Monkeypox Virus Host Factor Screen Using Haploid Cells Identifies Essential Role of GARP Complex in Extracellular Virus Formation

Mpox Virus and its ocular surface manifestations

The Mpox virus (MPXV) is the causative agent of human Mpox disease - a debilitating rash illness similar to smallpox. Although Clade I MPXV has remained endemic to West and Central Africa, Clade II MPXV has been responsible for many outbreaks worldwide. The most recent outbreak in 2022 resulted from the rapid spread of a new clade of MPXV, classified into Clade IIb - a distinct lineage from the previously circulating viral strains. The rapid spread and increased severity of Mpox disease by the Clade IIb strain have raised the serious public health imperative of better understanding the host and viral determinants during MPXV infection. In addition to typical skin rashes, including in the periorbital area, MPXV causes moderate to severe ophthalmic manifestations - most commonly, ocular surface complications (e.g., keratitis, conjunctivitis, blepharitis). While ocular manifestations of Clade I Mpox within the Congo basin have been well-reported, global incidence trends of ocular Mpox cases by Clade IIb are still emerging. Given the demonstrated ability of all MPXV strains to auto-inoculate ocular tissue, alongside the enhanced transmissibility of the Clade IIb virus, there is an urgent need to elucidate the mechanisms by which MPXV causes ocular anomalies. In this review, we discuss the viral and genomic structures of MPXV, the epidemiology, and pathology of systemic and ocular Mpox, as well as potential prophylactic and therapeutic interventions.

Cytokine storm in human monkeypox: A possible involvement of purinergic signaling

Some evidence has indicated that monkeypox can induce a cytokine storm. Purinergic signaling is a cell pathway related to the cytokine storm. However, the precise mechanisms that lead to cytokine storms in monkeypox infections and the possible involvement of purinergic signaling in the immune response to this virus remain unknown. In this review article, we aimed to highlight a body of scientific evidence that consolidates the role of the cytokine storm in monkeypox infection and proposes a new hypothesis regarding the roles of purinergic signaling in this immune-mediated mechanism. We further suggested some purinergic signaling modulators to mitigate the deleterious and aggravating effects of immune dysregulation in human monkeypox virus infection by inhibiting P2X3, P2X7, P2Y2, and P2Y12, reducing inflammation, and activating A1 and A2A receptors to promote an anti-inflammatory response.

Identifying potential monkeypox virus inhibitors: an in silico study targeting the A42R protein

Monkeypox (now Mpox), a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV) is an emerging threat to global health. In the time span of only six months, from May to October 2022, the number of MPXV cases breached 80,000 and many of the outbreaks occurred in locations that had never previously reported MPXV. Currently there are no FDA-approved MPXV-specific vaccines or treatments, therefore, finding drugs to combat MPXV is of utmost importance. The A42R profilin-like protein of the MPXV is involved in cell development and motility making it a critical drug target. A42R protein is highly conserved across orthopoxviruses, thus A42R inhibitors may work for other family members. This study sought to identify potential A42R inhibitors for MPXV treatment using computational approaches. The energy minimized 3D structure of the A42R profilin-like protein (PDB ID: 4QWO) underwent virtual screening using a library of 36,366 compounds from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), AfroDb, and PubChem databases as well as known inhibitor tecovirimat via AutoDock Vina. A total of seven compounds comprising PubChem CID: 11371962, ZINC000000899909, ZINC000001632866, ZINC000015151344, ZINC000013378519, ZINC000000086470, and ZINC000095486204, predicted to have favorable binding were shortlisted. Molecular docking suggested that all seven proposed compounds have higher binding affinities to A42R (-7.2 to -8.3 kcal/mol) than tecovirimat (-6.7 kcal/mol). This was corroborated by MM/PBSA calculations, with tecovirimat demonstrating the highest binding free energy of -68.694 kJ/mol (lowest binding affinity) compared to the seven shortlisted compounds that ranged from -73.252 to -97.140 kJ/mol. Furthermore, the 7 compounds in complex with A42R demonstrated higher stability than the A42R-tecovirimat complex when subjected to 100 ns molecular dynamics simulations. The protein-ligand interaction maps generated using LigPlot+ suggested that residues Met1, Glu3, Trp4, Ile7, Arg127, Val128, Thr131, and Asn133 are important for binding. These seven compounds were adequately profiled to be potential antivirals via PASS predictions and structural similarity searches. All seven potential lead compounds were scored Pa > Pi for antiviral activity while ZINC000001632866 and ZINC000015151344 were predicted as poxvirus inhibitors with Pa values of 0.315 and 0.215, and Pi values of 0.052 and 0.136, respectively. Further experimental validations of the identified lead compounds are required to corroborate their predicted activity. These seven identified compounds represent solid footing for development of antivirals against MPXV and other orthopoxviruses.

Knowledge of the Mpox virus and conspiracy beliefs and their association with self-confidence in managing the virus among Israeli orthopedic surgeons

In 2022, the Mpox viral outbreak signaled a global public health emergency. Infectious disease management and prevention are crucial tasks for healthcare workers. In their line of work, orthopedic surgeons could come across cases of the Mpox virus. The aim of the present study was to explore orthopedic surgeons' knowledge of the Mpox virus, their conspiracy beliefs regarding emerging viral infections, and their self-confidence in managing the Mpox virus. In this cross-sectional survey, 137 orthopedic surgeons completed an online questionnaire. The participants had low knowledge of the Mpox virus, providing on average 11.5 correct answers (SD = 2.68) of a possible 21. In addition, the participants tended to express moderate conspiracy beliefs and to have low self-confidence in managing the Mpox virus. Age 30 or older, a higher knowledge level, and lower conspiracy beliefs predicted greater self-confidence in managing the Mpox virus. In addition, a negative association was found between knowledge of the Mpox virus and conspiracy beliefs. Arab and younger orthopedic surgeons expressed stronger conspiracy beliefs. Interventions should include introduction of material regarding emerging tropical infections in medical curricula and in-service training programs. In addition, special attention should be paid to younger and Arab orthopedic surgeons, as these subgroups may endorse higher conspiracy beliefs.

Evaluation of Stability, Inactivation, and Disinfection Effectiveness of Mpox Virus

BACKGROUND

Mpox virus (MPXV) infections have increased in many countries since May 2022, increasing demand for diagnostic tests and research on the virus. To ensure personnel safety, appropriate and reliable measures are needed to disinfect and inactivate infectious samples; Methods: We evaluated the stability of infectious MPXV cultures stored at different temperatures and through freeze-thaw cycles. Heat physical treatment (56 °C, 70 °C, 95 °C), chemical treatment (beta-propiolactone (BPL)) and two commercialized disinfectants (Micro-Chem Plus (MCP) and ethanol) were tested against infectious MPXV cultures; Results: The results indicated that MPXV stability increases with lower temperatures. The MPXV titer was stable within three freeze-thaw cycles and only decreased by 1.04 log10 (lg) 50% cell culture infective dose (CCID50) per milliliter (12.44%) after twelve cycles. MPXV could be effectively inactivated at 56 °C for 40 min, 70 °C for 10 min, and 95 °C for 5 min. For BPL inactivation, a 1:1000 volume ratio (BPL:virus) could also effectively inactivate MPXV. A total of 2% or 5% MCP and 75% ethanol treated with MPXV for at least 1 min could reduce >4.25 lg; Conclusions: MPXV shows high stability to temperature and freeze-thaw. Heat and BPL treatments are effective for the inactivation of MPXV, while MCP and ethanol are effective for disinfection, which could help laboratory staff operate the MPXV under safer conditions and improve operational protocols.

Strong selection signatures for Aleutian disease tolerance acting on novel candidate genes linked to immune and cellular responses in American mink (Neogale vison)

Aleutian disease (AD) is a multi-systemic infectious disease in American mink (Neogale vison) caused by Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). This study aimed to identify candidate regions and genes underlying selection for response against AMDV using whole-genome sequence (WGS) data. Three case-control selection signatures studies were conducted between animals (N = 85) producing high versus low antibody levels against AMDV, grouped by counter immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) test and two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Within each study, selection signals were detected using fixation index (FST) and nucleotide diversity (θπ ratios), and validated by cross-population extended haplotype homozygosity (XP-EHH) test. Within- and between-studies overlapping results were then evaluated. Within-studies overlapping results indicated novel candidate genes related to immune and cellular responses (e.g., TAP2, RAB32), respiratory system function (e.g., SPEF2, R3HCC1L), and reproduction system function (e.g., HSF2, CFAP206) in other species. Between-studies overlapping results identified three large segments under strong selection pressure, including two on chromosome 1 (chr1:88,770-98,281 kb and chr1:114,133-120,473) and one on chromosome 6 (chr6:37,953-44,279 kb). Within regions with strong signals, we found novel candidate genes involved in immune and cellular responses (e.g., homologous MHC class II genes, ITPR3, VPS52) in other species. Our study brings new insights into candidate regions and genes controlling AD response.

Molecular Virology of Orthopoxviruses with Special Reference to Monkeypox Virus

Poxviruses are large (200-450 nm) and enveloped viruses carrying double-stranded DNA genome with an epidermal cell-specific adaptation. The genus Orthopoxvirus within Poxviridae family constitutes several medically and veterinary important viruses including variola (smallpox), vaccinia, monkeypox virus (MPXV), and cowpox. The monkeypox disease (mpox) has recently emerged as a public health emergency caused by MPXV. An increasing number of human cases of MPXV have been documented in non-endemic nations without any known history of contact with animals brought in from endemic and enzootic regions, nor have they involved travel to an area where the virus was typically prevalent. Here, we review the MPXV replication, virus pathobiology, mechanism of viral infection transmission, virus evasion the host innate immunity and antiviral therapies against Mpox. Moreover, preventive measures including vaccination were discussed and concluded that cross-protection against MPXV may be possible using antibodies that are directed against an Orthopoxvirus. Despite the lack of a specialised antiviral medication, several compounds such as Cidofovir and Ribavirin warrant consideration against mpox.

GARP and EARP are required for efficient BoHV-1 replication as identified by a genome wide CRISPR knockout screen

The advances in gene editing bring unprecedented opportunities in high throughput functional genomics to animal research. Here we describe a genome wide CRISPR knockout library, btCRISPRko.v1, targeting all protein coding genes in the cattle genome. Using it, we conducted genome wide screens during Bovine Herpes Virus type 1 (BoHV-1) replication and compiled a list of pro-viral and anti-viral candidates. These candidates might influence multiple aspects of BoHV-1 biology such as viral entry, genome replication and transcription, viral protein trafficking and virion maturation in the cytoplasm. Some of the most intriguing examples are VPS51, VPS52 and VPS53 that code for subunits of two membrane tethering complexes, the endosome-associated recycling protein (EARP) complex and the Golgi-associated retrograde protein (GARP) complex. These complexes mediate endosomal recycling and retrograde trafficking to the trans Golgi Network (TGN). Simultaneous loss of both complexes in MDBKs resulted in greatly reduced production of infectious BoHV-1 virions. We also found that viruses released by these deficient cells severely lack VP8, the most abundant tegument protein of BoHV-1 that are crucial for its virulence. In combination with previous reports, our data suggest vital roles GARP and EARP play during viral protein packaging and capsid re-envelopment in the cytoplasm. It also contributes to evidence that both the TGN and the recycling endosomes are recruited in this process, mediated by these complexes. The btCRISPRko.v1 library generated here has been controlled for quality and shown to be effective in host gene discovery. We hope it will facilitate efforts in the study of other pathogens and various aspects of cell biology in cattle.

Addressing the resurgence of global monkeypox (Mpox) through advanced drug delivery platforms

Monkeypox (Mpox) is a transmissible infection induced by the Monkeypox virus (a double-stranded DNA virus), recognised under the family orthopoxvirus genus. Monkeypox, like endemic diseases, is a substantial concern worldwide; thus, comprehending the pathogenesis and mutagenesis of amino acids is indispensable to combat the infection. According to the World Health Organization's report, about 89 thousand cases with 160 mortalities have been reported from 114 countries worldwide. The conventional orthopoxvirus vaccines developed on live attenuated viruses exempted any clinical validation from combating monkeypox due to inadequate immunogenicity, toxicity, instability, and multiple doses. Therefore, novel drug delivery systems come into the conception with high biological and mechanical characteristics to address the resurgence of Global Monkeypox. The edges of metallic biomaterials, novel molecules, and vaccine development in targeted therapy increase the modulation of the immune response and blockage of host-virus interaction, with enhanced stability for the antigens. Thus, this review strives to comprehend the viral cell pathogenesis concerning amino acid mutagenesis and current epidemiological standards of the Monkeypox disease across the globe. Furthermore, the review also recapitulates the various clinical challenges, current therapies, and progressive nanomedicine utilisation in the Monkeypox outbreak reinforced by various clinical trial reports. The contemporary challenges of novel drug delivery systems in Monkeypox treatment cannot be overlooked, and thus, authors have outlined the future strategies to develop successful nanomedicine to combat monkeypox. Future pandemics are inevitable but can be satisfactorily handled if we comprehend the crises, innovate, and develop cutting-edge technologies, especially by delving into frontiers like nanotechnology.

Epidemiology of monkeypox notifications in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil

OBJECTIVES

to describe the epidemiological profile of suspected, confirmed, and probable cases of monkeypox in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil.

METHODS

a descriptive, retrospective study of reported suspected, confirmed, and probable cases of monkeypox infection in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The study period was from the first notification, on June 11, to September 7, 2022.

RESULTS

a total of 759 suspected, confirmed, and probable cases of monkeypox infection were reported, with 35.44% suspected, 53.75% confirmed, and 10.81% probable cases, respectively. As for the coexisting diseases within confirmed cases, 38.79% were related to people living with human immunodeficiency virus, and 13.74% had some active sexually transmitted infection. Regarding the evolution of confirmed cases, 47.43% were cured.

CONCLUSIONS

the results contribute to greater knowledge and control of the infection by allowing better disease management and care offered in health services.

Literature-Based Discovery to Elucidate the Biological Links between Resistant Hypertension and COVID-19

Multiple studies have reported new or exacerbated persistent or resistant hypertension in patients previously infected with COVID-19. We used literature-based discovery to identify and prioritize multi-scalar explanatory biology that relates resistant hypertension to COVID-19. Cross-domain text mining of 33+ million PubMed articles within a comprehensive knowledge graph was performed using SemNet 2.0. Unsupervised rank aggregation determined which concepts were most relevant utilizing the normalized HeteSim score. A series of simulations identified concepts directly related to COVID-19 and resistant hypertension or connected via one of three renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system hub nodes (mineralocorticoid receptor, epithelial sodium channel, angiotensin I receptor). The top-ranking concepts relating COVID-19 to resistant hypertension included: cGMP-dependent protein kinase II, MAP3K1, haspin, ral guanine nucleotide exchange factor, N-(3-Oxododecanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone, aspartic endopeptidases, metabotropic glutamate receptors, choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase, protein tyrosine phosphatase, tat genes, MAP3K10, uridine kinase, dicer enzyme, CMD1B, USP17L2, FLNA, exportin 5, somatotropin releasing hormone, beta-melanocyte stimulating hormone, pegylated leptin, beta-lipoprotein, corticotropin, growth hormone-releasing peptide 2, pro-opiomelanocortin, alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone, prolactin, thyroid hormone, poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate depolymerase, CR 1392, BCR-ABL fusion gene, high density lipoprotein sphingomyelin, pregnancy-associated murine protein 1, recQ4 helicase, immunoglobulin heavy chain variable domain, aglycotransferrin, host cell factor C1, ATP6V0D1, imipramine demethylase, TRIM40, H3C2 gene, COL1A1+COL1A2 gene, QARS gene, VPS54, TPM2, MPST, EXOSC2, ribosomal protein S10, TAP-144, gonadotropins, human gonadotropin releasing hormone 1, beta-lipotropin, octreotide, salmon calcitonin, des-n-octanoyl ghrelin, liraglutide, gastrins. Concepts were mapped to six physiological themes: altered endocrine function, 23.1%; inflammation or cytokine storm, 21.3%; lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis, 17.6%; sympathetic input to blood pressure regulation, 16.7%; altered entry of COVID-19 virus, 14.8%; and unknown, 6.5%.

Mpox (Monkeypox) in Pregnancy: Viral Clade Differences and Their Associations with Varying Obstetrical and Fetal Outcomes

In African countries where mpox (monkeypox) is endemic, infection is caused by two genetically related clades-Clade I (formerly Congo Basin), and Clade IIa (formerly West Africa), both of which are potentially life-threatening infections. Prior to the 2022-2023 global outbreak, mpox infections among pregnant women caused by Clade I were reported to have a 75% perinatal case fatality rate in the Democratic Republic of Congo, including the only documented case of placental infection and stillbirth from the Congenital Mpox Syndrome, and the Clade IIa mpox infection was associated with stillbirths in Nigeria. The 2022-2023 global mpox outbreak, caused by a genetically distinct strain, Clade IIb, has focused attention on the effects of mpox on pregnant women and fetal outcomes. There have been at least 58 cases of mpox infection occurring in pregnant women during the 2022-2023 outbreak. No confirmed cases of adverse perinatal outcome, including stillbirth, have been reported. The absence of perinatal morbidity and mortality from Clade IIb corresponds to the overall case fatality rate among non-pregnant women of <0.1%, as this clade has been demonstrated to produce a less-severe disease than the mpox Clade I or IIa variants. Thus, there are apparently important differences between mpox clades affecting pregnant women and perinatal outcomes.

Human Monkeypox: A Comprehensive Overview of Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention Strategies

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is an emerging zoonotic virus that belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus and presents clinical symptoms similar to those of smallpox, such as fever and vesicular-pustular skin lesions. However, the differential diagnosis between smallpox and monkeypox is that smallpox does not cause lymphadenopathy but monkeypox generates swelling in the lymph nodes. Since the eradication of smallpox, MPXV has been identified as the most common Orthopoxvirus to cause human disease. Despite MPXV being endemic to certain regions of Africa, the current MPXV outbreak, which began in early 2022, has spread to numerous countries worldwide, raising global concern. As of the end of May 2023, over 87,545 cases and 141 deaths have been reported, with most cases identified in non-endemic countries, primarily due to human-to-human transmission. To better understand this emerging threat, this review presents an overview of key aspects of MPXV infection, including its animal reservoirs, modes of transmission, animal models, epidemiology, clinical and immunological features, diagnosis, treatments, vaccines, and prevention strategies. The material presented here provides a comprehensive understanding of MPXV as a disease, while emphasizing the significance and unique characteristics of the 2022 outbreak. This offers valuable information that can inform future research and aid in the development of effective interventions.

Genomic and ultrastructural analysis of monkeypox virus in skin lesions and in human/animal infected cells reveals further morphofunctional insights into viral pathogenicity

Monkeypox (MPOX) is a zoonotic disease that affects humans and other primates, resulting in a smallpox-like illness. It is caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which belongs to the Poxviridae family. Clinically manifested by a range of cutaneous and systemic findings, as well as variable disease severity phenotypes based on the genetic makeup of the virus, the cutaneous niche and respiratory mucosa are the epicenters of MPXV pathogenicity. Herein, we describe the ultrastructural features of MPXV infection in both human cultured cells and cutaneous clinical specimens collected during the 2022-2023 MPOX outbreak in New York City that were revealed through electron microscopy. We observed typical enveloped virions with brick-shaped morphologies that contained surface protrusions, consistent with the classic ultrastructural features of MPXV. In addition, we describe morpho-functional evidence that point to roles of distinct cellular organelles in viral assembly during clinical MPXV infection. Interestingly, in skin lesions, we found abundant melanosomes near viral assembly sites, particularly in the vicinity of mature virions, which provides further insight into virus-host interactions at the subcellular level that contribute to MPXV pathogenesis. These findings not only highlight the importance of electron microscopic studies for further investigation of this emerging pathogen but also in characterizing MPXV pathogenesis during human infection.

Progress and prospects on vaccine development against Monkeypox Infection

The monkeypox virus (MPOX) is an uncommon zoonotic illness brought on by an orthopoxvirus (OPXV). MPOX can occur with symptoms similar to smallpox. Since April 25, 2023, 110 nations have reported 87,113 confirmed cases and 111 fatalities. Moreover, the outspread prevalence of MPOX in Africa and a current outbreak of MPOX in the U.S. have made it clear that naturally occurring zoonotic OPXV infections remain a public health concern. Existing vaccines, though they provide cross-protection to MPOX, are not specific for the causative virus, and their effectiveness in the light of the current multi-country outbreak is still to be verified. Furthermore, as a sequel of the eradication and cessation of smallpox vaccination for four decades, MPOX found a possibility to re-emerge, but with distinct characteristics. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggested that nations use affordable MPOX vaccines within a framework of coordinated clinical effectiveness and safety evaluations. Vaccines administered in the smallpox control program and conferred immunity against MPOX. Currently, vaccines approved by WHO for use against MPOX are replicating (ACAM2000), low replicating (LC16m8), and non-replicating (MVA-BN). Although vaccines are accessible, investigations have demonstrated that smallpox vaccination is approximately 85% efficient in inhibiting MPOX. In addition, developing new vaccine methods against MPOX can help prevent this infection. To recognize the most efficient vaccine, it is essential to assess effects, including reactogenicity, safety, cytotoxicity effect, and vaccine-associated side effects, especially for high-risk and vulnerable people. Recently, several orthopoxvirus vaccines have been produced and are being evaluated. Hence, this review aims to provide an overview of the efforts dedicated to several types of vaccine candidates with different strategies for MPOX, including inactivated, live-attenuated, virus-like particles (VLPs), recombinant protein, nucleic acid, and nanoparticle-based vaccines, which are being developed and launched.

A multinational cross-sectional study on the awareness and concerns of healthcare providers toward monkeypox and the promotion of the monkeypox vaccination

Background

The aim of this study was to explore potential healthcare workers' (HCWs) concerns about the monkeypox virus in order to create practical solutions to manage this disease.

Methods

Online cross-sectional research was conducted in 11 Arabic countries (Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Syria, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, Iraq, Palestine, Jordan, and Sudan) from 2 August 2022 to 28 December 2022.

Results

Approximately 82% of respondents felt the need to acquire further information. The acceptability of the vaccine against monkeypox has been indicated by more than half of the participants (54.5%). Furthermore, we state that 45% of the participants are knowledgeable about the monkeypox virus, and 53.1% of the participants have never been affected with COVID-19 before are more worried about COVID-19 than about monkeypox. Participants diagnosed with COVID-19 were 0.63 times less likely to worry about monkeypox than those who were not diagnosed with COVID-19. A greater willingness to get the monkeypox vaccination was seen among the age group 21-30 years (42.4%) compared to the other age groups.

Conclusion

Most healthcare professionals have a moderate knowledge of the monkeypox virus. Furthermore, they demonstrated a low willingness to get the vaccination against the monkeypox virus.

Simultaneous Multiple-Stages Mpox Genital Lesions on the Same Site in a Traveler to Greece: A Case Report

A 47-year-old Caucasian traveller from an mpox (formerly monkeypox and also best suited abbreviated MPX)-endemic country was referred for a skin rash, of recent onset, confined to the genital area. The rash consisted of erythematous umbilicated papules, vesicles and pustules with a characteristic white ring. The lesions were observed simultaneously at different stages of progression on the same anatomical site, a clinical presentation that is not encountered frequently. The patient was febrile, fatigued and had blood-tinged cough. The clinical suspicion of mpox was raised, and the initial real-time PCR identified a non-variola orthopox virus, which was confirmed at the National Reference Laboratory to belong to the West African clade.

Temporal proteomic profiling reveals functional pathways in vaccinia virus-induced cell migration

Introduction

Viral diseases have always been intricate and persistent issues throughout the world and there is a lack of holistic discoveries regarding the molecular dysregulations of virus-host interactions. The temporal proteomics strategy can identify various differentially expressed proteins and offer collaborated interaction networks under pathological conditions.

Method

Herein, temporal proteomics at various hours post infection of Vero cells were launched to uncover molecular alternations during vaccinia virus (VACV)-induced cell migration. Different stages of infection were included to differentiate gene ontologies and critical pathways at specific time points of infection via bioinformatics.

Results

Bioinformatic results showed functional and distinct ontologies and pathways at different stages of virus infection. The enrichment of interaction networks and pathways verified the significances of the regulation of actin cytoskeleton and lamellipodia during VACV-induced fast cell motility.

Discussion

The current results offer a systematic proteomic profiling of molecular dysregulations at different stages of VACV infection and potential biomedical targets for treating viral diseases.

Identification of core therapeutic targets for Monkeypox virus and repurposing potential of drugs against them: An in silico approach

Monkeypox virus (mpox virus) outbreak has rapidly spread to 82 non-endemic countries. Although it primarily causes skin lesions, secondary complications and high mortality (1-10%) in vulnerable populations have made it an emerging threat. Since there is no specific vaccine/antiviral, it is desirable to repurpose existing drugs against mpox virus. With little knowledge about the lifecycle of mpox virus, identifying potential inhibitors is a challenge. Nevertheless, the available genomes of mpox virus in public databases represent a goldmine of untapped possibilities to identify druggable targets for the structure-based identification of inhibitors. Leveraging this resource, we combined genomics and subtractive proteomics to identify highly druggable core proteins of mpox virus. This was followed by virtual screening to identify inhibitors with affinities for multiple targets. 125 publicly available genomes of mpox virus were mined to identify 69 highly conserved proteins. These proteins were then curated manually. These curated proteins were funnelled through a subtractive proteomics pipeline to identify 4 highly druggable, non-host homologous targets namely; A20R, I7L, Top1B and VETFS. High-throughput virtual screening of 5893 highly curated approved/investigational drugs led to the identification of common as well as unique potential inhibitors with high binding affinities. The common inhibitors, i.e., batefenterol, burixafor and eluxadoline were further validated by molecular dynamics simulation to identify their best potential binding modes. The affinity of these inhibitors suggests their repurposing potential. This work can encourage further experimental validation for possible therapeutic management of mpox.

Recent Advances in Research and Management of Human Monkeypox Virus: An Emerging Global Health Threat

In 2003, the United States saw an epidemic of monkeypox that was later traced back to rodents of West Africa infected with the monkeypox virus (MPXV). Disease in the United States seemed less severe than the smallpox-like disease in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). In this study, researchers analyzed data from Central Africa: two distinct MPXV clades were confirmed by sequencing the genomes of MPXV isolates from Western Africa, the United States, and Central Africa. By comparing open reading frames across MPXV clades, scientists can infer which virus proteins might account for the observed variation in pathogenicity in humans. Monkeypox can be prevented and controlled with a better understanding of MPXV's molecular etiology and epidemiological and clinical features. In light of the current outbreaks worldwide, we provide updated information on monkeypox for medical professionals in this review.

Role of GARP Vesicle Tethering Complex in Golgi Physiology

The Golgi associated retrograde protein complex (GARP) is an evolutionarily conserved component of Golgi membrane trafficking machinery that belongs to the Complexes Associated with Tethering Containing Helical Rods (CATCHR) family. Like other multisubunit tethering complexes such as COG, Dsl1, and Exocyst, the GARP is believed to function by tethering and promoting fusion of the endosome-derived small trafficking intermediate. However, even twenty years after its discovery, the exact structure and the functions of GARP are still an enigma. Recent studies revealed novel roles for GARP in Golgi physiology and identified human patients with mutations in GARP subunits. In this review, we summarized our knowledge of the structure of the GARP complex, its protein partners, GARP functions related to Golgi physiology, as well as cellular defects associated with the dysfunction of GARP subunits.

Animal host range of mpox virus

Mpox is caused by the mpox virus, which belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus and Poxviridae family. Animal hosts, such as African rodents, mice, prairie dogs, and non-human primates, play important roles in the development and transmission of outbreaks. Laboratory animal infection experiments have demonstrated that some animals are susceptible to mpox virus. This review summarizes the current progress on the animal hosts for mpox virus. The surveillance of mpox virus in animal hosts will provide important insights into virus tracing, analysis of mutation evolutionary patterns, transmission mechanisms, and development of control measures.

Mpox, Caused by the MPXV of the Clade IIb Lineage, Goes Global

Mpox is a great public health concern worldwide currently; thus, a global primary epidemiological analysis of mpox and a phylogenetic analysis of currently circulating MPXV strains based on open-source data is necessary. A total of 83,419 confirmed cases with 72 deaths were reported from 7 May to 23 December 2022, representing an ongoing increasing trend. Mpox was largely restricted to being endemic in children in West Africa (WA) before 2022, and it mainly spread from animals to humans. Our analysis highlights that mpox has not only spread across regions within Africa but has also led to most infection events outside Africa. Currently, mpox has been dominated by human-to-human spread in 110 countries, with the majority of cases distributed in the non-endemic regions of Europe and North America. These data indicate that the geographic range, transmission route, vulnerable populations, and clinical manifestations of mpox have changed, which suggests that the niche of mpox has the potential to change. Remarkably, approximately 38,025 suspected mpox cases were recorded in West and Central Africa during 1970-2022, which implied that the epidemiology of mpox in the two regions remained cryptic, suggesting that strengthening the accuracy of molecular diagnosis on this continent is a priority. Moreover, 617 mpox genomes have been obtained from 12 different hosts; these data imply that the high host diversity may contribute to its ongoing circulation and global outbreak. Furthermore, a phylogenetic analysis of 175 MPXV genome sequences from 38 countries (regions) showed that the current global mpox outbreak was caused by multiple sub-clades in the clade IIb lineage. These data suggest that MPXV strains from the clade IIb lineage may play a predominated role in the spread of mpox worldwide, implying that the current mpox outbreak has a single infection source. However, further investigations into the origin of the new global mpox outbreak are necessary. Therefore, our analysis highlights that adjusted timely interventive measures and surveillance programs, especially using cheap and quick strategies such as wastewater monitoring the DNA of MPXV in Africa (WA), are important for uncovering this disease's transmission source and chain, which will help curb its further spread.

Monkeypox

Monkeypox is a zoonotic illness caused by the monkeypox virus, an Orthopoxvirus in the same genus as the variola, vaccinia, and cowpox viruses. Since the detection of the first human case in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1970, the disease has caused sporadic infections and outbreaks, mainly restricted to some countries in west and central Africa. In July, 2022, WHO declared monkeypox a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, on account of the unprecedented global spread of the disease outside previously endemic countries in Africa and the need for global solidarity to address this previously neglected disease. The 2022 outbreak has been primarily associated with close intimate contact (including sexual activity) and most cases have been diagnosed among men who have sex with men, who often present with novel epidemiological and clinical characteristics. In the 2022 outbreak, the incubation period ranges from 7 days to 10 days and most patients present with a systemic illness that includes fever and myalgia and a characteristic rash, with papules that evolve to vesicles, pustules, and crusts in the genital, anal, or oral regions and often involve the mucosa. Complications that require medical treatment (eg, antiviral therapy, antibacterials, and pain control) occur in up to 40% of patients and include rectal pain, odynophagia, penile oedema, and skin and anorectal abscesses. Most patients have a self-limited illness; between 1% and 13% require hospital admission (for treatment or isolation), and the case-fatality rate is less than 0·1%. A diagnosis can be made through the presence of Orthopoxvirus DNA in PCRs from lesion swabs or body fluids. Patients with severe manifestations and people at risk of severe disease (eg, immunosuppressed people) could benefit from antiviral treatment (eg, tecovirimat). The current strategy for post-exposure prophylaxis or pre-exposure prophylaxis for people at high risk is vaccination with the non-replicating modified vaccinia Ankara. Antiviral treatment and vaccines are not yet available in endemic countries in Africa.

Functional Analysis of Monkeypox and Interrelationship between Monkeypox and COVID-19 by Bioinformatic Analysis

The outbreak of monkeypox may be considered a novel and urgent threat after the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). No wide-ranging studies have been conducted on this disease since it was first reported. We systematically assessed the functional role of gene expression in cells infected with the monkeypox virus using transcriptome profiling and compared the functional relation with that of COVID-19. Based on the Gene Expression Omnibus database, we obtained 212 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of GSE36854 and GSE21001 of monkeypox datasets. Enrichment analyses, including KEGG and gene ontology (GO) analyses, were performed to identify the common function of 212 DEGs of GSE36854 and GSE21001. CytoHubba and Molecular Complex Detection were performed to determine the core genes after a protein-protein interaction (PPI). Metascape/COVID-19 was used to compare DEGs of monkeypox and COVID-19. GO analysis of 212 DEGs of GSE36854 and GSE21001 for monkeypox infection showed cellular response to cytokine stimulus, cell activation, and cell differentiation regulation. KEGG analysis of 212 DEGs of GSE36854 and GSE21001 for monkeypox infection showed involvement of monkeypox in COVID-19, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, inflammatory bowel disease, atherosclerosis, TNF signaling, and T cell receptor signaling. By comparing our data with published transcriptome of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infections in other cell lines, the common function of monkeypox and COVID-19 includes cytokine signaling in the immune system, TNF signaling, and MAPK cascade regulation. Thus, our data suggest that the molecular connections identified between COVID-19 and monkeypox elucidate the causes of monkeypox.

Monkeypox treatment: Current evidence and future perspectives

As of September 11, 2022, 57 669 reports of monkeypox infection raised global concern. Previous vaccinia virus vaccination can protect from monkeypox. However, after smallpox eradication, immunization against that was stopped. Indeed, therapeutic options following the disease onset are of great value. This study aimed to review the available evidence on virology and treatment approaches for monkeypox and provide guidance for patient care and future studies. Since no randomized clinical trials were ever performed, we reviewed monkeypox animal model studies and clinical trials on the safety and pharmacokinetics of available medications. Brincidofovir and tecovirimat were the most studied medications that got approval for smallpox treatment according to the Animal Rule. Due to the conserved virology among Orthopoxviruses, available medications might also be effective against monkeypox. However, tecovirimat has the strongest evidence to be effective and safe for monkeypox treatment, and if there is a choice between the two drugs, tecovirimat has shown more promise so far. The risk of resistance should be considered in patients who failed to respond to tecovirimat. Hence, the target-based design of novel antivirals will enhance the availability and spectrum of effective anti-Orthopoxvirus agents.

Mpox diagnostics: Review of current and emerging technologies

Mpox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV) from the Orthopoxvirus genus. Unprecedented transmission events have led to more than 70 000 cases reported worldwide by October 2022. The change in mpox epidemiology has raised concerns of its ability to establish endemicity beyond its traditional geographical locations. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of mpox virology and viral dynamics that are relevant to mpox diagnostics. A synopsis of the traditional and emerging laboratory technologies useful for MPXV detection and in guiding "elimination" strategies is outlined in this review. Importantly, development in MPXV genomics has rapidly advanced our understanding of the role of viral evolution and adaptation in the current outbreak.

The land-scape of immune response to monkeypox virus

Human monkeypox is a viral zoonotic smallpox-like disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV) and has become the greatest public health threat in the genus Orthopoxvirus after smallpox was eradicated. The host immune response to MPXV plays an essential role in disease pathogenesis and clinical manifestations. MPXV infection leads to skin lesions with the genital area as the main feature in the current outbreak and triggers a strong immune response that results in sepsis, deep tissue abscess, severe respiratory disease, and injuries to multiple immune organs. Emerging evidence shows that the immunopathogenesis of MPXV infection is closely associated with impaired NK-cell function, lymphopenia, immune evasion, increased antibodies, increased blood monocytes and granulocytes, cytokine storm, inhibition of the host complement system, and antibody-dependent enhancement. In this overview, we discuss the immunopathology and immunopathogenesis of monkeypox to aid the development of novel immunotherapeutic strategies against monkeypox.

Recent advances on human mpox

Mpox has been a concern of public health and travel caution. Using databases of WHO, CDC, google scholar, and PubMed, we searched recent literatures and reviewed the history, genomic mutation/evolution, host cell response pathways, regulation policy, vaccine and therapy development. Recent studies showed that current mpox has many genomic mutations related to regulation by APOBEC3. Current mpox has also been suggested to be associated with sexual transmission. Vaccination should be applied and anti-mpox drug should be urgently developed. More investigations are needed to ensure outbreak prevention.

The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): A brief overview

First described in 1958, the human monkeypox virus (hMPXV) is a neglected zoonotic pathogen closely associated with the smallpox virus. The virus usually spreads via close contact with the infected animal or human and has been endemic mostly in parts of the African continent. However, with the recent increase in trade, tourism, and travel, the virus has caused outbreaks in countries outside Africa. The recent outbreak in 2022 has been puzzling given the lack of epidemiological connection and the possible sexual transmission of the virus. Furthermore, there is limited understanding of the structural and pathogenetic mechanisms that are employed by the virus to invade the host cells. Henceforth, it is critical to understand the working apparatus governing the viral-immune interactions to develop effective therapeutical and prophylactic modalities. Hence, in the present short communication, we summarize the previously reported research findings regarding the virology of the human monkeypox virus.

The evolving epidemiology of monkeypox virus

Monkeypox, caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), is a zoonotic disease endemic mainly in West and Central Africa. As of 27 September 2022, human monkeypox has occurred in more than 100 countries (mostly in non-endemic regions) and caused over 66,000 confirmed cases, which differs from previous epidemics that mainly affected African countries. Due to the increasing number of confirmed cases worldwide, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the monkeypox outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on July 23, 2022. The international outbreak of human monkeypox represents a novel route of transmission for MPXV, with genital lesions as the primary infection, and the emergence of monkeypox in the current outbreak is also new, as novel variants emerge. Clinical physicians and scientists should be aware of this emerging situation, which presents a different scenario from previous outbreaks. In this review, we will discuss the molecular virology, evasion of antiviral immunity, epidemiology, evolution, and detection of MPXV, as well as prophylaxis and treatment strategies for monkeypox. This review also emphasizes the integration of relevant epidemiological data with genomic surveillance data to obtain real-time data, which could formulate prevention and control measures to curb this outbreak.

Monkeypox: An emerging zoonotic pathogen

Monkeypox virus (MPXV), which belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus, causes zoonotic viral disease. This review discusses the biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV infection, particularly cellular, human, and viral factors, virus transmission dynamics, infection, and persistence in nature. This review also describes the role of recombination, gene loss, and gene gain in MPXV evol-vement and the role of signal transduction in MPXV infection and provides an overview of the current access to therapeutic options for the treatment and prevention of MPXV. Finally, this review highlighted gaps in knowledge and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.

Strengthening monkeypox diagnostics and healthcare amidst Covid-19 realities: A call to action

Monkeypox virus is a zoonotic DNA virus related to the virus that causes smallpox. It was first isolated and identified in 1958 but its first confirmed human case was in 1970 when the virus was isolated from a child in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Since then, several cases have been reported within the African continent and globally. Despite its spread, Monkey pox disease has continued to suffer neglect in terms of research and funding due to its reported inefficiency in transmitting from Man to man as its transmission was reportedly limited to its endemic regions in Africa. Poor health data management, inadequate capacities in terms of testing infrastructure and health care workers and weak surveillance systems are some of the challenges faced by African countries. Multisectoral collaboration in breaking the transmission cycle of monkeypox infection and other preventive measures must be improved upon. Community advocacies and education play integral roles in infection spread preparedness, as well as in strengthening the healthcare system.

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Monkeypox virus infection remains a challenging health threat in sub-Saharan Africa, and the world at large.

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Research, monitoring, supporting, and sharing information among countries affected by monkeypox should be improved.

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Research priorities towards monkeypox virus vaccine production should be prioritised.

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Sensitization toward the populations at risk must be invested into.

RACK1 Regulates Poxvirus Protein Synthesis Independently of Its Role in Ribosome-Based Stress Signaling

Receptor for activated C kinase 1 (RACK1) is a small ribosomal subunit protein that is phosphorylated by vaccinia virus (VacV) to maximize translation of postreplicative (PR) mRNAs that harbor 5' polyA leaders. However, RACK1 is a multifunctional protein that both controls translation directly and acts as a scaffold for signaling to and from the ribosome. This includes stress signaling that is activated by ribosome-associated quality control (RQC) and ribotoxic stress response (RSR) pathways. As VacV infection activates RQC and stress signaling, whether RACK1 influences viral protein synthesis through its effects on translation, signaling, or both remains unclear. Examining the effects of genetic knockout of RACK1 on the phosphorylation of key mitogenic and stress-related kinases, we reveal that loss of RACK1 specifically blunts the activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK/SAPK) at late stages of infection. However, RACK1 was not required for JNK recruitment to ribosomes, and unlike RACK1 knockout, JNK inhibitors had no effect on viral protein synthesis. Moreover, reduced JNK activity during infection in RACK1 knockout cells contrasted with the absolute requirement for RACK1 in RSR-induced JNK phosphorylation. Comparing the effects of RACK1 knockout alongside inhibitors of late stage replication, our data suggest that JNK activation is only indirectly affected by the absence of RACK1 due to reduced viral protein accumulation. Cumulatively, our findings in the context of infection add further support for a model whereby RACK1 plays a specific and direct role in controlling translation of PR viral mRNAs that is independent of its role in ribosome-based stress signaling. IMPORTANCE Receptor for activated C kinase 1 (RACK1) is a multifunctional ribosomal protein that regulates translation directly and mediates signaling to and from the ribosome. While recent work has shown that RACK1 is phosphorylated by vaccinia virus (VacV) to stimulate translation of postreplicative viral mRNAs, whether RACK1 also contributes to VacV replication through its roles in ribosome-based stress signaling remains unclear. Here, we characterize the role of RACK1 in infected cells. In doing so, we find that RACK1 is essential for stress signal activation by ribotoxic stress responses but not by VacV infection. Moreover, although the loss of RACK1 reduces the level of stress-associated JNK activation in infected cells, this is an indirect consequence of RACK1's specific requirement for the synthesis of postreplicative viral proteins, the accumulation of which determines the level of cellular stress. Our findings reveal both the specific role of RACK1 and the complex downstream effects of its control of viral protein synthesis in the context of infection.

From a Neglected Pathogen to a Public Health Emergency: Connecting the Dots in Monkeypox Emergence

The recent unprecedented emergence of the monkeypox (MPX) outbreak rang an alarm bell creating a burden on global health. The virus historically spread in endemic regions of sub-Saharan Africa by animal-human and human-human modes of transmission with an unknown modality. Currently, cases are occurring worldwide while risk factors, transmission, and outcomes of infection are still poorly defined. In addition, the likely genotypic mutation of MPX is an area of concern and requires further assessment. While licensed smallpox vaccinations are currently considered for early prevention after recent exposure, and antivirals are recommended for treating severe cases, there are no treatments available to treat MPX. This review provides general disease awareness and highlights recommendations for the containment of the virus.

Monkeypox virus: a re-emergent threat to humans

Human monkeypox (MPX) is a rare zoonotic infection characterized by smallpox-like signs and symptoms. It is caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), a double stranded DNA virus belonging to the genus Orthopoxvirus. MPX was first identified in 1970 and mostly prevailed in the rural rainforests of Central and West Africa in the past. Outside Africa, MPX was reported in the United Kingdom, the USA, Israel, and Singapore. In 2022, the resurgence of MPX in Europe and elsewhere posed a potential threat to humans. MPXV was transmitted by the animals-human or human-human pathway, and the symptoms of MPXV infection are similar to that of smallpox, but in a milder form and with lower mortality (1%-10%). Although the smallpox vaccination has been shown to provide 85% protection against MPXV infection, and two anti-smallpox virus drugs have been approved to treat MPXV, there are still no specific vaccines and drugs against MPXV infection. Therefore it is urgent to take active measures including the adoption of novel anti-MPXV strategies to control the spread of MPXV and prevent MPX epidemic. In this review, we summarize the biological features, epidemiology, pathogenicity, laboratory diagnosis, and prevention and treatment strategies on MPXV. This review provides the basic knowledge for prevention and control of future outbreaks of this emerging infection.

Monkeypox: A New Threat?

The global vaccination programme against smallpox led to its successful eradication and averted millions of deaths. Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a close relative of the Variola (smallpox) virus. Due to antigenic similarity, smallpox vaccines cross-protect against MPXV. However, over 70% of people living today were never vaccinated against smallpox. Symptoms of monkeypox (MPX) include fever, head- and muscle ache, lymphadenopathy and a characteristic rash that develops into papules, vesicles and pustules which eventually scab over and heal. MPX is less often fatal (case fatality rates range from <1% to up to 11%) than smallpox (up to 30%). MPXV is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, infecting wild animals and causing zoonotic outbreaks. Exotic animal trade and international travel, combined with the increasing susceptibility of the human population due to halted vaccination, facilitated the spread of MPXV to new areas. The ongoing outbreak, with >10,000 cases in >50 countries between May and July 2022, shows that MPXV can significantly spread between people and may thus become a serious threat to public health with global consequences. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about this re-emerging virus, discuss available strategies to limit its spread and pathogenicity and evaluate its risk to the human population.

Prevention and Treatment of Monkeypox

Human monkeypox is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus with presentation similar to smallpox. Monkeypox is transmitted incidentally to humans when they encounter infected animals. Reports have shown that the virus can also be transmitted through direct contact (sexual or skin-to-skin), respiratory droplets, and via fomites such as towels and bedding. Multiple medical countermeasures are stockpiled for orthopoxviruses such as monkeypox. Two vaccines are currently available, JYNNEOSTM (live, replication incompetent vaccinia virus) and ACAM2000® (live, replication competent vaccinia virus). While most cases of monkeypox will have mild and self-limited disease, with supportive care being typically sufficient, antivirals (e.g. tecovirimat, brincidofovir, cidofovir) and vaccinia immune globulin intravenous (VIGIV) are available as treatments. Antivirals can be considered in severe disease, immunocompromised patients, pediatrics, pregnant and breastfeeding women, complicated lesions, and when lesions appear near the mouth, eyes, and genitals. The purpose of this short review is to describe each of these countermeasures.

A major quantitative trait locus affecting resistance to Tilapia lake virus in farmed Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Enhancing host resistance to infectious disease has received increasing attention in recent years as a major goal of farm animal breeding programs. Combining field data with genomic tools can provide opportunities to understand the genetic architecture of disease resistance, leading to new opportunities for disease control. In the current study, a genome-wide association study was performed to assess resistance to the Tilapia lake virus (TiLV), one of the biggest threats affecting Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus); a key aquaculture species globally. A pond outbreak of TiLV in a pedigreed population of the GIFT strain was observed, with 950 fish classified as either survivor or mortality, and genotyped using a 65 K SNP array. A significant QTL of large effect was identified on chromosome Oni22. The average mortality rate of tilapia homozygous for the resistance allele at the most significant SNP (P value = 4.51E-10) was 11%, compared to 43% for tilapia homozygous for the susceptibility allele. Several candidate genes related to host response to viral infection were identified within this QTL, including lgals17, vps52, and trim29. These results provide a rare example of a major QTL affecting a trait of major importance to a farmed animal. Genetic markers from the QTL region have potential in marker-assisted selection to improve host resistance, providing a genetic solution to an infectious disease where few other control or mitigation options currently exist.

TMEM41B Is a Pan-flavivirus Host Factor

Flaviviruses pose a constant threat to human health. These RNA viruses are transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes and ticks and regularly cause outbreaks. To identify host factors required for flavivirus infection, we performed full-genome loss of function CRISPR-Cas9 screens. Based on these results, we focused our efforts on characterizing the roles that TMEM41B and VMP1 play in the virus replication cycle. Our mechanistic studies on TMEM41B revealed that all members of the Flaviviridae family that we tested require TMEM41B. We tested 12 additional virus families and found that SARS-CoV-2 of the Coronaviridae also required TMEM41B for infection. Remarkably, single nucleotide polymorphisms present at nearly 20% in East Asian populations reduce flavivirus infection. Based on our mechanistic studies, we propose that TMEM41B is recruited to flavivirus RNA replication complexes to facilitate membrane curvature, which creates a protected environment for viral genome replication.

TMEM41B is a pan-flavivirus host factor

Flaviviruses pose a constant threat to human health. These RNA viruses are transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes and ticks and regularly cause outbreaks. To identify host factors required for flavivirus infection we performed full-genome loss of function CRISPR-Cas9 screens. Based on these results we focused our efforts on characterizing the roles that TMEM41B and VMP1 play in the virus replication cycle. Our mechanistic studies on TMEM41B revealed that all members of the Flaviviridae family that we tested require TMEM41B. We tested 12 additional virus families and found that SARS-CoV-2 of the Coronaviridae also required TMEM41B for infection. Remarkably, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) present at nearly twenty percent in East Asian populations reduce flavivirus infection. Based on our mechanistic studies we hypothesize that TMEM41B is recruited to flavivirus RNA replication complexes to facilitate membrane curvature, which creates a protected environment for viral genome replication.

HIGHLIGHTS

TMEM41B and VMP1 are required for both autophagy and flavivirus infection, however, autophagy is not required for flavivirus infection.TMEM41B associates with viral proteins and likely facilitates membrane remodeling to establish viral RNA replication complexes.TMEM41B single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) present at nearly twenty percent in East Asian populations reduce flavivirus infection.TMEM41B-deficient cells display an exaggerated innate immune response upon high multiplicity flavivirus infection.

Conserved Oligomeric Golgi (COG) Complex Proteins Facilitate Orthopoxvirus Entry, Fusion and Spread

Although orthopoxviruses (OPXV) are known to encode a majority of the genes required for replication in host cells, genome-wide genetic screens have revealed that several host pathways are indispensable for OPXV infection. Through a haploid genetic screen, we previously identified several host genes required for monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection, including the individual genes that form the conserved oligomeric Golgi (COG) complex. The COG complex is an eight-protein (COG1-COG8) vesicle tethering complex important for regulating membrane trafficking, glycosylation enzymes, and maintaining Golgi structure. In this study, we investigated the role of the COG complex in OPXV infection using cell lines with individual COG gene knockout (KO) mutations. COG KO cells infected with MPXV and vaccinia virus (VACV) produced small plaques and a lower virus yield compared to wild type (WT) cells. In cells where the KO phenotype was reversed using a rescue plasmid, the size of virus plaques increased demonstrating a direct link between the decrease in viral spread and the KO of COG genes. KO cells infected with VACV displayed lower levels of viral fusion and entry compared to WT suggesting that the COG complex is important for early events in OPXV infection. Additionally, fewer actin tails were observed in VACV-infected KO cells compared to WT. Since COG complex proteins are required for cellular trafficking of glycosylated membrane proteins, the disruption of this process due to lack of individual COG complex proteins may potentially impair the virus-cell interactions required for viral entry and egress. These data validate that the COG complex previously identified in our genetic screens plays a role in OPXV infection.

Discovery of Retro-1 Analogs Exhibiting Enhanced Anti-vaccinia Virus Activity

Orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) are an increasing threat to human health due to the growing population of OPXV-naive individuals after the discontinuation of routine smallpox vaccination. Antiviral drugs that are effective as postexposure treatments against variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox) or other OPXVs are critical in the event of an OPXV outbreak or exposure. The only US Food and Drug Administration-approved drug to treat smallpox, Tecovirimat (ST-246), exerts its antiviral effect by inhibiting extracellular virus (EV) formation, thereby preventing cell-cell and long-distance spread. We and others have previously demonstrated that host Golgi-associated retrograde proteins play an important role in monkeypox virus (MPXV) and vaccinia virus (VACV) EV formation. Inhibition of the retrograde pathway by small molecules such as Retro-2 has been shown to decrease VACV infection in vitro and to a lesser extent in vivo. To identify more potent inhibitors of the retrograde pathway, we screened a large panel of compounds containing a benzodiazepine scaffold like that of Retro-1, against VACV infection. We found that a subset of these compounds displayed better anti-VACV activity, causing a reduction in EV particle formation and viral spread compared to Retro-1. PA104 emerged as the most potent analog, inhibiting 90% viral spread at 1.3 μM with a high selectivity index. In addition, PA104 strongly inhibited two distinct ST-246-resistant viruses, demonstrating its potential benefit for use in combination therapy with ST-246. These data and further characterizations of the specific protein targets and in vivo efficacy of PA104 may have important implications for the design of effective antivirals against OPXV.

Perspectives on Glycosylation and Its Congenital Disorders

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) are a rapidly expanding group of metabolic disorders that result from abnormal protein or lipid glycosylation. They are often difficult to clinically diagnose because they broadly affect many organs and functions and lack clinical uniformity. However, recent technological advances in next-generation sequencing have revealed a treasure trove of new genetic disorders, expanded the knowledge of known disorders, and showed a critical role in infectious diseases. More comprehensive genetic tools specifically tailored for mammalian cell-based models have revealed a critical role for glycosylation in pathogen-host interactions, while also identifying new CDG susceptibility genes. We highlight recent advancements that have resulted in a better understanding of human glycosylation disorders, perspectives for potential future therapies, and mysteries for which we continue to seek new insights and solutions.