIDS and TB control, including therapy and funding. Also, the impact of long COVID on patients, who may have this co-infection. Thus, this review highlights the implications of COVID-19, HIV/AIDS, and TB co-infection compares disease mechanisms, addresses growing concerns, and suggests a direction for improved diagnosis and general management.

Highly efficacious and safe neutralizing DNA aptamer of SARS-CoV-2 as an emerging therapy for COVID-19 disease

BACKGROUND

The paucity of SARS-CoV-2-specific virulence factors has greatly hampered the therapeutic management of patients with COVID-19 disease. Although available vaccines and approved therapies have shown tremendous benefits, the continuous emergence of new variants of SARS-CoV-2 and side effects of existing treatments continue to challenge therapy, necessitating the development of a novel effective therapy. We have previously shown that our developed novel single-stranded DNA aptamers not only target the trimer S protein of SARS-CoV-2, but also block the interaction between ACE2 receptors and trimer S protein of Wuhan origin, Delta, Delta plus, Alpha, Lambda, Mu, and Omicron variants of SARS-CoV-2. We herein performed in vivo experiments that administer the aptamer to the lungs by intubation as well as in vitro studies utilizing PBMCs to prove the efficacy and safety of our most effective aptamer, AYA2012004_L.

METHODS

In vivo studies were conducted in transgenic mice expressing human ACE2 (K18hACE2), C57BL/6J, and Balb/cJ. Flow cytometry was used to check S-protein expressing pseudo-virus-like particles (VLP) uptake by the lung cells and test the immuogenicity of AYA2012004_L. Ames test was used to assess mutagenicity of AYA2012004_L. RT-PCR and histopathology were used to determine the biodistribution and toxicity of AYA2012004_L in vital organs of mice.

RESULTS

We measured the in vivo uptake of VLPs by lung cells by detecting GFP signal using flow cytometry. AYA2012004_L specifically neutralized VLP uptake and also showed no inflammatory response in mice lungs. In addition, AYA2012004_L did not induce inflammatory response in the lungs of Th1 and Th2 mouse models as well as human PBMCs. AYA2012004_L was detectable in mice lungs and noticeable in insignificant amounts in other vital organs. Accumulation of AYA2012004_L in organs decreased over time. AYA2012004_L did not induce degenerative signs in tissues as seen by histopathology and did not cause changes in the body weight of mice. Ames test also certified that AYA2012004_L is non-mutagenic and proved it to be safe for in vivo studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our aptamer is safe, effective, and can neutralize the uptake of VLPs by lung cells when administered locally suggesting that it can be used as a potential therapeutic agent for COVID-19 management.

Strategic analyses to identify key structural features of antiviral/antimalarial compounds for their binding interactions with 3CLpro, PLpro and RdRp of SARS-CoV-2: in silico molecular docking and dynamic simulation studies

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), a novel member of the betacoronavirus family is a single-stranded RNA virus that has spread worldwide prompting the World Health Organization to declare a global pandemic. This creates an alarming situation and generates an urgent need to develop innovative therapeutic agents. In this context, an in silico molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation study on the existing 58 antiviral and antimalarial compounds was performed on 3CLpro, PLpro and RdRp SARS-CoV-2 proteins. The antiviral compounds are best fitted in the binding pockets and interact more profoundly with the amino acid residues compared to antimalarial compounds. An HIV protease inhibitor, saquinavir showed a good dock score and binding free energy with varied binding interactions against 3CLpro and PLpro. While, adefovir, a nucleotide HBV DNA polymerase inhibitor exhibited good dock score and binding interactions against RdRp. Although, the antimalarial compounds showed relatively less dock score but were found to be crucial in displaying essential binding interactions with these proteins. The MD simulation runs for 100 ns on 3CLpro-saquinavir, PLpro-saquinavir and RdRp-adefovir complexes using Desmond revealed fairly stable nature of interactions. This study helped in understanding the key interactions of the vital functionalities that provide a concrete base to develop lead molecules effective against SARS-CoV-2.

The Connection between Gut and Lung Microbiota, Mast Cells, Platelets and SARS-CoV-2 in the Elderly Patient

The human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 that emerged in late 2019 causes a respiratory tract infection and has currently resulted in more than 627 million confirmed cases and over 6.58 million deaths worldwide up to October 2022. The highest death rate caused by COVID-19 is in older people, especially those with comorbidities. This evidence presents a challenge for biomedical research on aging and also identifies some key players in inflammation, including mast cells and platelets, which could represent important markers and, at the same time, unconventional therapeutic targets. Studies have shown a decrease in the diversity of gut microbiota composition in the elderly, particularly a reduced abundance of butyrate-producing species, and COVID-19 patients manifest faecal microbiome alterations, with an increase in opportunistic pathogens and a depletion of commensal beneficial microorganisms. The main purpose of this narrative review is to highlight how an altered condition of the gut microbiota, especially in the elderly, could be an important factor and have a strong impact in the lung homeostasis and COVID-19 phenomenon, jointly to the activation of mast cells and platelets, and also affect the outcomes of the pathology. Therefore, a targeted and careful control of the intestinal microbiota could represent a complementary intervention to be implemented for the management and the challenge against COVID-19.

M. K, Sahib Khalil N. Assessing the potential correlation of polymorphisms in the TMPRSS2 gene with severity of COVID 19 patients

Introduction and Aim: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Once infected this virus induces several clinical disorders in humans. SARSCoV-2 enters cells via TMPRSS2. Genetic variation in TMPRSS2 could affect the severity of infection. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the (TMPRSS2) gene polymorphism affected COVID-19 severity in patients as well as the effect of age and comorbidities on infection.   Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional analytical study comprised of 400 (185 male, 215 female) Covid-19-infected patients between ages 18-65 receiving treatment in hospitals at Baghdad, Iraq. The patients were divided into three groups: mild, moderate, and severe based on the severity of Covid-19 infection. Baseline data was collected for each patient through interview and questionnaire. Blood collected from patients was subjected to DNA extraction and detecting polymorphisms within SNPs of the TMPRSS2 gene.   Results: The present investigation indicated higher age to be significantly associated with severe COVID-19 infection when compared to moderate and mild infection (36.14 ± 12.716 vs. 48.52 ± 17.513 vs. 59.26 ± 16.035) (F= 3.697, df: 64, P= 0.000). Patients with comorbidities was associated with a greater rate of severe Covid-19 infection (74.2% vs. 25.8%). However, individuals without comorbidities had a considerably lower rate of mild and moderate Covid-19 infection (13.9% vs. 86.1%) and (36% vs. 64%), respectively (x^2: 97.930, df: 2, P = 0.000). SNPs; (rs383510, rs12329760) within the transmembrane TMPRSS2–7113 was studied and we found no  significant (P> 0.05) association for these SNPs to severity of Covid-19 infection.   Conclusion: The results show that the allelic variation within the TMPRSS2 (SNP rs2070788) gene to be linked to increasing illness severity in COVID-19 patients.

Safety and Efficacy of Interferon β-1b in the Treatment of Severe COVID-19 Patients: An Open-Label Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: About a year after the start of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the results of the studies conducted to investigate the effectiveness of interferon (INF) compounds in this disease were contradictory. Objectives: This study was carried out to examine the safety and efficacy of a treatment protocol containing INF-β-1b, hydroxychloroquine, and Kaletra (lopinavir/ritonavir) in patients with severe COVID-19. Methods: In this open-label, randomized controlled trial, severe cases of COVID-19 were included. Patients were eligible if they had epidemiological and radiological evidence compatible with COVID-19 or a positive polymerase chain reaction result and their disease was severe. They were randomly allocated into a control group that received the standard regimen (hydroxychloroquine and Kaletra) and an intervention group that received INF-β-1b treatment and the standard treatment regimen. Then, the two groups were compared in terms of in-hospital mortality, intubation, length of hospital stay, oxygen saturation, and lactate dehydrogenase before and after the intervention. Results: A total of 91 cases of severe COVID-19 were enrolled for analysis [intervention (n = 47) and control (n = 44)]. The length of hospital stay in the intervention group was significantly longer than in the control group (13.21 ± 6.88 vs. 10.52 ± 5.77 days; P = 0.047). The mortality rate did not significantly differ between the intervention and control groups (19.15% and 13.64%, respectively; P = 0.509). The intubation rate did not significantly differ between the intervention and control groups (12.76% and 11.36%, respectively; P = 0.838). Conclusions: The use of INF-β-1b-containing treatment regimens does not reduce mortality and intubation rates among patients with severe COVID-19. Furthermore, it might even increase the severity of the disease and the length of hospital stay for some patients; therefore, it is not recommended to use INF-β-1b in severe cases of COVID-19.

Aptamer-Gated Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for N Protein Triggered Release of Remdesivir and Treatment of Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV)

Since the 2019-nCoV outbreak was first reported, hundreds of millions of people all over the world have been infected. There is no doubt that improving the cure rate of 2019-nCoV is one of the most effective means to deal with the current serious epidemic. At present, Remdesivir (RDV) has been clinically proven to be effective in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2. However, the uncertain side effects make it important to reduce the use of drugs while ensuring the self-healing effect. We report an approach here with targeted therapy for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses illness. In this study, mesoporous silica was used as the carrier of RDV, the nucleocapsid protein (N protein) aptamer was hybridized with the complementary chain, and the double-stranded DNA was combined with gold nanoparticles as the gates of mesoporous silica pores. When the RDV-loaded mesoporous silica is incubated with the N protein, aptamer with gold nanoparticles dissociate from the complementary DNA oligonucleotide on the mesoporous silica surface and bind to the N protein. The releasing of RDV was determined by detecting the UV-vis absorption peak of RDV in the solution. These results show that the RDV delivery system designed in this work has potential clinical application for the treatment of 2019-nCoV.

Reproductive Toxicity of Ritonavir in Male: insight into mouse sperm capacitation

Since COVID-19 began in 2019, therapeutic agents are being developed for its treatment. Among the numerous potential therapeutic agents, ritonavir (RTV), an anti-viral agent, has recently been identified as an important element of the COVID-19 treatment. Moreover, RTV has also been applied in the drug repurposing of cancer cells. However, previous studies have shown that RTV has toxic effects on various cell types. In addition, RTV regulates AKT phosphorylation within cancer cells, and AKT is known to control sperm functions (motility, capacitation, and so on). Although deleterious effects of RTV have been reported, it is not known whether RTV has male reproduction toxicity. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of RTV on sperm function and male fertility. In the present study, sperm collected from the cauda epididymis of mice were incubated with various concentrations of RTV (0, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 μM). The expression levels of AKT, phospho-AKT (Thr³⁰⁸ and Ser⁴⁷³), and phospho-tyrosine proteins, sperm motility, motion kinematics, capacitation status, and cell viability were assessed after capacitation. The results revealed that AKT phosphorylation at Thr³⁰⁸ and Ser⁴⁷³ was significantly increased, and the levels of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins (at approximately 25 and 100 kDa) were significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, RTV adversely affected sperm motility, motion kinematics, and cell viability. Taken together, RTV may have negative effects on sperm function through an abnormal increase in tyrosine phosphorylation and phospho-AKT levels. Therefore, individuals taking or prescribing RTV should be aware of its reproductive toxicity.

Nutrition as Personalized Medicine against SARS-CoV-2 Infections: Clinical and Oncological Options with a Specific Female Groups Overview

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a respiratory disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). It is acknowledged that vulnerable people can suffer from mortal complications of COVID-19. Therefore, strengthening the immune system particularly in the most fragile people could help to protect them from infection. First, general nutritional status and food consumption patterns of everyone affect the effectiveness of each immune system. The effects of nutrition could impact the level of intestinal and genital microbiota, the adaptive immune system, and the innate immune system. Indeed, immune system cells and mediators, which are crucial to inflammatory reaction, are in the structures of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins and are activated through vitamins (vit) and minerals. Therefore, the association of malnutrition and infection could damage the immune response, reducing the immune cells and amplifying inflammatory mediators. Both amount and type of dietary fat impact on cytokine biology, that consequently assumes a crucial role in inflammatory disease. This review explores the power of nutrition in the immune response against COVID-19 infection, since a specific diet could modify the cytokine storm during the infection phase. This can be of vital importance in the most vulnerable subjects such as pregnant women or cancer patients to whom we have deemed it necessary to dedicate personalized indications.

COVID-19: Pathophysiology, transmission, and drug development for therapeutic treatment and vaccination strategies

COVID-19, a dreaded and highly contagious pandemic, is flagrantly known for its rapid prevalence across the world. Till date, none of the treatments are distinctly accessible for this life-threatening disease. Under the prevailing conditions of medical emergency, one creative strategy for the identification of novel and potential antiviral agents gaining momentum in research institutions and progressively being leveraged by pharmaceutical companies is target-based drug repositioning/repurposing. A continuous monitoring and recording of results offer an anticipation that this strategy may help to reveal new medications for viral infections. This review recapitulates the neoteric illation of COVID-19, its genomic dispensation, molecular evolution via phylogenetic assessment, drug targets, the most frequently worldwide used repurposed drugs and their therapeutic applications, and a recent update on vaccine management strategies. The available data from solidarity trials exposed that the treatment with several known drugs, viz. lopinavir-ritonavir, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, etc had displayed various antagonistic effects along with no impactful result in diminution of mortality rate. The drugs like remdesivir, favipiravir, and ribavirin proved to be quite safer therapeutic options for treatment against COVID-19. Similarly, dexamethasone, convalescent plasma therapy and oral administration of 2DG are expected to reduce the mortality rate of COVID-19 patients.

Detecting drug-drug interactions between therapies for COVID-19 and concomitant medications through the FDA adverse event reporting system

Background: COVID-19 patients with underlying medical conditions are vulnerable to drug-drug interactions (DDI) due to the use of multiple medications. We conducted a discovery-driven data analysis to identify potential DDIs and associated adverse events (AEs) in COVID-19 patients from the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS), a source of post-market drug safety.

Materials and Methods: We investigated 18,589 COVID-19 AEs reported in the FAERS database between 2020 and 2021. We applied multivariate logistic regression to account for potential confounding factors, including age, gender, and the number of unique drug exposures. The significance of the DDIs was determined using both additive and multiplicative measures of interaction. We compared our findings with the Liverpool database and conducted a Monte Carlo simulation to validate the identified DDIs.

Results: Out of 11,337 COVID-19 drug-Co-medication-AE combinations investigated, our methods identified 424 signals statistically significant, covering 176 drug-drug pairs, composed of 13 COVID-19 drugs and 60 co-medications. Out of the 176 drug-drug pairs, 20 were found to exist in the Liverpool database. The empirical p-value obtained based on 1,000 Monte Carlo simulations was less than 0.001. Remdesivir was discovered to interact with the largest number of concomitant drugs (41). Hydroxychloroquine was detected to be associated with most AEs (39). Furthermore, we identified 323 gender- and 254 age-specific DDI signals.

Conclusion: The results, particularly those not found in the Liverpool database, suggest a subsequent need for further pharmacoepidemiology and/or pharmacology studies.

COVID-19 in children: epidemic issues and candidate vaccines

A large-scale vaccination of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) in adults has been conducted for nearly a year, and there is a growing recognition that immunization for children is also essential. It has been months since emergency use of pediatric COVID-19 vaccine was approved, we reviewed the prevalence and transmission of COVID-19 in children. The prevalence of COVID-19 in children is reduced due to vaccination even in a Delta prevalent period, so an increase in the vaccination rate is needed in children. Although the precise role of children in the transmission requires more research to uncover, they likely played a significant role, according to the available literature. We also described four candidate COVID-19 vaccines for children on their safety and immunogenicity and the impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 variants on childhood vaccination. Safety issues on pediatric vaccines post-approval, like adverse events following immunization and adverse events of special interest require studies on long-term and effective regulatory mechanisms.

Effectiveness and safety of available treatments for COVID-19 during pregnancy: a critical review

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 is a pandemic disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 and it spread globally in the last few months. The complete lack of specific treatment forced clinicians to use old drugs, chosen for their efficacy against similar viruses or their in vitro activity. Trials on patients are ongoing but the majority of information comes from small case series and single center reports. We aimed to provide a literature review on the putative effectiveness and safety of available treatments for COVID-19 in pregnant women.

METHODS

We reviewed all the available literature concerning the drugs that have been used in the treatment of COVID-19 during pregnancy and whose safe assumption during pregnancy had been demonstrated by clinical studies (i.e. including studies on other infectious diseases). Drugs contra-indicated during pregnancy or with unknown adverse effects were not included in our review.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Clinical trials are not often conducted among pregnant patients for safety reasons and this means that drugs that may be effective in general population cannot be used for pregnant women due to the lack of knowledge of side effects in this category of people .The choice to use a specific drug for COVID-19 in pregnancy should take into account benefits and possible adverse events in each single case. In the current situation of uncertainty and poor knowledge about the management of COVID-19 during pregnancy, this present overview may provide useful information for physicians with practical implications.

Antisense technology as a potential strategy for the treatment of coronaviruses infection: With focus on COVID-19

After the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in December 2019 and the increasing number of SARS-CoV-2 infections all over the world, researchers are struggling to investigate effective therapeutic strategies for the treatment of this infection. Targeting viral small molecules that are involved in the process of infection is a promising strategy. Since many host factors are also used by SARS-CoV-2 during various stages of infection, down-regulating or silencing these factors can serve as an effective therapeutic tool. Several nucleic acid-based technologies including short interfering RNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, aptamers, DNAzymes, and ribozymes have been suggested for the control of SARS-CoV-2 as well as other respiratory viruses. The antisense technology also plays an indispensable role in the treatment of many other diseases including cancer, influenza, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. In this review, we summarised the potential applications of antisense technology for the treatment of coronaviruses and specifically COVID-19 infection.

Molecular insights to the binding interactions of APNS containing HIV-protease inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro: an in silico approach towards drug repurposing

SARS-CoV-2 M^pro is one of the most vital enzymes of the new coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) and is a crucial target for drug discovery. Unfortunately, there is not any potential drugs available to combat the action of SARS-CoV-2 M^pro. Based on the reports HIV-protease inhibitors can be applied against the SARS by targeting the SARS-CoV-1 M^pro, we have chosen few clinically trialed experimental and allophenylnorstatine (APNS) containing HIV-protease inhibitors (JE-2147, JE-533, KNI-227, KNI-272 & KNI-1931), to examine their binding affinities with SARS-CoV-2 M^pro and to assess their potential to check for a possible drug candidate against the protease. Here, we have chosen a methodology to understand the binding mechanism of these five inhibitors to SARS-CoV-2 M^pro by merging molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and MM-PBSA based free energy calculations. Our estimations disclose that JE-2147 is highly effective (ΔG_Bind = -28.31 kcal/mol) due to an increased favorable van der Waals (ΔE_vdw) interactions and decreased solvation (ΔG_solv) energies between the inhibitor and viral protease. JE-2147 shows a higher level of interactions as compared to JE-533 (-6.85 kcal/mol), KNI-227 (-18.36 kcal/mol), KNI-272 (-15.69 kcal/mol) and KNI-1931 (-21.59 kcal/mol) against SARS-CoV-2 M^pro. Binding contributions of important residues (His41, Met49, Cys145, His164, Met165, Glu166, Pro168, Gln189, etc.) from the active site or near the active site regions with ≥1.0 kcal/mol suggest a potent binding of the inhibitors. It is anticipated that the current study of binding interactions of these APNS containing inhibitors can pitch some valuable insights to design the significantly effective anti-SARS-CoV-2 M^pro drugs.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A Systematic Review of the Global Intervention for SARS-CoV-2 Combating: From Drugs Repurposing to Molnupiravir Approval

The rising outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 continues to unfold all over the world. The development of novel effective antiviral drugs to fight against SARS-CoV-2 is a time cost. As a result, some specific FDA-approved drugs have already been repurposed and authorized for COVID-19 treatment. The repurposed drugs used were either antiviral or non-antiviral drugs. Accordingly, the present review thoroughly focuses on the repurposing efficacy of these drugs including clinical trials experienced, the combination therapies used, the novel methods followed for treatment, and their future perspective. Therefore, drug repurposing was regarded as an effective avenue for COVID-19 treatment. Recently, molnupiravir is a prodrug antiviral medication that was approved in the United Kingdom in November 2021 for the treatment of COVID-19. On the other hand, PF-07321332 is an oral antiviral drug developed by Pfizer. For the treatment of COVID-19, the PF-07321332/ritonavir combination medication is used in Phase III studies and was marketed as Paxlovid. Herein, we represented the almost history of combating COVID-19 from repurposing to the recently available oral anti-SARS-CoV-2 candidates, as a new hope to end the current pandemic.

Latest insights on the diagnostic approaches and treatment strategies of COVID-19

Background

COVID-19 has emerged as the most serious pandemic in the 21st century to date. COVID-19 patients may develop various disease symptoms that hinder the accurate clinical diagnosis.

Summary

Routine diagnosis of COVID-19 requires complementary investigations, including computed tomography, immunological assays, and molecular assays like real-time RT-PCR, loop-mediated isothermal amplification, metagenomic next-generation sequencing, and clusters of regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-based assays. Clinically approved antiviral drugs available for the COVID-19 treatment are very limited. The most common measurements that enhance health condition and patients' viability are conservation fluid management, oxygen therapy, and antibiotics. Several therapeutic options have been developed or repurposed to prevent virus replication and/or modulate the immune response against virus infection. These options include various drugs that affect virus entry and membrane fusion, inhibit polymerase and protease activity, suppress the host pro-inflammatory cytokines, and utilize cell therapy approaches.

Key Messages

In this review, we aimed to provide an up-to-date discussion on the current diagnostic options and therapeutic strategies used to control and manage COVID-19 in clinical and point-of-care settings.

The mechanism underlying extrapulmonary complications of the coronavirus disease 2019 and its therapeutic implication

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly transmissible disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that poses a major threat to global public health. Although COVID-19 primarily affects the respiratory system, causing severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome in severe cases, it can also result in multiple extrapulmonary complications. The pathogenesis of extrapulmonary damage in patients with COVID-19 is probably multifactorial, involving both the direct effects of SARS-CoV-2 and the indirect mechanisms associated with the host inflammatory response. Recognition of features and pathogenesis of extrapulmonary complications has clinical implications for identifying disease progression and designing therapeutic strategies. This review provides an overview of the extrapulmonary complications of COVID-19 from immunological and pathophysiologic perspectives and focuses on the pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets for the management of COVID-19.

Impact of novel microbial secondary metabolites on the pharma industry

Abstract

Microorganisms are remarkable producers of a wide diversity of natural products that significantly improve human health and well-being. Currently, these natural products comprise half of all the pharmaceuticals on the market. After the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming 85 years ago, the search for and study of antibiotics began to gain relevance as drugs. Since then, antibiotics have played a valuable role in treating infectious diseases and have saved many human lives. New molecules with anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, and immunosuppressive activity have now been introduced to treat other relevant diseases. Smaller biotechnology companies and academic laboratories generate novel antibiotics and other secondary metabolites that big pharmaceutical companies no longer develop. The purpose of this review is to illustrate some of the recent developments and to show the potential that some modern technologies like metagenomics and genome mining offer for the discovery and development of new molecules, with different functions like therapeutic alternatives needed to overcome current severe problems, such as the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, antibiotic resistance, and other emerging diseases.

Key points

• Novel alternatives for the treatment of infections caused by bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

• Second wave of efforts of microbial origin against SARS-CoV-2 and related variants.

• Microbial drugs used in clinical practice as hypocholesterolemic agents, immunosuppressants, and anticancer therapy.

Pharmacogenetics and Precision Medicine Approaches for the Improvement of COVID-19 Therapies

Many drugs are being administered to tackle coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic situations without establishing clinical effectiveness or tailoring safety. A repurposing strategy might be more effective and successful if pharmacogenetic interventions are being considered in future clinical studies/trials. Although it is very unlikely that there are almost no pharmacogenetic data for COVID-19 drugs, however, from inferring the pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic(PD) properties and some pharmacogenetic evidence in other diseases/clinical conditions, it is highly likely that pharmacogenetic associations are also feasible in at least some COVID-19 drugs. We strongly mandate to undertake a pharmacogenetic assessment for at least these drug–gene pairs (atazanavir–UGT1A1, ABCB1, SLCO1B1, APOA5; efavirenz–CYP2B6; nevirapine–HLA, CYP2B6, ABCB1; lopinavir–SLCO1B3, ABCC2; ribavirin–SLC28A2; tocilizumab–FCGR3A; ivermectin–ABCB1; oseltamivir–CES1, ABCB1; clopidogrel–CYP2C19, ABCB1, warfarin–CYP2C9, VKORC1; non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)–CYP2C9) in COVID-19 patients for advancing precision medicine. Molecular docking and computational studies are promising to achieve new therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2 infection. The current situation in the discovery of anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents at four important targets from in silico studies has been described and summarized in this review. Although natural occurring compounds from different herbs against SARS-CoV-2 infection are favorable, however, accurate experimental investigation of these compounds is warranted to provide insightful information. Moreover, clinical considerations of drug–drug interactions (DDIs) and drug–herb interactions (DHIs) of the existing repurposed drugs along with pharmacogenetic (e.g., efavirenz and CYP2B6) and herbogenetic (e.g., andrographolide and CYP2C9) interventions, collectively called multifactorial drug–gene interactions (DGIs), may further accelerate the development of precision COVID-19 therapies in the real-world clinical settings.

A Randomized Trial of Combination Therapy, Sitagliptin and Spironolactone, in Hospitalized Adult Patients with COVID-19

Context

COVID-19 may cause respiratory distress syndrome and death. Treatment of COVID-19 to prevent complications remains a priority.

Objective

Our investigation sought to determine whether combination of spironolactone and sitagliptin could reduce mortality for inpatients with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Methods

This single-blind, 4-arm, prospective randomized clinical trial was conducted at Shiraz and Bushehr University of Medical Sciences hospitals between December 2020 and April 2021. We randomized hospitalized adult patients with COVID-19 pneumonia into 4 groups: control, combination therapy, sitagliptin add-on, or spironolactone add-on. The primary outcome was the clinical improvement of the patients in the hospital as measured on an 8-point numerical scale. The secondary outcomes included intubation, ICU admission, end organ damages, CT findings, and paraclinical information.

Results

A total of 263 admitted patients were randomly assigned to control group (87 patients), combination group (60 patients), sitagliptin group (66 patients), and spironolactone group (50 patients). There were no significant differences in baseline characteristics, except for higher age in control group. The intervention groups, especially combination therapy, had better clinical outcomes (clinical score on fifth day of admission: 3.11 ± 2.45 for controls, 1.33 ± 0.50 for combination, 1.68 ± 1.02 for sitagliptin, and 1.64 ± 0.81 for spironolactone; P = 0.004). However, the mortality rate was lower in patients who received spironolactone (21.84% control, 13.33% combination, 13.64% sitagliptin, 10.00% spironolactone; P = 0.275). Our intervention reduced lung infiltration but not the area of involvement in lungs.

Conclusion

Sitagliptin and spironolactone can potentially improve clinical outcomes of hospitalized COVID-19 patients.

Efficacy of repurposed antiviral drugs: lessons from COVID-19

The clinical, social, and economic impacts of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, originated by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), have motivated a massive search and investment to find treatments for this new disease. Repurposing drugs has been an appealing strategy for the rapid translation of in vitro and ex vivo drug discovery to the clinic. Several repurposed drugs have been assessed clinically, but no effective repurposed antiviral has been identified so far. Of note, no effective treatments for COVID-19 or for any other viral disease have been found by repurposing drugs identified through hypothesis-free screens. Here, I discuss whether drug repurposing is the best strategy for developing effective therapies to eradicate COVID-19 and other viral human infections.

Clinical and experimental bacteriophage studies: Recommendations for possible approaches for standing against SARS-CoV-2

In 2019, the world faced a serious health challenge, the rapid spreading of a life-threatening viral pneumonia, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by a betacoronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of January 2022 WHO statistics shows more than 5.6 million death and about 350 million infection by SARS-CoV-2. One of the life threatening aspects of COVID-19 is secondary infections and reduced efficacy of antibiotics against them. Since the beginning of COVID-19 many researches have been done on identification, treatment, and vaccine development. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) could offer novel approaches to detect, treat and control COVID-19. Phage therapy and in particular using phage cocktails can be used to control or eliminate the bacterial pathogen as an alternative or complementary therapeutic agent. At the same time, phage interaction with the host immune system can regulate the inflammatory response. In addition, phage display and engineered synthetic phages can be utilized to develop new vaccines and antibodies, stimulate the immune system, and elicit a rapid and well-appropriate defense response. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 new variants like delta and omicron has proved the urgent need for precise, efficient and novel approaches for vaccine development and virus detection techniques in which bacteriophages may be one of the plausible solutions. Therefore, phages with similar morphology and/or genetic content to that of coronaviruses can be used for ecological and epidemiological modeling of SARS-CoV-2 behavior and future generations of coronavirus, and in general new viral pathogens. This article is a comprehensive review/perspective of potential applications of bacteriophages in the fight against the present pandemic and the post-COVID era.

From Molecular Pathology of COVID 19 to Nigella Sativum as a Treatment Option: Scientific Based Evidence of Its Myth or Reality

COVID-19 virus is a causative agent of viral pandemic in human beings which specifically targets respiratory system of humans and causes viral pneumonia. This unusual viral pneumonia is rapidly spreading to all parts of the world, currently affecting about 105 million people with 2.3 million deaths. Current review described history, genomic characteristics, replication, and pathogenesis of COVID-19 with special emphasis on Nigella sativum (N. sativum) as a treatment option. N. sativum seeds are historically and religiously used over the centuries, both for prevention and treatment of different diseases. This review summarizes the potential role of N. sativum seeds against COVID-19 infection at levels of in silico, cell lines and animal models.

In-line treatments and clinical initiatives to fight against COVID-19 outbreak

In December 2019, when the whole world is waiting for Christmas and New Year, the physicians of Wuhan, China, are astounded by clusters of patients suffering from pneumonia from unknown causes. The pathogen isolated from the respiratory epithelium of the patients is similar to previously known coronaviruses with some distinct features. The disease was initially called nCoV-2019 or SARS-nCoV-2 and later termed as COVID-19 by WHO. The infection is rapidly propagating from the day of emergence, spread throughout the globe and now became a pandemic which challenged the competencies of developed nations in terms of health care management. As per WHO report, 216 countries are affected with SARS-CoV-19 by August 5, 2020 with 18, 142, 718 confirmed cases and 691,013 deaths reports. Such huge mortality and morbidity rates are truly threatening and calls for some aggressive and effective measures to slow down the disease transmission. The scientists are constantly engaged in finding a potential solution to diagnose and treat the pandemic. Various FDA approved drugs with the previous history of antiviral potency are repurposed for COVID-19 treatment. Different drugs and vaccines are under clinical trials and some rapid and effective diagnostic tools are also under development. In this review, we have highlighted the current epidemiology through infographics, disease transmission and progression, clinical features and diagnosis and possible therapeutic approaches for COVID-19. The article mainly focused on the development and possible application of various FDA approved drugs, including chloroquine, remdesivir, favipiravir, nefamostate mesylate, penciclovir, nitazoxanide, ribavirin etc., vaccines under development and various registered clinical trials exploring different therapeutic measures for the treatment of COVID-19. This information will definitely help the researchers to understand the in-line scientific progress by various clinical agencies and regulatory bodies against COVID-19.

Modeling viral infection with tissue engineering: COVID-19 and the next outbreaks

Pandemics caused by respiratory viruses have impacted millions of lives and caused massive destruction to global infrastructure. With their emergence, it has become a priority to develop platforms to rapidly dissect host/pathogen interactions, develop diagnostics, and evaluate therapeutics. Traditional viral culture methods do not faithfully recapitulate key aspects of infection. Tissue engineering as a discipline has developed techniques to produce three-dimensional human tissues which can serve as platforms to study respiratory viruses in vitro. In this chapter, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been used as a representative respiratory virus motivating the use of tissue engineering to generate in vitro culture models. SARS-CoV-2 pathophysiology, traditional cell culture, tissue engineering-based cell culture, and future directions for the field are highlighted.