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Brdová D, Ruml T, Viktorová J. Mechanism of staphylococcal resistance to clinically relevant antibiotics. Drug Resist Updat 2024; 77:101147. [PMID: 39236354 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2024.101147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 08/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus, a notorious pathogen with versatile virulence, poses a significant challenge to current antibiotic treatments due to its ability to develop resistance mechanisms against a variety of clinically relevant antibiotics. In this comprehensive review, we carefully dissect the resistance mechanisms employed by S. aureus against various antibiotics commonly used in clinical settings. The article navigates through intricate molecular pathways, elucidating the mechanisms by which S. aureus evades the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics, such as β-lactams, vancomycin, daptomycin, linezolid, etc. Each antibiotic is scrutinised for its mechanism of action, impact on bacterial physiology, and the corresponding resistance strategies adopted by S. aureus. By synthesising the knowledge surrounding these resistance mechanisms, this review aims to serve as a comprehensive resource that provides a foundation for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies and alternative treatments for S. aureus infections. Understanding the evolving landscape of antibiotic resistance is imperative for devising effective countermeasures in the battle against this formidable pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Brdová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, Prague 16628, Czech Republic.
| | - Tomáš Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, Prague 16628, Czech Republic.
| | - Jitka Viktorová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, Prague 16628, Czech Republic.
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2
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Reyes Ruiz VM, Freiberg JA, Weiss A, Green ER, Jobson ME, Felton E, Shaw LN, Chazin WJ, Skaar EP. Coordinated adaptation of Staphylococcus aureus to calprotectin-dependent metal sequestration. mBio 2024; 15:e0138924. [PMID: 38920392 PMCID: PMC11253595 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01389-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The host protein calprotectin inhibits the growth of a variety of bacterial pathogens through metal sequestration in a process known as "nutritional immunity." Staphylococcus aureus growth is inhibited by calprotectin in vitro, and calprotectin is localized in vivo to staphylococcal abscesses during infection. However, the staphylococcal adaptations that provide defense against nutritional immunity and the role of metal-responsive regulators are not fully characterized. In this work, we define the transcriptional response of S. aureus and the role of the metal-responsive regulators, Zur, Fur, and MntR, in response to metal limitation by calprotectin exposure. Additionally, we identified genes affecting the fitness of S. aureus during metal limitation through a Transposon sequencing (Tn-seq) approach. Loss of function mutations in clpP, which encodes a proteolytic subunit of the ATP-dependent Clp protease, demonstrate reduced fitness of S. aureus to the presence of calprotectin. ClpP contributes to pathogenesis in vivo in a calprotectin-dependent manner. These studies establish a critical role for ClpP to combat metal limitation by calprotectin and reveal the genes required for S. aureus to outcompete the host for metals. IMPORTANCE Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections, bloodstream infections, and endocarditis. Antibiotic treatment failures during S. aureus infections are increasingly prevalent, highlighting the need for novel antimicrobial agents. Metal chelator-based therapeutics have tremendous potential as antimicrobials due to the strict requirement for nutrient metals exhibited by bacterial pathogens. The high-affinity transition metal-binding properties of calprotectin represents a potential therapeutic strategy that functions through metal chelation. Our studies provide a foundation to define mechanisms by which S. aureus combats nutritional immunity and may be useful for the development of novel therapeutics to counter the ability of S. aureus to survive in a metal-limited environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria M. Reyes Ruiz
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jeffrey A. Freiberg
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Andy Weiss
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Erin R. Green
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Mary-Elizabeth Jobson
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Emily Felton
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Lindsey N. Shaw
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Walter J. Chazin
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Eric P. Skaar
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology, and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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3
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Zuberi A, Ahmad N, Ahmad H, Saeed M, Ahmad I. Beyond antibiotics: CRISPR/Cas9 triumph over biofilm-associated antibiotic resistance infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1408569. [PMID: 39035353 PMCID: PMC11257871 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1408569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
A complex structure known as a biofilm is formed when a variety of bacterial colonies or a single type of cell in a group sticks to a surface. The extracellular polymeric compounds that encase these cells, often consisting of proteins, eDNA, and polysaccharides, exhibit strong antibiotic resistance. Concerns about biofilm in the pharmaceutical industry, public health, and medical fields have sparked a lot of interest, as antibiotic resistance is a unique capacity exhibited by these biofilm-producing bacteria, which increases morbidity and death. Biofilm formation is a complicated process that is controlled by several variables. Insights into the processes to target for the therapy have been gained from multiple attempts to dissect the biofilm formation process. Targeting pathogens within a biofilm is profitable because the bacterial pathogens become considerably more resistant to drugs in the biofilm state. Although biofilm-mediated infections can be lessened using the currently available medications, there has been a lot of focus on the development of new approaches, such as bioinformatics tools, for both treating and preventing the production of biofilms. Technologies such as transcriptomics, metabolomics, nanotherapeutics and proteomics are also used to develop novel anti-biofilm agents. These techniques help to identify small compounds that can be used to inhibit important biofilm regulators. The field of appropriate control strategies to avoid biofilm formation is expanding quickly because of this spurred study. As a result, the current article addresses our current knowledge of how biofilms form, the mechanisms by which bacteria in biofilms resist antibiotics, and cutting-edge treatment approaches for infections caused by biofilms. Furthermore, we have showcased current ongoing research utilizing the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system to combat bacterial biofilm infections, particularly those brought on by lethal drug-resistant pathogens, concluded the article with a novel hypothesis and aspirations, and acknowledged certain limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azna Zuberi
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
- Department of Obs & Gynae, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Nayeem Ahmad
- Department of Biophysics, All India Institute of Medical Science, New Delhi, India
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, College of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain
| | - Hafiz Ahmad
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, Ras Al Khaimah (RAK) College of Medical Sciences, Ras Al Khaimah (RAK) Medical and Health Sciences University, Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohd Saeed
- Department of Biology, College of Science University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia
| | - Irfan Ahmad
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
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4
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Barbuti MD, Lambert E, Myrbråten IS, Ducret A, Stamsås GA, Wilhelm L, Liu X, Salehian Z, Veening JW, Straume D, Grangeasse C, Perez C, Kjos M. The function of CozE proteins is linked to lipoteichoic acid biosynthesis in Staphylococcus aureus. mBio 2024; 15:e0115724. [PMID: 38757970 PMCID: PMC11237490 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01157-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Coordinated membrane and cell wall synthesis is vital for maintaining cell integrity and facilitating cell division in bacteria. However, the molecular mechanisms that underpin such coordination are poorly understood. Here we uncover the pivotal roles of the staphylococcal proteins CozEa and CozEb, members of a conserved family of membrane proteins previously implicated in bacterial cell division, in the biosynthesis of lipoteichoic acids (LTA) and maintenance of membrane homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus. We establish that there is a synthetic lethal relationship between CozE and UgtP, the enzyme synthesizing the LTA glycolipid anchor Glc2DAG. By contrast, in cells lacking LtaA, the flippase of Glc2DAG, the essentiality of CozE proteins was alleviated, suggesting that the function of CozE proteins is linked to the synthesis and flipping of the glycolipid anchor. CozE proteins were indeed found to modulate the flipping activity of LtaA in vitro. Furthermore, CozEb was shown to control LTA polymer length and stability. Together, these findings establish CozE proteins as novel players in membrane homeostasis and LTA biosynthesis in S. aureus.IMPORTANCELipoteichoic acids are major constituents of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. These anionic polymers are important virulence factors and modulators of antibiotic susceptibility in the important pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. They are also critical for maintaining cell integrity and facilitating proper cell division. In this work, we discover that a family of membrane proteins named CozE is involved in the biosynthesis of lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) in S. aureus. CozE proteins have previously been shown to affect bacterial cell division, but we here show that these proteins affect LTA length and stability, as well as the flipping of glycolipids between membrane leaflets. This new mechanism of LTA control may thus have implications for the virulence and antibiotic susceptibility of S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Disen Barbuti
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | | | - Ine Storaker Myrbråten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Adrien Ducret
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Gro Anita Stamsås
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Linus Wilhelm
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Xue Liu
- Department of Pathogen, Biology, International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Zhian Salehian
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Jan-Willem Veening
- Department of Fundamental Microbiology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Straume
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Christophe Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UM 5086, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Camilo Perez
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Morten Kjos
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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Fait A, Silva SF, Abrahamsson JÅH, Ingmer H. Staphylococcus aureus response and adaptation to vancomycin. Adv Microb Physiol 2024; 85:201-258. [PMID: 39059821 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2024.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is an increasing challenge for the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) clones have spread globally, and a growing number display decreased susceptibility to vancomycin, the favoured antibiotic for treatment of MRSA infections. These vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) or heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (hVISA) strains arise from accumulation of a variety of point mutations, leading to cell wall thickening and reduced vancomycin binding to the cell wall building block, Lipid II, at the septum. They display only minor changes in vancomycin susceptibility, with varying tolerance between cells in a population, and therefore, they can be difficult to detect. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of VISA and hVISA. We discuss the role of genetic strain background or epistasis for VISA development and the possibility of strains being 'transient' VISA with gene expression changes mediated by, for example, VraTSR, GraXSR, or WalRK signal transduction systems, leading to temporary vancomycin tolerance. Additionally, we address collateral susceptibility to other antibiotics than vancomycin. Specifically, we estimate how mutations in rpoB, encoding the β-subunit of the RNA polymerase, affect overall protein structure and compare changes with rifampicin resistance. Ultimately, such in-depth analysis of VISA and hVISA strains in terms of genetic and transcriptional changes, as well as changes in protein structures, may pave the way for improved detection and guide antibiotic therapy by revealing strains at risk of VISA development. Such tools will be valuable for keeping vancomycin an asset also in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaëlle Fait
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark; Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie Fulaz Silva
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | | | - Hanne Ingmer
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
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Aboelnaga N, Elsayed SW, Abdelsalam NA, Salem S, Saif NA, Elsayed M, Ayman S, Nasr M, Elhadidy M. Deciphering the dynamics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation: from molecular signaling to nanotherapeutic advances. Cell Commun Signal 2024; 22:188. [PMID: 38519959 PMCID: PMC10958940 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-024-01511-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) represents a global threat, necessitating the development of effective solutions to combat this emerging superbug. In response to selective pressures within healthcare, community, and livestock settings, MRSA has evolved increased biofilm formation as a multifaceted virulence and defensive mechanism, enabling the bacterium to thrive in harsh conditions. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms contributing to biofilm formation across its developmental stages, hence representing a step forward in developing promising strategies for impeding or eradicating biofilms. During staphylococcal biofilm development, cell wall-anchored proteins attach bacterial cells to biotic or abiotic surfaces; extracellular polymeric substances build scaffolds for biofilm formation; the cidABC operon controls cell lysis within the biofilm, and proteases facilitate dispersal. Beside the three main sequential stages of biofilm formation (attachment, maturation, and dispersal), this review unveils two unique developmental stages in the biofilm formation process for MRSA; multiplication and exodus. We also highlighted the quorum sensing as a cell-to-cell communication process, allowing distant bacterial cells to adapt to the conditions surrounding the bacterial biofilm. In S. aureus, the quorum sensing process is mediated by autoinducing peptides (AIPs) as signaling molecules, with the accessory gene regulator system playing a pivotal role in orchestrating the production of AIPs and various virulence factors. Several quorum inhibitors showed promising anti-virulence and antibiofilm effects that vary in type and function according to the targeted molecule. Disrupting the biofilm architecture and eradicating sessile bacterial cells are crucial steps to prevent colonization on other surfaces or organs. In this context, nanoparticles emerge as efficient carriers for delivering antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents throughout the biofilm architecture. Although metal-based nanoparticles have been previously used in combatting biofilms, its non-degradability and toxicity within the human body presents a real challenge. Therefore, organic nanoparticles in conjunction with quorum inhibitors have been proposed as a promising strategy against biofilms. As nanotherapeutics continue to gain recognition as an antibiofilm strategy, the development of more antibiofilm nanotherapeutics could offer a promising solution to combat biofilm-mediated resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirmeen Aboelnaga
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Salma W Elsayed
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nehal Adel Abdelsalam
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Salma Salem
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Nehal A Saif
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Manar Elsayed
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Shehab Ayman
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
| | - Maha Nasr
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Elhadidy
- Center for Genomics, Helmy Institute for Medical Sciences, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt.
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt.
- Department of Bacteriology, Mycology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.
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Gazel D, Akdoğan H, Büyüktaş Manay A, Erinmez M, Zer Y. The potential of therapeutic hyperthermia to eradicate Staphylococcus aureus bacteria; an in vitro study. J Therm Biol 2024; 120:103812. [PMID: 38447276 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2024.103812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common infectious agents, causing morbidity and mortality worldwide. Most pathogenic bacteria are classified in the group of mesophilic bacteria and the optimal growth temperature of these bacteria changes between 33 and 41 °C. Increased temperature can inhibit bacterial growth and mobility, which in turn, can trigger autolysis and cause cell wall damage. Hyperthermia treatment is defined as a heat-mediated treatment method applied using temperatures higher than body temperature. Nowadays, this treatment method is used especially in the treatment of tumours. Hyperthermia treatment is divided into two groups: mild hyperthermia and ablative or high-temperature hyperthermia. Mild hyperthermia is a therapeutic technique in which tumour tissue is heated above body temperature to produce a physiological or biological effect but is often not aimed at directly causing significant cell death. The goal of this method is to achieve temperatures of 40-45 °C in human tissues for up to 2 h. Hyperthermia can be used in the treatment of infections caused by such bacterial pathogens. In addition, using hyperthermia in combination with antimicrobial drugs may result in synergistic effects and reduce resistance issues. In our study, we used two different temperature levels (37 °C and 45 °C). We assessed growth inhibition, some virulence factors, alteration colony morphologies, and antimicrobial susceptibility for several antibiotics with three methods (Kirby-Bauer, E-test and broth microdilution) under hyperthermia. In the study, we observed that hyperthermia affected the urease enzyme, antibiotic sensitivity levels showed synergy with hyperthermia, and changes occurred in colony diameters and affected bacterial growth. We hypothesise that hyperthermia might be a new therapeutic option for infectious diseases as a sole agent or in combination with different antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Gazel
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Gaziantep, Turkey.
| | - Hüseyin Akdoğan
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Ayşe Büyüktaş Manay
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Erinmez
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Yasemin Zer
- Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology, Gaziantep, Turkey
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Halawa EM, Fadel M, Al-Rabia MW, Behairy A, Nouh NA, Abdo M, Olga R, Fericean L, Atwa AM, El-Nablaway M, Abdeen A. Antibiotic action and resistance: updated review of mechanisms, spread, influencing factors, and alternative approaches for combating resistance. Front Pharmacol 2024; 14:1305294. [PMID: 38283841 PMCID: PMC10820715 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1305294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Antibiotics represent a frequently employed therapeutic modality for the management of bacterial infections across diverse domains, including human health, agriculture, livestock breeding, and fish farming. The efficacy of antibiotics relies on four distinct mechanisms of action, which are discussed in detail in this review, along with accompanying diagrammatic illustrations. Despite their effectiveness, antibiotic resistance has emerged as a significant challenge to treating bacterial infections. Bacteria have developed defense mechanisms against antibiotics, rendering them ineffective. This review delves into the specific mechanisms that bacteria have developed to resist antibiotics, with the help of diagrammatic illustrations. Antibiotic resistance can spread among bacteria through various routes, resulting in previously susceptible bacteria becoming antibiotic-resistant. Multiple factors contribute to the worsening crisis of antibiotic resistance, including human misuse of antibiotics. This review also emphasizes alternative solutions proposed to mitigate the exacerbation of antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esraa M. Halawa
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Fadel
- Department of Microbial Chemistry, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohammed W. Al-Rabia
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Clinical Laboratories-Diagnostic Immunology Division, King Abdulaziz University Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali Behairy
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
| | - Nehal A. Nouh
- Department of Microbiology, Medicine Program, Batterjee Medical College, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Inpatient Pharmacy, Mansoura University Hospitals, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Abdo
- Department of Animal Histology and Anatomy, School of Veterinary Medicine, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Badr City, Egypt
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City, Egypt
| | - Rada Olga
- Department of Biology and Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Life Sciences “King Michael I” from Timișoara, Timișoara, Romania
| | - Liana Fericean
- Department of Biology and Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Life Sciences “King Michael I” from Timișoara, Timișoara, Romania
| | - Ahmed M. Atwa
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Egyptian Russian University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohammad El-Nablaway
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Abdeen
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt
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9
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Oliveira F, Gaio V, Brás S, Oliveira S, França A. Host Soluble Factors Cause Changes in Staphylococcus epidermidis Antibiotic Susceptibility and Biofilm Formation Ability. Pathogens 2023; 12:1064. [PMID: 37624024 PMCID: PMC10459130 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12081064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a major nosocomial pathogen with a remarkable ability to adhere to the surfaces of indwelling medical devices and form biofilms. Unlike other nosocomial pathogens, the interaction of S. epidermidis with host factors has not been the focus of substantial research. This study aimed to assess the alterations in the antibiotic susceptibility and biofilm formation ability of S. epidermidis in the presence of host serum factors. S. epidermidis strain RP62A was cultured in a laboratory culture medium with or without human serum/plasma, and changes in antibiotic susceptibility, biofilm formation, and gene expression were evaluated. The data obtained revealed that exposure to host serum factors increased the susceptibility of S. epidermidis to glycopeptide antibiotics and was also detrimental to biofilm formation. Gene expression analysis revealed downregulation of both dltA and fmtC genes shortly after human serum/plasma exposure. The importance of transferrin-mediated iron sequestration as a host anti-biofilm strategy against S. epidermidis was also emphasized. We have demonstrated that serum factors play a pivotal role as part of the host's anti-infective strategy against S. epidermidis infections, highlighting the importance of incorporating such factors during in vitro studies with this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Oliveira
- Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO—Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Vânia Gaio
- Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO—Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Susana Brás
- Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO—Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Sofia Oliveira
- Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO—Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Angela França
- Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO—Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- LABBELS—Associate Laboratory, 4710-057 Guimarães/Braga, Portugal
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10
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Schultz BJ, Snow ED, Walker S. Mechanism of D-alanine transfer to teichoic acids shows how bacteria acylate cell envelope polymers. Nat Microbiol 2023; 8:1318-1329. [PMID: 37308592 PMCID: PMC10664464 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-023-01411-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial cell envelope polymers are often modified with acyl esters that modulate physiology, enhance pathogenesis and provide antibiotic resistance. Here, using the D-alanylation of lipoteichoic acid (Dlt) pathway as a paradigm, we have identified a widespread strategy for how acylation of cell envelope polymers occurs. In this strategy, a membrane-bound O-acyltransferase (MBOAT) protein transfers an acyl group from an intracellular thioester onto the tyrosine of an extracytoplasmic C-terminal hexapeptide motif. This motif shuttles the acyl group to a serine on a separate transferase that moves the cargo to its destination. In the Dlt pathway, here studied in Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus thermophilus, the C-terminal 'acyl shuttle' motif that forms the crucial pathway intermediate is found on a transmembrane microprotein that holds the MBOAT protein and the other transferase together in a complex. In other systems, found in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as some archaea, the motif is fused to the MBOAT protein, which interacts directly with the other transferase. The conserved chemistry uncovered here is widely used for acylation throughout the prokaryotic world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bailey J Schultz
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Eric D Snow
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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11
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Yao H, Li G, Xiong X, Jin F, Li S, Xie X, Zhong D, Zhang R, Meng F, Yin Y, Jiao X. LygA retention on the surface of Listeria monocytogenes via its interaction with wall teichoic acid modulates bacterial homeostasis and virulence. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011482. [PMID: 37379353 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Wall teichoic acid (WTA) is the abundant cell wall-associated glycopolymer in Gram-positive bacteria, playing crucial roles in surface proteins retention, bacterial homeostasis, and virulence. Hypervirulent serovar (SV) 4h Listeria monocytogenes is a newly designated serotype with only galactosylated (Gal) type II WTA. Although the surface association of some proteins relies on the WTA glycosylation, the nature and function of the noncovalent interactions between cell wall-associated proteins and WTA are less known. In this study, we found Gal-WTA plays a key role in modulating the novel glycine-tryptophan (GW) domain-containing autolysin protein LygA through direct interactions. An SV 4h strain deficient in WTA galactosylation (XYSNΔgalT) showed a dramatic reduction of LygA on the cell surface, significantly decreasing the autolytic activity, impairing the bacterial colonization in colon and brain. Notably, we demonstrated LygA binds to Gal-WTA with high affinity through the GW domain and that the extent of binding increases with the number of GW domains. Moreover, we confirmed the direct Gal-dependent binding of the GW protein Auto from the type I WTA strain, which has no interaction with l-rhamnosylated WTA, indicating that the complexity of both WTA and GW proteins can affect the coordination patterns. Altogether, our findings suggest that both the glycosylation patterns of WTA and a fixed numbers of GW domains are closely associated with the retention of LygA on the cell surface, which facilitates L. monocytogenes infection by promoting bacteria colonization in intestine and brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Yao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Guo Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xianglian Xiong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fanxin Jin
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Sirui Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xinyu Xie
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Dan Zhong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Renling Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fanzeng Meng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yuelan Yin
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xin'an Jiao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, MOA of China, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
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12
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Aguglia E, Chines E, Stefani S, Cafiso V. New Antimicrobial Resistance Strategies: An Adaptive Resistance Network Conferring Reduced Glycopeptide Susceptibility in VISA. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12040783. [PMID: 37107145 PMCID: PMC10135003 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12040783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus (VISA) emerges typically in the healthcare-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus and more rarely in community-acquired S. aureus (CA-MRSA). VISA is a serious concern for public health due to its association with persistent infections, the failure of vancomycin treatment, and poor clinical outcomes. Currently, the burden of VISA is somewhat high, even though vancomycin is the mainstay treatment for severe MRSA infections. The molecular mechanisms of reduced glycopeptide susceptibility in S. aureus are constantly under investigation but have still not yet been fully characterized. Methods: Our goal was to investigate the reduced glycopeptide susceptibility mechanisms emerging in a VISA CA-MRSA versus its vancomycin-susceptible (VSSA) CA-MRSA parents in a hospitalized patient undergoing glycopeptide treatment. Comparative integrated omics, Illumina MiSeq whole-genome sequencing (WGS), RNA-Seq, and bioinformatics were performed. Results: Through a comparison of VISA CA-MRSA vs. its VSSA CA-MRSA parent, mutational and transcriptomic adaptations were found in a pool of genes involved, directly or indirectly, in the biosynthesis of the glycopeptide target conferring or supporting the VISA phenotype, and its cross-resistance with daptomycin. This pool included key genes responsible for the biosynthesis of the peptidoglycan precursors, i.e., D-Ala, the D-Ala-D-Ala dipeptide termini of the pentapeptide, and its incorporation in the nascent pentapeptide, as key targets of the glycopeptide resistance. Furthermore, accessory glycopeptide-target genes involved in the pathways corroborated the key adaptations, and thus, supported the acquisition of the VISA phenotype i.e., transporters, nucleotide metabolism genes, and transcriptional regulators. Finally, transcriptional changes were also found in computationally predicted cis-acting small antisense RNA triggering genes related both to the key or accessory adaptive pathways. Conclusion: Our investigation describes an adaptive resistance pathway acquired under antimicrobial therapy conferring reduced glycopeptide susceptibility in a VISA CA-MRSA due to a comprehensive network of mutational and transcriptional adaptations in genes involved in pathways responsible for the biosynthesis of glycopeptide's target or supporters of the key resistance path.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Aguglia
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Eleonora Chines
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Stefania Stefani
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Viviana Cafiso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
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13
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Williams J, Burton N, Dhanoa G, Sagona AP. Host-phage interactions and modeling for therapy. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2023; 200:127-158. [PMID: 37739552 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2023.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Phage are drivers of numerous ecological processes on the planet and have the potential to be developed into a therapy alternative to antibiotics. Phage at all points of their life cycle, from initiation of infection to their release, interact with their host in some manner. More importantly, to harness their antimicrobial potential it is vital to understand how phage interact with the eukaryotic environment in the context of applying phage for therapy. In this chapter, the various mechanisms of phage interplay with their hosts as part of their natural life cycle are discussed in depth for Gram-positive and negative bacteria. Further, the literature surrounding the various models utilized to develop phage as a therapeutic are examined, and how these models may improve our understanding of phage-host interactions and current progress in utilizing phage for therapy in the clinical environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Williams
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Nathan Burton
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Gurneet Dhanoa
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Antonia P Sagona
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom.
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14
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Szemraj M, Lisiecki P, Glajzner P, Szewczyk EM. Vancomycin heteroresistance among methicillin-resistant clinical isolates S. haemolyticus, S. hominis, S. simulans, and S. warneri. Braz J Microbiol 2023; 54:159-167. [PMID: 36374479 PMCID: PMC9944261 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-022-00870-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Besides being an essential part of the skin microbiome, coagulase-negative staphylococci are the etiological factors of serious infections. The aim of the study was to evaluate the heteroresistance to vancomycin and the potential antimicrobial efficacy of teicoplanin and daptomycin against the multiresistant strains of S. haemolyticus, S. hominis, S. warneri, and S. simulans. The study covered 80 clinical coagulase-negative staphylococci. Teicoplanin, vancomycin, and daptomycin MICs for the tested strains were determined according to EUCAST recommendation. The vanA and vanB genes were searched. The brain heart infusion screen agar method detected vancomycin heteroresistance. The population analysis profile method and analysis of autolytic activity were applied for the strains growing on BHI containing 4 mg/L vancomycin. Seven S. haemolyticus, two S. hominis, and two S. warneri strains presented a heterogeneous resistance to vancomycin. Their subpopulations were able to grow on a medium containing 4-12 mg/L of vancomycin. Monitoring heteroresistance to peptide antibiotics, which are often the last resort in staphylococcal infections, is essential due to the severe crisis in antibiotic therapy and the lack of alternatives to treat infections with multiresistant strains. Our work highlights the selection of resistant strains and the need for more careful use of peptide antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Szemraj
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Microbiological Diagnostic, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-235, Łódź, Poland.
| | - Paweł Lisiecki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Microbiological Diagnostic, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-235, Łódź, Poland
| | - Paulina Glajzner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Microbiological Diagnostic, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-235, Łódź, Poland
| | - Eligia M Szewczyk
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Microbiological Diagnostic, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-235, Łódź, Poland
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15
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Guan Y, Lin M, Shen P, Zou Z. Alanine-mediated P cycle boosting enhances the killing efficiency of kasugamycin on antibiotic-resistant Xanthomonas oryzae. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1160702. [PMID: 37143533 PMCID: PMC10151481 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1160702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of Bacterial blight (BB) caused by Xanthomonas oryzae (Xoo) generates substantial economic losses to agricultural production. Antibiotics application is a valuable measure to control this bacterial disease. However, microbial antibiotic resistance dramatically reduced antibiotic effectiveness. Identifying the resistance mechanism of Xoo to antibiotics and restoring antibiotic susceptibility is one of the crucial ways to solve this problem. This study employed a GC-MS-based metabolomic approach to reveal the differential metabolomics between a kasugamycin-susceptible Xoo strain (Z173-S) and a kasugamycin-resistant strain (Z173-RKA). The metabolic mechanism of kasugamycin (KA) resistance in Xoo by GC-MS showed that the downregulation of the pyruvate cycle (P cycle) is a crucial feature of Z173-RKA resistance to KA. This conclusion was confirmed by the decreased enzyme activities and the related gene transcriptional level in the P cycle. Furfural (an inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase) can effectively inhibit the P cycle and increase the resistance of Z173-RKA to KA. Moreover, exogenous alanine can reduce the resistance of Z173-RKA to KA by promoting the P cycle. Our work seems to be the first exploration of the mechanism of KA resistance in Xoo by GC-MS-based metabonomics approach. These results provide a new idea for developing metabolic regulation to address KA resistance in Xoo.
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16
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Lysozyme and Its Application as Antibacterial Agent in Food Industry. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27196305. [PMID: 36234848 PMCID: PMC9572377 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27196305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysozymes are hydrolytic enzymes characterized by their ability to cleave the β-(1,4)-glycosidic bonds in peptidoglycan, a major structural component of the bacterial cell wall. This hydrolysis action compromises the integrity of the cell wall, causing the lysis of bacteria. For more than 80 years, its role of antibacterial defense in animals has been renowned, and it is also used as a preservative in foods and pharmaceuticals. In order to improve the antimicrobial efficacy of lysozyme, extensive research has been intended for its modifications. This manuscript reviews the natural antibiotic compound lysozyme with reference to its catalytic and non-catalytic mode of antibacterial action, lysozyme types, susceptibility and resistance of bacteria, modification of lysozyme molecules, and its applications in the food industry.
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17
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Zha J, Li J, Su Z, Akimbekov N, Wu X. Lysostaphin: Engineering and Potentiation toward Better Applications. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:11441-11457. [PMID: 36082619 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c03459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Lysostaphin is a potent bacteriolytic enzyme with endopeptidase activity against the common pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. By digesting the pentaglycine crossbridge in the cell wall peptidoglycan of S. aureus including the methicillin-resistant strains, lysostaphin initiates rapid lysis of planktonic and sessile cells (biofilms) and has great potential for use in agriculture, food industries, and pharmaceutical industries. In the past few decades, there have been tremendous efforts in potentiating lysostaphin for better applications in these fields, including engineering of the enzyme for higher potency and lower immunogenicity with longer-lasting effects, formulation and immobilization of the enzyme for higher stability and better durability, and recombinant expression for low-cost industrial production and in situ biocontrol. These achievements are extensively reviewed in this article focusing on applications in disease control, food preservation, surface decontamination, and pathogen detection. In addition, some basic properties of lysostaphin that have been controversial and only elucidated recently are summarized, including the substrate-binding properties, the number of zinc-binding sites, the substrate range, and the cleavage site in the pentaglycine crossbridge. Resistance to lysostaphin is also highlighted with a focus on various mechanisms. This article is concluded with a discussion on the limitations and future perspectives for the actual applications of lysostaphin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zha
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Jingyuan Li
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Zheng Su
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
| | - Nuraly Akimbekov
- Department of Biotechnology, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan
| | - Xia Wu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, China
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18
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Nikolopoulos N, Matos RC, Courtin P, Ayala I, Akherraz H, Simorre JP, Chapot-Chartier MP, Leulier F, Ravaud S, Grangeasse C. DltC acts as an interaction hub for AcpS, DltA and DltB in the teichoic acid D-alanylation pathway of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13133. [PMID: 35907949 PMCID: PMC9338922 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-17434-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Teichoic acids (TA) are crucial for the homeostasis of the bacterial cell wall as well as their developmental behavior and interplay with the environment. TA can be decorated by different modifications, modulating thus their biochemical properties. One major modification consists in the esterification of TA by d-alanine, a process known as d-alanylation. TA d-alanylation is performed by the Dlt pathway, which starts in the cytoplasm and continues extracellularly after d-Ala transportation through the membrane. In this study, we combined structural biology and in vivo approaches to dissect the cytoplasmic steps of this pathway in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, a bacterial species conferring health benefits to its animal host. After establishing that AcpS, DltB, DltC1 and DltA are required for the promotion of Drosophila juvenile growth under chronic undernutrition, we solved their crystal structure and/or used NMR and molecular modeling to study their interactions. Our work demonstrates that the suite of interactions between these proteins is ordered with a conserved surface of DltC1 docking sequentially AcpS, DltA and eventually DltB. Altogether, we conclude that DltC1 acts as an interaction hub for all the successive cytoplasmic steps of the TA d-alanylation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikos Nikolopoulos
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Renata C Matos
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Pascal Courtin
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Isabel Ayala
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, CEA, CNRS UMR 5075, Université Grenoble Alpes, 3800, Grenoble, France
| | - Houssam Akherraz
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Simorre
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, CEA, CNRS UMR 5075, Université Grenoble Alpes, 3800, Grenoble, France
| | | | - François Leulier
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5242, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Stéphanie Ravaud
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
| | - Christophe Grangeasse
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, CNRS UMR 5086, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
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19
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Riu F, Ruda A, Ibba R, Sestito S, Lupinu I, Piras S, Widmalm G, Carta A. Antibiotics and Carbohydrate-Containing Drugs Targeting Bacterial Cell Envelopes: An Overview. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:942. [PMID: 36015090 PMCID: PMC9414505 DOI: 10.3390/ph15080942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Certain bacteria constitute a threat to humans due to their ability to escape host defenses as they easily develop drug resistance. Bacteria are classified into gram-positive and gram-negative according to the composition of the cell membrane structure. Gram-negative bacteria have an additional outer membrane (OM) that is not present in their gram-positive counterpart; the latter instead hold a thicker peptidoglycan (PG) layer. This review covers the main structural and functional properties of cell wall polysaccharides (CWPs) and PG. Drugs targeting CWPs are discussed, both noncarbohydrate-related (β-lactams, fosfomycin, and lipopeptides) and carbohydrate-related (glycopeptides and lipoglycopeptides). Bacterial resistance to these drugs continues to evolve, which calls for novel antibacterial approaches to be developed. The use of carbohydrate-based vaccines as a valid strategy to prevent bacterial infections is also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Riu
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (F.R.); (I.L.); (S.P.); (A.C.)
| | - Alessandro Ruda
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.R.); (G.W.)
| | - Roberta Ibba
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (F.R.); (I.L.); (S.P.); (A.C.)
| | - Simona Sestito
- Department of Chemical, Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Sassari, Via Vienna 2, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
| | - Ilenia Lupinu
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (F.R.); (I.L.); (S.P.); (A.C.)
| | - Sandra Piras
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (F.R.); (I.L.); (S.P.); (A.C.)
| | - Göran Widmalm
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden; (A.R.); (G.W.)
| | - Antonio Carta
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, Via Muroni 23/A, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (F.R.); (I.L.); (S.P.); (A.C.)
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20
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The Association between Biofilm Formation and Antimicrobial Resistance with Possible Ingenious Bio-Remedial Approaches. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11070930. [PMID: 35884186 PMCID: PMC9312340 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11070930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilm has garnered a lot of interest due to concerns in various sectors such as public health, medicine, and the pharmaceutical industry. Biofilm-producing bacteria show a remarkable drug resistance capability, leading to an increase in morbidity and mortality. This results in enormous economic pressure on the healthcare sector. The development of biofilms is a complex phenomenon governed by multiple factors. Several attempts have been made to unravel the events of biofilm formation; and, such efforts have provided insights into the mechanisms to target for the therapy. Owing to the fact that the biofilm-state makes the bacterial pathogens significantly resistant to antibiotics, targeting pathogens within biofilm is indeed a lucrative prospect. The available drugs can be repurposed to eradicate the pathogen, and as a result, ease the antimicrobial treatment burden. Biofilm formers and their infections have also been found in plants, livestock, and humans. The advent of novel strategies such as bioinformatics tools in treating, as well as preventing, biofilm formation has gained a great deal of attention. Development of newfangled anti-biofilm agents, such as silver nanoparticles, may be accomplished through omics approaches such as transcriptomics, metabolomics, and proteomics. Nanoparticles’ anti-biofilm properties could help to reduce antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This approach may also be integrated for a better understanding of biofilm biology, guided by mechanistic understanding, virtual screening, and machine learning in silico techniques for discovering small molecules in order to inhibit key biofilm regulators. This stimulated research is a rapidly growing field for applicable control measures to prevent biofilm formation. Therefore, the current article discusses the current understanding of biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance mechanisms in bacterial biofilm, and the novel therapeutic strategies to combat biofilm-mediated infections.
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The WalRK Two-Component System Is Essential for Proper Cell Envelope Biogenesis in Clostridioides difficile. J Bacteriol 2022; 204:e0012122. [PMID: 35575581 PMCID: PMC9210968 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00121-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The WalR-WalK two-component regulatory system (TCS) is found in all Firmicutes, in which it regulates the expression of multiple genes required for remodeling the cell envelope during growth and division. Unlike most TCSs, WalRK is essential for viability, so it has attracted interest as a potential antibiotic target. In this study, we used overexpression of WalR and CRISPR interference to investigate the Wal system of Clostridioides difficile, a major cause of hospital-associated diarrhea in high-income countries. We confirmed that the wal operon is essential and identified morphological defects and cell lysis as the major terminal phenotypes of altered wal expression. We also used transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) to identify over 150 genes whose expression changes in response to WalR levels. This gene set is enriched in cell envelope genes and includes genes encoding several predicted PG hydrolases and proteins that could regulate PG hydrolase activity. A distinct feature of the C. difficile cell envelope is the presence of an S-layer, and we found that WalR affects expression of several genes which encode S-layer proteins. An unexpected finding was that some Wal-associated phenotypic defects were inverted in comparison to what has been reported for other Firmicutes. For example, downregulation of Wal signaling caused C. difficile cells to become longer rather than shorter, as in Bacillus subtilis. Likewise, downregulation of Wal rendered C. difficile more sensitive to vancomycin, whereas reduced Wal activity is linked to increased vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. IMPORTANCE The WalRK two-component system (TCS) is essential for coordinating synthesis and turnover of peptidoglycan in Firmicutes. We investigated the WalRK TCS in Clostridioides difficile, an important bacterial pathogen with an atypical cell envelope. We confirmed that WalRK is essential and regulates cell envelope biogenesis, although several of the phenotypic changes we observed were opposite to what has been reported for other Firmicutes. We also identified over 150 genes whose expression is controlled either directly or indirectly by WalR. Overall, our findings provide a foundation for future investigations of an important regulatory system and potential antibiotic target in C. difficile.
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Bian X, Qu X, Zhang J, Nang SC, Bergen PJ, Tony Zhou Q, Chan HK, Feng M, Li J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of peptide antibiotics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 183:114171. [PMID: 35189264 PMCID: PMC10019944 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is a major global health challenge. As few new efficacious antibiotics will become available in the near future, peptide antibiotics continue to be major therapeutic options for treating infections caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens. Rational use of antibiotics requires optimisation of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics for the treatment of different types of infections. Toxicodynamics must also be considered to improve the safety of antibiotic use and, where appropriate, to guide therapeutic drug monitoring. This review focuses on the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics/toxicodynamics of peptide antibiotics against multidrug-resistant Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogens. Optimising antibiotic exposure at the infection site is essential for improving their efficacy and minimising emergence of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingchen Bian
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology of Antibiotics, Shanghai, China; National Health Commission & National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xingyi Qu
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology of Antibiotics, Shanghai, China; National Health Commission & National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Phase I Unit, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Institute of Antibiotics, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology of Antibiotics, Shanghai, China; National Health Commission & National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Phase I Unit, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Sue C Nang
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Phillip J Bergen
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Qi Tony Zhou
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Hak-Kim Chan
- Advanced Drug Delivery Group, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Meiqing Feng
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Li
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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Lee IG, Song C, Yang S, Jeon H, Park J, Yoon HJ, Im H, Kang SM, Eun HJ, Lee BJ. Structural and functional analysis of the D-alanyl carrier protein ligase DltA from Staphylococcus aureus Mu50. Acta Crystallogr D Struct Biol 2022; 78:424-434. [PMID: 35362466 PMCID: PMC8972799 DOI: 10.1107/s2059798322000547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
D-Alanylation of the teichoic acids of the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall plays crucial roles in bacterial physiology and virulence. Deprivation of D-alanine from the teichoic acids of Staphylococcus aureus impairs biofilm and colony formation, induces autolysis and ultimately renders methicillin-resistant S. aureus highly susceptible to antimicrobial agents and host defense peptides. Hence, the D-alanylation pathway has emerged as a promising antibacterial target against drug-resistant S. aureus. D-Alanylation of teichoic acids is mediated via the action of four proteins encoded by the dlt operon, DltABCD, all four of which are essential for the process. In order to develop novel antimicrobial agents against S. aureus, the D-alanyl carrier protein ligase DltA, which is the first protein in the D-alanylation pathway, was focused on. Here, the crystal structure of DltA from the methicillin-resistant S. aureus strain Mu50 is presented, which reveals the unique molecular details of the catalytic center and the role of the P-loop. Kinetic analysis shows that the enantioselectivity of S. aureus DltA is much higher than that of DltA from other species. In the presence of DltC, the enzymatic activity of DltA is increased by an order of magnitude, suggesting a new exploitable binding pocket. This discovery may pave the way for a new generation of treatments for drug-resistant S. aureus.
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Gottstein J, Zaschke-Kriesche J, Unsleber S, Voitsekhovskaia I, Kulik A, Behrmann LV, Overbeck N, Stühler K, Stegmann E, Smits SHJ. New insights into the resistance mechanism for the BceAB-type transporter SaNsrFP. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4232. [PMID: 35273305 PMCID: PMC8913810 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08095-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of bacterial infections is one of the major challenges of our time due to the evolved resistance mechanisms of pathogens against antibiotics. To circumvent this problem, it is necessary to understand the mode of action of the drug and the mechanism of resistance of the pathogen. One of the most potent antibiotic targets is peptidoglycan (PGN) biosynthesis, as this is an exclusively occurring and critical feature of bacteria. Lipid II is an essential PGN precursor synthesized in the cytosol and flipped into the outer leaflet of the membrane prior to its incorporation into nascent PGN. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), such as nisin and colistin, targeting PGN synthesis are considered promising weapons against multidrug-resistant bacteria. However, human pathogenic bacteria that were also resistant to these compounds evolved by the expression of an ATP-binding cassette transporter of the bacitracin efflux (BceAB) type localized in the membrane. In the human pathogen Streptococcus agalactiae, the BceAB transporter SaNsrFP is known to confer resistance to the antimicrobial peptide nisin. The exact mechanism of action for SaNsrFP is poorly understood. For a detailed characterization of the resistance mechanism, we heterologously expressed SaNsrFP in Lactococcus lactis. We demonstrated that SaNsrFP conferred resistance not only to nisin but also to a structurally diverse group of antimicrobial PGN-targeting compounds such as ramoplanin, lysobactin, or bacitracin/(Zn)-bacitracin. Growth experiments revealed that SaNsrFP-producing cells exhibited normal behavior when treated with nisin and/or bacitracin, in contrast to the nonproducing cells, for which growth was significantly reduced. We further detected the accumulation of PGN precursors in the cytoplasm after treating the cells with bacitracin. This did not appear when SaNsrFP was produced. Whole-cell proteomic protein experiments verified that the presence of SaNsrFP in L. lactis resulted in higher production of several proteins associated with cell wall modification. These included, for example, the N-acetylmuramic acid-6-phosphate etherase MurQ and UDP-glucose 4-epimerase. Analysis of components of the cell wall of SaNsrFP-producing cells implied that the transporter is involved in cell wall modification. Since we used an ATP-deficient mutant of the transporter as a comparison, we can show that SaNsrFP and its inactive mutant do not show the same phenotype, albeit expressed at similar levels, which demonstrates the ATP dependency of the mediated resistance processes. Taken together, our data agree to a target protection mechanism and imply a direct involvement of SaNsrFP in resistance by shielding the membrane-localized target of these antimicrobial peptides, resulting in modification of the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Gottstein
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Julia Zaschke-Kriesche
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Sandra Unsleber
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicin, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Irina Voitsekhovskaia
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicin, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Kulik
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicin, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lara V Behrmann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Nina Overbeck
- Molecular Proteomics Laboratory, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Kai Stühler
- Molecular Proteomics Laboratory, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Evi Stegmann
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicin, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sander H J Smits
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Universitaetsstrasse 1, 40225, Duesseldorf, Germany.
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25
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Effects of Growth Stage on the Characterization of Enterotoxin A-Producing Staphylococcus aureus‐Derived Membrane vesicles. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10030574. [PMID: 35336149 PMCID: PMC8948643 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10030574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Virulence factors, such as staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), are contained within membrane vesicles (MVs) in the cell membrane of Staphylococcus aureus. In this study, the effects of the growth stage on quantitative and qualitative changes in the components contained in the MVs of S. aureus SEA-producing strains were examined. Changes in the expression levels of S. aureus genes were examined at each growth stage; phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) gene reached a maximum after 8 h, and the expression of cell membrane-related genes was decreased after 6 h. Based on these gene expression patterns, MVs were prepared at 6, 17, and 24 h. The particle size of MVs did not change depending on the growth stage. MVs prepared after culture for 17 h maintained their particle size when stored at 23 °C. The amount of SEA in the culture supernatant and MVs were not correlated. Bifunctional autolysin, a protein involved in cell wall biosynthesis/degradation, was increased in MVs at 17 h. The expression pattern of inflammation-related genes in human adult low calcium high temperature (HaCaT) cells induced by MVs was different for each growth stage. The inclusion components of S. aureus-derived MVs are selective, depend on the stage of growth, and may play an important role in toxicity.
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26
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Wassmann CS, Rolsted AP, Lyngsie MC, Puig ST, Kronborg T, Vestergaard M, Ingmer H, Pontoppidan SP, Klitgaard JK. The menaquinone pathway is important for susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to the antibiotic adjuvant, cannabidiol. Microbiol Res 2022; 257:126974. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2022.126974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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New Mechanistic Insights into Purine Biosynthesis with Second Messenger c-di-AMP in Relation to Biofilm-Related Persistent Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections. mBio 2021; 12:e0208121. [PMID: 34724823 PMCID: PMC8561390 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02081-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) endovascular infections represent a significant clinically challenging subset of invasive, life-threatening S. aureus infections. We have recently demonstrated that purine biosynthesis plays an important role in such persistent infections. Cyclic di-AMP (c-di-AMP) is an essential and ubiquitous second messenger that regulates many cellular pathways in bacteria. However, whether there is a regulatory connection between the purine biosynthesis pathway and c-di-AMP impacting persistent outcomes was not known. Here, we demonstrated that the purine biosynthesis mutant MRSA strain, the ΔpurF strain (compared to its isogenic parental strain), exhibited the following significant differences in vitro: (i) lower ADP, ATP, and c-di-AMP levels; (ii) less biofilm formation with decreased extracellular DNA (eDNA) levels and Triton X-100-induced autolysis paralleling enhanced expressions of the biofilm formation-related two-component regulatory system lytSR and its downstream gene lrgB; (iii) increased vancomycin (VAN)-binding and VAN-induced lysis; and (iv) decreased wall teichoic acid (WTA) levels and expression of the WTA biosynthesis-related gene, tarH. Substantiating these data, the dacA (encoding diadenylate cyclase enzyme required for c-di-AMP synthesis) mutant strain (dacAG206S strain versus its isogenic wild-type MRSA and dacA-complemented strains) showed significantly decreased c-di-AMP levels, similar in vitro effects as seen above for the purF mutant and hypersusceptible to VAN treatment in an experimental biofilm-related MRSA endovascular infection model. These results reveal an important intersection between purine biosynthesis and c-di-AMP that contributes to biofilm-associated persistence in MRSA endovascular infections. This signaling pathway represents a logical therapeutic target against persistent MRSA infections.
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28
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Martinez OE, Mahoney BJ, Goring AK, Yi SW, Tran DP, Cascio D, Phillips ML, Muthana MM, Chen X, Jung ME, Loo JA, Clubb RT. Insight into the molecular basis of substrate recognition by the wall teichoic acid glycosyltransferase TagA. J Biol Chem 2021; 298:101464. [PMID: 34864059 PMCID: PMC8784642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Wall teichoic acid (WTA) polymers are covalently affixed to the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall and have important functions in cell elongation, cell morphology, biofilm formation, and β-lactam antibiotic resistance. The first committed step in WTA biosynthesis is catalyzed by the TagA glycosyltransferase (also called TarA), a peripheral membrane protein that produces the conserved linkage unit, which joins WTA to the cell wall peptidoglycan. TagA contains a conserved GT26 core domain followed by a C-terminal polypeptide tail that is important for catalysis and membrane binding. Here, we report the crystal structure of the Thermoanaerobacter italicus TagA enzyme bound to UDP-N-acetyl-d-mannosamine, revealing the molecular basis of substrate binding. Native MS experiments support the model that only monomeric TagA is enzymatically active and that it is stabilized by membrane binding. Molecular dynamics simulations and enzyme activity measurements indicate that the C-terminal polypeptide tail facilitates catalysis by encapsulating the UDP-N-acetyl-d-mannosamine substrate, presenting three highly conserved arginine residues to the active site that are important for catalysis (R214, R221, and R224). From these data, we present a mechanistic model of catalysis that ascribes functions for these residues. This work could facilitate the development of new antimicrobial compounds that disrupt WTA biosynthesis in pathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orlando E Martinez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Brendan J Mahoney
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Andrew K Goring
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Sung-Wook Yi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Denise P Tran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Duilio Cascio
- UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Martin L Phillips
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Musleh M Muthana
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Michael E Jung
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Joseph A Loo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Robert T Clubb
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; UCLA-DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA; Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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Spengler C, Nolle F, Thewes N, Wieland B, Jung P, Bischoff M, Jacobs K. Using Knock-Out Mutants to Investigate the Adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus to Abiotic Surfaces. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11952. [PMID: 34769382 PMCID: PMC8584566 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus to abiotic surfaces is crucial for establishing device-related infections. With a high number of single-cell force spectroscopy measurements with genetically modified S. aureus cells, this study provides insights into the adhesion process of the pathogen to abiotic surfaces of different wettability. Our results show that S. aureus utilizes different cell wall molecules and interaction mechanisms when binding to hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces. We found that covalently bound cell wall proteins strongly interact with hydrophobic substrates, while their contribution to the overall adhesion force is smaller on hydrophilic substrates. Teichoic acids promote adhesion to hydrophobic surfaces as well as to hydrophilic surfaces. This, however, is to a lesser extent. An interplay of electrostatic effects of charges and protein composition on bacterial surfaces is predominant on hydrophilic surfaces, while it is overshadowed on hydrophobic surfaces by the influence of the high number of binding proteins. Our results can help to design new models of bacterial adhesion and may be used to interpret the adhesion of other microorganisms with similar surface properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Spengler
- Experimental Physics and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; (C.S.); (F.N.); (N.T.)
| | - Friederike Nolle
- Experimental Physics and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; (C.S.); (F.N.); (N.T.)
| | - Nicolas Thewes
- Experimental Physics and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; (C.S.); (F.N.); (N.T.)
| | - Ben Wieland
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany; (B.W.); (P.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Philipp Jung
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany; (B.W.); (P.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Markus Bischoff
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany; (B.W.); (P.J.); (M.B.)
| | - Karin Jacobs
- Experimental Physics and Center for Biophysics, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; (C.S.); (F.N.); (N.T.)
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Hort M, Bertsche U, Nozinovic S, Dietrich A, Schrötter AS, Mildenberger L, Axtmann K, Berscheid A, Bierbaum G. The Role of β-Glycosylated Wall Teichoic Acids in the Reduction of Vancomycin Susceptibility in Vancomycin-Intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0052821. [PMID: 34668723 PMCID: PMC8528128 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00528-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen that causes a wide range of infections. Due to the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance that leads to treatment failure, it is important to understand the underlying mechanisms. Here, the cell wall structures of several laboratory vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains were analyzed. Among the VISA strains were S. aureus VC40, which accumulated 79 mutations, including most importantly 2 exchanges in the histidine-kinase VraS, and developed full resistance against vancomycin (MIC, 64 μg/ml); a revertant S. aureus VC40R, which has an additional mutation in vraR (MIC, 4 μg/ml); and S. aureus VraS(VC40), in which the 2 vraS mutations were reconstituted into a susceptible background (MIC, 4 μg/ml). A ultraperformance liquid chromatography (UPLC) analysis showed that S. aureus VC40 had a significantly decreased cross-linking of the peptidoglycan. Both S. aureus VC40 and S. aureus VraS(VC40) displayed reduced autolysis and an altered autolysin profile in a zymogram. Most striking was the significant increase in d-alanine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc) substitution of the wall teichoic acids (WTAs) in S. aureus VC40. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis revealed that this strain had mostly β-glycosylated WTAs in contrast to the other strains, which showed only the α-glycosylation peak. Salt stress induced the incorporation of β-GlcNAc anomers and drastically increased the vancomycin MIC for S. aureus VC40R. In addition, β-glycosylated WTAs decreased the binding affinity of AtlA, the major autolysin of S. aureus, to the cell wall, compared with α-glycosylated WTAs. In conclusion, there is a novel connection between wall teichoic acids, autolysis, and vancomycin susceptibility in S. aureus. IMPORTANCE Infections with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are commonly treated with vancomycin. This antibiotic inhibits cell wall biosynthesis by binding to the cell wall building block lipid II. We set out to characterize the mechanisms leading to decreased vancomycin susceptibility in a laboratory-generated strain, S. aureus VC40. This strain has an altered cell wall architecture with a thick cell wall with low cross-linking, which provides decoy binding sites for vancomycin. The low cross-linking, necessary for this resistance mechanism, decreases the stability of the cell wall against lytic enzymes, which separate the daughter cells. Protection against these enzymes is provided by another cell wall polymer, the teichoic acids, which contain an unusually high substitution with sugars in the β-conformation. By experimentally increasing the proportion of β-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine in a closely related isolate through the induction of salt stress, we could show that the β-conformation of the sugars plays a vital role in the resistance of S. aureus VC40.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hort
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ute Bertsche
- Department of Infection Biology, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | | | - Alina Dietrich
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Anne Sophie Schrötter
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Laura Mildenberger
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Katharina Axtmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Anne Berscheid
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gabriele Bierbaum
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinics of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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31
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Villapún VM, Balacco DL, Webber MA, Hall T, Lowther M, Addison O, Kuehne SA, Grover LM, Cox SC. Repeated exposure of nosocomial pathogens to silver does not select for silver resistance but does impact ciprofloxacin susceptibility. Acta Biomater 2021; 134:760-773. [PMID: 34329788 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.07.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The rise of antimicrobial resistant bacteria coupled with a void in antibiotic development marks Antimicrobial Resistance as one of the biggest current threats to modern medicine. Antimicrobial metals are being developed and used as alternative anti-infectives, however, the existence of known resistance mechanisms and limited data regarding bacterial responses to long-term metal exposure are barriers to widespread implementation. In this study, a panel of reference and clinical strains of major nosocomial pathogens were subjected to serial dosage cycles of silver and ciprofloxacin. Populations exposed to silver initially showed no change in sensitivity, however, increasingly susceptibility was observed after the 25th cycle. A control experiment with ciprofloxacin revealed a selection for resistance over time, with silver treated bacteria showing faster adaptation. Morphological analysis revealed filamentation in Gram negative species suggesting membrane perturbation, while sequencing of isolated strains identified mutations in numerous genes. These included those encoding for efflux systems, chemosensory systems, stress responses, biofilm formation and respiratory chain processes, although no consistent locus was identified that correlated with silver sensitivity. These results suggest that de novo silver resistance is hard to select in a range of nosocomial pathogens, although silver exposure may detrimentally impact sensitivity to antibiotics in the long term. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The adaptability of microbial life continuously calls for the development of novel antibiotic molecules, however, the cost and risk associated with their discovery have led to a drying up in the pipeline, causing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to be a major threat to healthcare. From all available strategies, antimicrobial metals and, more specifically, silver showcase large bactericidal spectrum and limited toxic effect which coupled with a large range of processes available for their delivery made these materials as a clear candidate to tackle AMR. Previous reports have shown the ability of this metal to enact a synergistic effect with other antimicrobial therapies, nevertheless, the discovery of Ag resistance mechanisms since the early 70s and limited knowledge on the long term influence of silver on AMR poses a threat to their applicability. The present study provides quantitative data on the influence of silver based therapies on AMR development for a panel of reference and clinical strains of major nosocomial pathogens, revealing that prolonged silver exposure may detrimentally impact sensitivity to antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor M Villapún
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
| | - Dario L Balacco
- School of Dentistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A Webber
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom; Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia. Norwich Research Park, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Hall
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Morgan Lowther
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Owen Addison
- Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, SE1 9RT, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A Kuehne
- School of Dentistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Liam M Grover
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Sophie C Cox
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
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32
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Tomlinson BR, Malof ME, Shaw LN. A global transcriptomic analysis of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation across diverse clonal lineages. Microb Genom 2021; 7. [PMID: 34227933 PMCID: PMC8477394 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A key characteristic of Staphylococcus aureus infections, and one that also varies phenotypically between clones, is that of biofilm formation, which aids in bacterial persistence through increased adherence and immune evasion. Though there is a general understanding of the process of biofilm formation - adhesion, proliferation, maturation and dispersal - the tightly orchestrated molecular events behind each stage, and what drives variation between S. aureus strains, has yet to be unravelled. Herein we measure biofilm progression and dispersal in real-time across the five major S. aureus CDC-types (USA100-USA500) revealing adherence patterns that differ markedly amongst strains. To gain insight into this, we performed transcriptomic profiling on these isolates at multiple timepoints, compared to planktonically growing counterparts. Our findings support a model in which eDNA release, followed by increased positive surface charge, perhaps drives initial abiotic attachment. This is seemingly followed by cooperative repression of autolysis and activation of poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) production, which may indicate a developmental shift in structuring the biofilm matrix. As biofilms mature, diminished translational capacity was apparent, with 53 % of all ribosomal proteins downregulated, followed by upregulation of anaerobic respiration enzymes. These findings are noteworthy because reduced cellular activity and an altered metabolic state have been previously shown to contribute to higher antibiotic tolerance and bacterial persistence. In sum, this work is, to our knowledge, the first study to investigate transcriptional regulation during the early, establishing phase of biofilm formation, and to compare global transcriptional regulation both temporally and across multiple clonal lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke R Tomlinson
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, ISA 2015, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Morgan E Malof
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, ISA 2015, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Lindsey N Shaw
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, ISA 2015, Tampa, FL, USA
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Tomlinson BR, Malof ME, Shaw LN. A global transcriptomic analysis of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation across diverse clonal lineages. Microb Genom 2021. [PMID: 34227933 DOI: 10.1099/mgen0000598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A key characteristic of Staphylococcus aureus infections, and one that also varies phenotypically between clones, is that of biofilm formation, which aids in bacterial persistence through increased adherence and immune evasion. Though there is a general understanding of the process of biofilm formation - adhesion, proliferation, maturation and dispersal - the tightly orchestrated molecular events behind each stage, and what drives variation between S. aureus strains, has yet to be unravelled. Herein we measure biofilm progression and dispersal in real-time across the five major S. aureus CDC-types (USA100-USA500) revealing adherence patterns that differ markedly amongst strains. To gain insight into this, we performed transcriptomic profiling on these isolates at multiple timepoints, compared to planktonically growing counterparts. Our findings support a model in which eDNA release, followed by increased positive surface charge, perhaps drives initial abiotic attachment. This is seemingly followed by cooperative repression of autolysis and activation of poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) production, which may indicate a developmental shift in structuring the biofilm matrix. As biofilms mature, diminished translational capacity was apparent, with 53 % of all ribosomal proteins downregulated, followed by upregulation of anaerobic respiration enzymes. These findings are noteworthy because reduced cellular activity and an altered metabolic state have been previously shown to contribute to higher antibiotic tolerance and bacterial persistence. In sum, this work is, to our knowledge, the first study to investigate transcriptional regulation during the early, establishing phase of biofilm formation, and to compare global transcriptional regulation both temporally and across multiple clonal lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke R Tomlinson
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, ISA 2015, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Morgan E Malof
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, ISA 2015, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Lindsey N Shaw
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, ISA 2015, Tampa, FL, USA
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Xia J, Ge C, Yao H. Antimicrobial Peptides from Black Soldier Fly ( Hermetia illucens) as Potential Antimicrobial Factors Representing an Alternative to Antibiotics in Livestock Farming. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:1937. [PMID: 34209689 PMCID: PMC8300228 DOI: 10.3390/ani11071937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are an important class of effector molecules of innate host immune defense against pathogen invasion. Inability of microorganisms to develop resistance against the majority of AMPs has made them alternatives to antibiotics, contributing to the development of a new generation of antimicrobials. Due to extensive biodiversity, insects are one of the most abundant sources of novel AMPs. Notably, black soldier fly insect (BSF; Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)) feeds on decaying substrates and displays a supernormal capacity to survive under adverse conditions in the presence of abundant microorganisms, therefore, BSF is one of the most promising sources for identification of AMPs. However, discovery, functional investigation, and drug development to replace antibiotics with AMPs from Hermetia illucens remain in a preliminary stage. In this review, we provide general information on currently verified AMPs of Hermetia illucens, describe their potential medical value, discuss the mechanism of their synthesis and interactions, and consider the development of bacterial resistance to AMPs in comparison with antibiotics, aiming to provide a candidate for substitution of antibiotics in livestock farming or, to some extent, for blocking the horizontal transfer of resistance genes in the environment, which is beneficial to human and animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Xia
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430073, China;
| | - Chaorong Ge
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430073, China;
| | - Huaiying Yao
- Research Center for Environmental Ecology and Engineering, School of Environmental Ecology and Biological Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430073, China;
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Urban Environmental Processes and Pollution Control, Ningbo Urban Environment Observation and Research Station, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315800, China
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
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Elhawy MI, Molle V, Becker SL, Bischoff M. The Low-Molecular Weight Protein Arginine Phosphatase PtpB Affects Nuclease Production, Cell Wall Integrity, and Uptake Rates of Staphylococcus aureus by Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105342. [PMID: 34069497 PMCID: PMC8161221 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidemiological success of Staphylococcus aureus as a versatile pathogen in mammals is largely attributed to its virulence factor repertoire and the sophisticated regulatory network controlling this virulon. Here we demonstrate that the low-molecular-weight protein arginine phosphatase PtpB contributes to this regulatory network by affecting the growth phase-dependent transcription of the virulence factor encoding genes/operons aur, nuc, and psmα, and that of the small regulatory RNA RNAIII. Inactivation of ptpB in S. aureus SA564 also significantly decreased the capacity of the mutant to degrade extracellular DNA, to hydrolyze proteins in the extracellular milieu, and to withstand Triton X-100 induced autolysis. SA564 ΔptpB mutant cells were additionally ingested faster by polymorphonuclear leukocytes in a whole blood phagocytosis assay, suggesting that PtpB contributes by several ways positively to the ability of S. aureus to evade host innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ibrahem Elhawy
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany; (M.I.E.); (S.L.B.)
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
| | - Virginie Molle
- Laboratory of Pathogen Host Interactions, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, UMR 5235, 34095 Montpellier, France;
| | - Sören L. Becker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany; (M.I.E.); (S.L.B.)
| | - Markus Bischoff
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany; (M.I.E.); (S.L.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-6841-1623963
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36
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Lade H, Kim JS. Bacterial Targets of Antibiotics in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:398. [PMID: 33917043 PMCID: PMC8067735 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10040398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most prevalent bacterial pathogens and continues to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. MRSA is a commensal bacterium in humans and is transmitted in both community and healthcare settings. Successful treatment remains a challenge, and a search for new targets of antibiotics is required to ensure that MRSA infections can be effectively treated in the future. Most antibiotics in clinical use selectively target one or more biochemical processes essential for S. aureus viability, e.g., cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis (translation), DNA replication, RNA synthesis (transcription), or metabolic processes, such as folic acid synthesis. In this review, we briefly describe the mechanism of action of antibiotics from different classes and discuss insights into the well-established primary targets in S. aureus. Further, several components of bacterial cellular processes, such as teichoic acid, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, the lipid II cycle, auxiliary factors of β-lactam resistance, two-component systems, and the accessory gene regulator quorum sensing system, are discussed as promising targets for novel antibiotics. A greater molecular understanding of the bacterial targets of antibiotics has the potential to reveal novel therapeutic strategies or identify agents against antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jae-Seok Kim
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Kangdong Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University College of Medicine, Seoul 05355, Korea;
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37
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Guo Y, Pfahler NM, Völpel SL, Stehle T. Cell wall glycosylation in Staphylococcus aureus: targeting the tar glycosyltransferases. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2021; 68:166-174. [PMID: 33540375 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2021.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Peptidoglycan (PG) is the major structural polymer of the bacterial cell wall. The PG layer of gram-positive bacterial pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is permeated with anionic glycopolymers known as wall teichoic acids (WTAs) and lipoteichoic acids (LTAs). In S. aureus, the WTA backbone typically consists of repeating ribitol-5-phosphate units, which are modified by enzymes that introduce glycosylation as well as amino acids at different locations. These modifications are key determinants of phage adhesion, bacterial biofilm formation and virulence of S. aureus. In this review, we examine differences in WTA structures in gram-positive bacteria, focusing in particular on three enzymes, TarM, TarS, and TarP that glycosylate the WTA of S. aureus at different locations. Infections with S. aureus pose an increasing threat to human health, particularly through the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. Recently obtained structural information on TarM, TarS and TarP has helped to better understand the strategies used by S. aureus to establish resistance and to evade host defense mechanisms. Moreover, structures of complexes with poly-RboP and its analogs can serve as a platform for the development of new inhibitors that could form a basis for the development of antibiotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinglan Guo
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nina M Pfahler
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Simon L Völpel
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thilo Stehle
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Germany; Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, USA.
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38
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Mikkelsen K, Sirisarn W, Alharbi O, Alharbi M, Liu H, Nøhr-Meldgaard K, Mayer K, Vestergaard M, Gallagher LA, Derrick JP, McBain AJ, Biboy J, Vollmer W, O'Gara JP, Grunert T, Ingmer H, Xia G. The Novel Membrane-Associated Auxiliary Factors AuxA and AuxB Modulate β-lactam Resistance in MRSA by stabilizing Lipoteichoic Acids. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2021; 57:106283. [PMID: 33503451 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2021.106283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
A major determinant of β-lactam resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the drug insensitive transpeptidase, PBP2a, encoded by mecA. Full expression of the resistance phenotype requires auxiliary factors. Two such factors, auxiliary factor A (auxA, SAUSA300_0980) and B (auxB, SAUSA300_1003), were identified in a screen against mutants with increased susceptibility to β-lactams in the MRSA strain, JE2. auxA and auxB encode transmembrane proteins, with AuxA predicted to be a transporter. Inactivation of auxA or auxB enhanced β-lactam susceptibility in community-, hospital- and livestock-associated MRSA strains without affecting PBP2a expression, peptidoglycan cross-linking or wall teichoic acid synthesis. Both mutants displayed increased susceptibility to inhibitors of lipoteichoic acid (LTA) synthesis and alanylation pathways and released LTA even in the absence of β-lactams. The β-lactam susceptibility of the aux mutants was suppressed by mutations inactivating gdpP, which was previously found to allow growth of mutants lacking the lipoteichoic synthase enzyme, LtaS. Using the Galleria mellonella infection model, enhanced survival of larvae inoculated with either auxA or auxB mutants was observed compared with the wild-type strain following treatment with amoxicillin. These results indicate that AuxA and AuxB are central for LTA stability and potential inhibitors can be tools to re-sensitize MRSA strains to β-lactams and combat MRSA infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasper Mikkelsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Wanchat Sirisarn
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Ohood Alharbi
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Mohanned Alharbi
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Huayong Liu
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | | | - Katharina Mayer
- Functional Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Vestergaard
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Laura A Gallagher
- Department of Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Jeremy P Derrick
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J McBain
- Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Jacob Biboy
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, NU Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, United Kingdom
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, NU Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, United Kingdom
| | - James P O'Gara
- Department of Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Tom Grunert
- Functional Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hanne Ingmer
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Guoqing Xia
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, M13 9PT, United Kingdom.
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Wu X, Han J, Gong G, Koffas MAG, Zha J. Wall teichoic acids: physiology and applications. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2020; 45:6019871. [DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuaa064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Wall teichoic acids (WTAs) are charged glycopolymers containing phosphodiester-linked polyol units and represent one of the major components of Gram-positive cell envelope. WTAs have important physiological functions in cell division, gene transfer, surface adhesion, drug resistance and biofilm formation, and are critical virulence factors and vital determinants in mediating cell interaction with and tolerance to environmental factors. Here, we first briefly introduce WTA structure, biosynthesis and its regulation, and then summarize in detail four major physiological roles played by WTAs, i.e. WTA-mediated resistance to antimicrobials, virulence to mammalian cells, interaction with bacteriolytic enzymes and regulation of cell metabolism. We also review the applications of WTAs in these fields that are closely related to the human society, including antibacterial drug discovery targeting WTA biosynthesis, development of vaccines and antibodies regarding WTA-mediated pathogenicity, specific and sensitive detection of pathogens in food using WTAs as a surface epitope and regulation of WTA-related pathways for efficient microbial production of useful compounds. We also point out major problems remaining in these fields, and discuss some possible directions in the future exploration of WTA physiology and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Wu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
| | - Jing Han
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
| | - Guoli Gong
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
| | - Mattheos A G Koffas
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Jian Zha
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710021, China
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40
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Thitiananpakorn K, Aiba Y, Tan XE, Watanabe S, Kiga K, Sato'o Y, Boonsiri T, Li FY, Sasahara T, Taki Y, Azam AH, Zhang Y, Cui L. Association of mprF mutations with cross-resistance to daptomycin and vancomycin in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Sci Rep 2020; 10:16107. [PMID: 32999359 PMCID: PMC7527455 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73108-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We first reported a phenomenon of cross-resistance to vancomycin (VCM) and daptomycin (DAP) in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in 2006, but mechanisms underlying the cross-resistance remain incompletely understood. Here, we present a follow-up study aimed to investigate genetic determinants associated with the cross-resistance. Using 12 sets of paired DAP susceptible (DAPS) and DAP non-susceptible (DAPR) MRSA isolates from 12 patients who had DAP therapy, we (i) assessed susceptibility to DAP and VCM, (ii) compared whole-genome sequences, (iii) identified mutations associated with cross-resistance to DAP and VCM, and (iv) investigated the impact of altered gene expression and metabolic pathway relevant to the cross-resistance. We found that all 12 DAPR strains exhibiting cross-resistance to DAP and VCM carried mutations in mprF, while one DAPR strain with reduced susceptibility to only DAP carried a lacF mutation. On the other hand, among the 32 vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains isolated from patients treated with VCM, five out of the 18 strains showing cross-resistance to DAP and VCM carried a mprF mutation, while 14 strains resistant to only VCM had no mprF mutation. Moreover, substitution of mprF in a DAPS strain with mutated mprF resulted in cross-resistance and vice versa. The elevated lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol (L-PG) production, increased positive bacterial surface charges and activated cell wall (CW) synthetic pathways were commonly found in both clinical isolates and laboratory-developed mutants that carry mprF mutations. We conclude that mprF mutation is responsible for the cross-resistance of MRSA to DAP and VCM, and treatment with DAP is more likely to select for mprF-mediated cross-resistance than is with VCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanate Thitiananpakorn
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Aiba
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Xin-Ee Tan
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Shinya Watanabe
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Kotaro Kiga
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Yusuke Sato'o
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Tanit Boonsiri
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Feng-Yu Li
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Teppei Sasahara
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Yusuke Taki
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Aa Haeruman Azam
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Yuancheng Zhang
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan
| | - Longzhu Cui
- Division of Bacteriology, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1, Yakushiji, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan.
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Grishin AV, Karyagina AS, Vasina DV, Vasina IV, Gushchin VA, Lunin VG. Resistance to peptidoglycan-degrading enzymes. Crit Rev Microbiol 2020; 46:703-726. [PMID: 32985279 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2020.1825333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The spread of bacterial strains resistant to commonly used antibiotics urges the development of novel antibacterial compounds. Ideally, these novel antimicrobials should be less prone to the development of resistance. Peptidoglycan-degrading enzymes are a promising class of compounds with a fundamentally different mode of action compared to traditionally used antibiotics. The difference in the mechanism of action implies differences both in the mechanisms of resistance and the chances of its emergence. To critically assess the potential of resistance development to peptidoglycan-degrading enzymes, we review the available evidence for the development of resistance to these enzymes in vitro, along with the known mechanisms of resistance to lysozyme, bacteriocins, autolysins, and phage endolysins. We conclude that genetic determinants of resistance to peptidoglycan-degrading enzymes are unlikely to readily emerge de novo. However, resistance to these enzymes would probably spread by the horizontal transfer between intrinsically resistant and susceptible species. Finally, we speculate that the higher cost of the therapeutics based on peptidoglycan degrading enzymes compared to classical antibiotics might result in less misuse, which in turn would lead to lower selective pressure, making these antibacterials less prone to resistance development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Grishin
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.,All-Russia Research Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna S Karyagina
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.,All-Russia Research Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.,A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physical and Chemical Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Daria V Vasina
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.,A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina V Vasina
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir A Gushchin
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.,Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir G Lunin
- N.F. Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.,All-Russia Research Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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42
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Differential Induction of Type I and III Interferons by Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2020; 88:IAI.00352-20. [PMID: 32690637 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00352-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of bacterial pneumonia, and we have shown previously that type I interferon (IFN) contributes to the pathogenesis of this disease. In this study, we screened 75 S. aureus strains for their ability to induce type I and III IFN. Both cytokine pathways were differentially stimulated by various S. aureus strains independently of their isolation sites or methicillin resistance profiles. These induction patterns persisted over time, and type I and III IFN generation differentially correlated with tumor necrosis factor alpha production. Investigation of one isolate, strain 126, showed a significant defect in type I IFN induction that persisted over several time points. The lack of induction was not due to differential phagocytosis, subcellular location, or changes in endosomal acidification. A correlation between reduced type I IFN induction levels and decreased autolysis and lysostaphin sensitivity was found between strains. Strain 126 had a decreased rate of autolysis and increased resistance to lysostaphin degradation and host cell-mediated killing. This strain displayed decreased virulence in a murine model of acute pneumonia compared to USA300 (current epidemic strain and commonly used in research) and had reduced capacity to induce multiple cytokines. We observed this isolate to be a vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strain, and reduced Ifnb was observed with a defined mutation in walK that induces a VISA phenotype. Overall, this study demonstrates the heterogeneity of IFN induction by S. aureus and uncovered an interesting property of a VISA strain in its inability to induce type I IFN production.
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43
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A comprehensive review of bacterial osteomyelitis with emphasis on Staphylococcus aureus. Microb Pathog 2020; 148:104431. [PMID: 32801004 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Osteomyelitis, a significant infection of bone tissue, gives rise to two main groups of infection: acute and chronic. These groups are further categorized in terms of the duration of infection. Usually, children and adults are more susceptible to acute and chronic infections, respectively. The aforementioned groups of osteomyelitis share almost 80% of the corresponding bacterial pathogens. Among all bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a significant pathogen and is associated with a high range of osteomyelitis symptoms. S. aureus has many strategies for interacting with host cells including Small Colony Variant (SCV), biofilm formation, and toxin secretion. In addition, it induces an inflammatory response and causes host cell death by apoptosis and necrosis. However, any possible step to take in this respect is dependent on the conditions and host responses. In the absence of any immune responses and antibiotics, bacteria actively duplicate themselves; however, in the presence of phagocytic cell and harassing conditions, they turn into a SCV, remaining sustainable for a long time. SCV is characterized by notable advantages such as (a) intracellular life that mediates a dam against immune cells and (b) low ATP production that mediates resistance against antibiotics.
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44
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Hesser AR, Matano LM, Vickery CR, Wood BM, Santiago AG, Morris HG, Do T, Losick R, Walker S. The length of lipoteichoic acid polymers controls Staphylococcus aureus cell size and envelope integrity. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:JB.00149-20. [PMID: 32482719 PMCID: PMC8404710 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00149-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is protected by a cell envelope that is crucial for viability. In addition to peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is an especially important component of the S. aureus cell envelope. LTA is an anionic polymer anchored to a glycolipid in the outer leaflet of the cell membrane. It was known that deleting the gene for UgtP, the enzyme that makes this glycolipid anchor, causes cell growth and division defects. In Bacillus subtilis, growth abnormalities from the loss of ugtP have been attributed to both the absence of the encoded protein and to the loss of its products. Here, we show that growth defects in S. aureus ugtP deletion mutants are due to the long, abnormal LTA polymer that is produced when the glycolipid anchor is missing from the outer leaflet of the membrane. Dysregulated cell growth leads to defective cell division, and these phenotypes are corrected by mutations in the LTA polymerase, ltaS, that reduce polymer length. We also show that S. aureus mutants with long LTA are sensitized to cell wall hydrolases, beta-lactam antibiotics, and compounds that target other cell envelope pathways. We conclude that control of LTA polymer length is important for S. aureus physiology and promotes survival under stressful conditions, including antibiotic stress.IMPORTANCE Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a common cause of community- and hospital-acquired infections and is responsible for a large fraction of deaths caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. S. aureus is surrounded by a complex cell envelope that protects it from antimicrobial compounds and other stresses. Here we show that controlling the length of an essential cell envelope polymer, lipoteichoic acid, is critical for controlling S. aureus cell size and cell envelope integrity. We also show that genes involved in LTA length regulation are required for resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics in MRSA. The proteins encoded by these genes may be targets for combination therapy with an appropriate beta-lactam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Hesser
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - B McKay Wood
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ace George Santiago
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Heidi G Morris
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Truc Do
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Richard Losick
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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45
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Sales MJ, Sakoulas G, Szubin R, Palsson B, Arias C, Singh KV, Murray BE, Monk JM. Genome Sequence Comparison of Staphylococcus aureus TX0117 and a Beta-Lactamase-Cured Derivative Shows Increased Cationic Peptide Resistance Accompanying Mutations in relA and mnaA. Microbiol Resour Announc 2020; 9:e01515-19. [PMID: 32354985 PMCID: PMC7193940 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01515-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus strain TX0117 is a methicillin-susceptible bacterium with type A beta-lactamase exhibiting a high cefazolin inoculum effect. TX0117 was cured of blaZ, yielding TX0117c with increased antimicrobial peptide resistance. The sequencing and genome assembly of TX0117 elucidate six mutations between TX0117 and TX0117c, including relA truncation and mnA_1 substitution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Jade Sales
- Bioengineering Department, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - George Sakoulas
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Richard Szubin
- Bioengineering Department, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Bernhard Palsson
- Bioengineering Department, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Cesar Arias
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, Texas, USA
- Center for Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Genomics, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Kavindra V Singh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, Texas, USA
- Center for Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Genomics, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Barbara E Murray
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, Texas, USA
- Center for Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Genomics, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Jonathan M Monk
- Bioengineering Department, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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46
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Mechanisms of bactericidal action and resistance of polymyxins for Gram-positive bacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:3771-3780. [PMID: 32157424 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10525-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Polymyxins are cationic antimicrobial peptides used as the last-line therapy to treat multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections. The bactericidal activity of polymyxins against Gram-negative bacteria relies on the electrostatic interaction between the positively charged polymyxins and the negatively charged lipid A of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Given that Gram-positive bacteria lack an LPS-containing outer membrane, it is generally acknowledged that polymyxins are less active against Gram-positive bacteria. However, Gram-positive bacteria produce negatively charged teichoic acids, which may act as the target of polymyxins. More and more studies suggest that polymyxins have potential as a treatment for Gram-positive bacterial infection. This mini-review discusses recent advances in the mechanism of the antibacterial activity and resistance of polymyxins in Gram-positive bacteria.Key Points• Teichoic acids play a key role in the action of polymyxins on Gram-positive bacteria.• Polymyxin kills Gram-positive bacteria by disrupting cell surface and oxidative damage.• Modification of teichoic acids and phospholipids contributes to polymyxin resistance in Gram-positive bacteria.• Polymyxins have potential as a treatment for Gram-positive bacterial infection.
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47
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Baindara P, Ghosh AK, Mandal SM. Coevolution of Resistance Against Antimicrobial Peptides. Microb Drug Resist 2020; 26:880-899. [PMID: 32119634 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2019.0291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are produced by all forms of life, ranging from eukaryotes to prokaryotes, and they are a crucial component of innate immunity, involved in clearing infection by inhibiting pathogen colonization. In the recent past, AMPs received high attention due to the increase of extensive antibiotic resistance by these pathogens. AMPs exhibit a diverse spectrum of activity against bacteria, fungi, parasites, and various types of cancer. AMPs are active against various bacterial pathogens that cause disease in animals and plants. However, because of the coevolution of host and pathogen interaction, bacteria have developed the mechanisms to sense and exhibit an adaptive response against AMPs. These resistance mechanisms are playing an important role in bacterial virulence within the host. Here, we have discussed the different resistance mechanisms used by gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria to sense and combat AMP actions. Understanding the mechanism of AMP resistance may provide directions toward the development of novel therapeutic strategies to control multidrug-resistant pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piyush Baindara
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA
| | - Ananta K Ghosh
- Department of Biotechnology, Central Research Facility, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Santi M Mandal
- Department of Biotechnology, Central Research Facility, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
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48
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Taheri-Anganeh M, Khatami SH, Jamali Z, Movahedpour A, Ghasemi Y, Savardashtaki A, Mostafavi-Pour Z. LytU-SH3b fusion protein as a novel and efficient enzybiotic against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2019; 8:151-158. [PMID: 32042832 PMCID: PMC6995334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a challenging infectious agent worldwide. The ever growing antibiotic resistance has made the researchers to look for new anti-staphylococcal agents. Autolysins are staphylococcal enzymes that lyse bacterial cell wall for cell division. Autolysins can be used as novel enzybiotics (enzymes have antibiotic effects) for staphylococcal infections. LytU is a newly explored autolysin. SH3b is a potent cell wall binding domain that can be fused to lytic enzymes to increase their activity. The aim of this study was to design a novel and efficient fusion enzybiotic that could lyse staphylococcal cell wall peptidoglycan by disrupting the bacteria. LytU-SH3b fusion construct was synthesized and LytU was amplified through the construct, using overhang PCR. The fusion and native forms that had his-tag were synthesized by recombinant technology in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) strain and purified utilizing Ni-NTA agarose beads. LytU and LytU-SH3b activity and potency were assessed using plate lysis assay, turbidity reduction assay and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) tests. All these tests showed that LytU-SH3b has more activity and potency than LytU. LytU-SH3b has MIC 421 fold lesser than LytU. Finally, LytU-SH3b is a novel and efficient recombinant enzybiotic that can lyse MRSA as an alternative to chemical small molecule antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mortaza Taheri-Anganeh
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Seyyed Hossein Khatami
- Recombinant Protein Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Zeinab Jamali
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ahmad Movahedpour
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran,Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Younes Ghasemi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran,Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Amir Savardashtaki
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran,Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Zohreh Mostafavi-Pour
- Recombinant Protein Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran,Maternal-Fetal Medicine Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran,Corresponding Author: Department of Biochemistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran. Tel: +98-713 2303029; Fax: +98-713 2303029
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49
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Jeong S, Kim HY, Kim AR, Yun CH, Han SH. Propionate Ameliorates Staphylococcus aureus Skin Infection by Attenuating Bacterial Growth. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1363. [PMID: 31275281 PMCID: PMC6591440 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus causes various diseases including skin and soft tissue infections, pneumonia, gastroenteritis, and sepsis. Antibiotic-resistant S. aureus such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and multidrug-resistant S. aureus is a serious threat in healthcare-associated settings and in the communities. In this study, we investigated the effects of short-chain fatty acids, metabolites produced by commensal bacteria, on the growth of S. aureus both in vitro and in vivo. Sodium propionate (NaP) most potently inhibited the growth of MRSA and multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. Of note, only NaP, but not sodium acetate (NaA) or sodium butyrate (NaB), ameliorated MRSA skin infection, significantly lowering bacterial load, excessive cytokine production, and the size and weight of abscesses approximately by twofold. In addition, interestingly, S. aureus deficient of lipoteichoic acids (LTA) or wall teichoic acids (WTA), which are important in bacterial physiology and antimicrobial susceptibility, was more susceptible to NaP than the wild-type. Furthermore, S. aureus deficient of D-alanine motifs common in LTA and WTA was more susceptible to NaP, its growth being almost completely inhibited. Concordantly, MRSA treated with an inhibitor of D-alanylation on LTA and WTA was more susceptible to NaP, and co-treatment of NaP and a D-alanylation inhibitor further decreased the pathology of MRSA skin infection. Collectively, these results demonstrate that NaP ameliorates MRSA skin infection by attenuating the growth of S. aureus, and suggest an alternative combination treatment strategy against S. aureus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soyoung Jeong
- Department of Oral Microbiology and Immunology, DRI, and BK21 Plus Program, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Young Kim
- Department of Oral Microbiology and Immunology, DRI, and BK21 Plus Program, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - A Reum Kim
- Department of Oral Microbiology and Immunology, DRI, and BK21 Plus Program, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Cheol-Heui Yun
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seung Hyun Han
- Department of Oral Microbiology and Immunology, DRI, and BK21 Plus Program, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
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50
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Abstract
The chapter about the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall gives a brief historical background on the discovery of Gram-positive cell walls and their constituents and microscopic methods applied for studying the Gram-positive cell envelope. Followed by the description of the different chemical building blocks of peptidoglycan and the biosynthesis of the peptidoglycan layers and high turnover of peptidoglycan during bacterial growth. Lipoteichoic acids and wall teichoic acids are highlighted as major components of the cell wall. Characterization of capsules and the formation of extracellular vesicles by Gram-positive bacteria close the section on cell envelopes which have a high impact on bacterial pathogenesis. In addition, the specialized complex and unusual cell wall of mycobacteria is introduced thereafter. Next a short back view is given on the development of electron microscopic examinations for studying bacterial cell walls. Different electron microscopic techniques and methods applied to examine bacterial cell envelopes are discussed in the view that most of the illustrated methods should be available in a well-equipped life sciences orientated electron microscopic laboratory. In addition, newly developed and mostly well-established cryo-methods like high-pressure freezing and freeze-substitution (HPF-FS) and cryo-sections of hydrated vitrified bacteria (CEMOVIS, Cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections) are described. At last, modern cryo-methods like cryo-electron tomography (CET) and cryo-FIB-SEM milling (focus ion beam-scanning electron microscopy) are introduced which are available only in specialized institutions, but at present represent the best available methods and techniques to study Gram-positive cell walls under close-to-nature conditions in great detail and at high resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Rohde
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, HZI, Central Facility for Microscopy, ZEIM, Braunschweig, Germany
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