1
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Zhang Q, Xu M. EBV-induced T-cell responses in EBV-specific and nonspecific cancers. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1250946. [PMID: 37841280 PMCID: PMC10576448 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1250946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human tumor virus associated with various malignancies, including B-lymphoma, NK and T-lymphoma, and epithelial carcinoma. It infects B lymphocytes and epithelial cells within the oropharynx and establishes persistent infection in memory B cells. With a balanced virus-host interaction, most individuals carry EBV asymptomatically because of the lifelong surveillance by T cell immunity against EBV. A stable anti-EBV T cell repertoire is maintained in memory at high frequency in the blood throughout persistent EBV infection. Patients with impaired T cell immunity are more likely to develop life-threatening lymphoproliferative disorders, highlighting the critical role of T cells in achieving the EBV-host balance. Recent studies reveal that the EBV protein, LMP1, triggers robust T-cell responses against multiple tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) in B cells. Additionally, EBV-specific T cells have been identified in EBV-unrelated cancers, raising questions about their role in antitumor immunity. Herein, we summarize T-cell responses in EBV-related cancers, considering latency patterns, host immune status, and factors like human leukocyte antigen (HLA) susceptibility, which may affect immune outcomes. We discuss EBV-induced TAA-specific T cell responses and explore the potential roles of EBV-specific T cell subsets in tumor microenvironments. We also describe T-cell immunotherapy strategies that harness EBV antigens, ranging from EBV-specific T cells to T cell receptor-engineered T cells. Lastly, we discuss the involvement of γδ T-cells in EBV infection and associated diseases, aiming to elucidate the comprehensive interplay between EBV and T-cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miao Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center (SYSUCC), Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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2
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Napoletani G, Soldan SS, Kannan T, Preston-Alp S, Vogel P, Maestri D, Caruso LB, Kossenkov A, Sobotka A, Lieberman PM, Tempera I. PARP1 Inhibition Halts EBV+ Lymphoma Progression by Disrupting the EBNA2/MYC Axis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.05.547847. [PMID: 37461649 PMCID: PMC10350008 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.05.547847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
PARP1 has been shown to regulate EBV latency. However, the therapeutic effect of PARP1 inhibitors on EBV+ lymphomagenesis has not yet been explored. Here, we show that PARPi BMN-673 has a potent anti-tumor effect on EBV-driven LCL in a mouse xenograft model. We found that PARP1 inhibition induces a dramatic transcriptional reprogramming of LCLs driven largely by the reduction of the MYC oncogene expression and dysregulation of MYC targets, both in vivo and in vitro. PARP1 inhibition also reduced the expression of viral oncoprotein EBNA2, which we previously demonstrated depends on PARP1 for activation of MYC. Further, we show that PARP1 inhibition blocks the chromatin association of MYC, EBNA2, and tumor suppressor p53. Overall, our study strengthens the central role of PARP1 in EBV malignant transformation and identifies the EBNA2/MYC pathway as a target of PARP1 inhibitors and its utility for the treatment of EBNA2-driven EBV-associated cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Peter Vogel
- Department of Comparative Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
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3
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De La Cruz-Herrera CF, Tatham MH, Siddiqi UZ, Shire K, Marcon E, Greenblatt JF, Hay RT, Frappier L. Changes in SUMO-modified proteins in Epstein-Barr virus infection identifies reciprocal regulation of TRIM24/28/33 complexes and the lytic switch BZLF1. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011477. [PMID: 37410772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
SUMO modifications regulate the function of many proteins and are important in controlling herpesvirus infections. We performed a site-specific proteomic analysis of SUMO1- and SUMO2-modified proteins in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent and lytic infection to identify proteins that change in SUMO modification status in response to EBV reactivation. Major changes were identified in all three components of the TRIM24/TRIM28/TRIM33 complex, with TRIM24 being rapidly degraded and TRIM33 being phosphorylated and SUMOylated in response to EBV lytic infection. Further experiments revealed TRIM24 and TRIM33 repress expression of the EBV BZLF1 lytic switch gene, suppressing EBV reactivation. However, BZLF1 was shown to interact with TRIM24 and TRIM33, resulting in disruption of TRIM24/TRIM28/TRIM33 complexes, degradation of TRIM24 and modification followed by degradation of TRIM33. Therefore, we have identified TRIM24 and TRIM33 as cellular antiviral defence factors against EBV lytic infection and established the mechanism by which BZLF1 disables this defence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael H Tatham
- Division of Gene Regulation and Expression, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Umama Z Siddiqi
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kathy Shire
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Edyta Marcon
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Jack F Greenblatt
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ronald T Hay
- Division of Gene Regulation and Expression, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Lori Frappier
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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4
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Dorothea M, Xie J, Yiu SPT, Chiang AKS. Contribution of Epstein–Barr Virus Lytic Proteins to Cancer Hallmarks and Implications from Other Oncoviruses. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15072120. [PMID: 37046781 PMCID: PMC10093119 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15072120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is a prevalent human gamma-herpesvirus that infects the majority of the adult population worldwide and is associated with several lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. EBV displays a biphasic life cycle, namely, latent and lytic replication cycles, expressing a diversity of viral proteins. Among the EBV proteins being expressed during both latent and lytic cycles, the oncogenic roles of EBV lytic proteins are largely uncharacterized. In this review, the established contributions of EBV lytic proteins in tumorigenesis are summarized according to the cancer hallmarks displayed. We further postulate the oncogenic properties of several EBV lytic proteins by comparing the evolutionary conserved oncogenic mechanisms in other herpesviruses and oncoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Dorothea
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jia Xie
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Stephanie Pei Tung Yiu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, 181 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Graduate Program in Virology, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Alan Kwok Shing Chiang
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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5
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Williams MV, Mena-Palomo I, Cox B, Ariza ME. EBV dUTPase: A Novel Modulator of Inflammation and the Tumor Microenvironment in EBV-Associated Malignancies. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:855. [PMID: 36765813 PMCID: PMC9913121 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15030855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that put into question the classical dogma that the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) exists in cells as either a lytic virus in which new progeny is produced or in a latent state in which no progeny is produced. Notably, a third state has now been described, known as the abortive-lytic phase, which is characterized by the expression of some immediate early (IE) and early (E) genes, but no new virus progeny is produced. While the function of these IE and E gene products is not well understood, several recent studies support the concept they may contribute to tumor promotion by altering the tumor microenvironment (TME). The mechanisms by which these viral gene products may contribute to tumorigenesis remain unclear; however, it has been proposed that some of them promote cellular growth, immune evasion, and/or inhibit apoptosis. One of these EBV early gene products is the deoxyuridine triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (dUTPase) encoded by BLLF3, which not only contributes to the establishment of latency through the production of activin A and IL-21, but it may also alter the TME, thus promoting oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marshall V. Williams
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics (CBG), The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research (IBMR), The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Irene Mena-Palomo
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research (IBMR), The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Brandon Cox
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research (IBMR), The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Maria Eugenia Ariza
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics (CBG), The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research (IBMR), The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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6
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Wen KW, Wang L, Menke JR, Damania B. Cancers associated with human gammaherpesviruses. FEBS J 2022; 289:7631-7669. [PMID: 34536980 PMCID: PMC9019786 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV; human herpesvirus 4; HHV-4) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; human herpesvirus 8; HHV-8) are human gammaherpesviruses that have oncogenic properties. EBV is a lymphocryptovirus, whereas HHV-8/KSHV is a rhadinovirus. As lymphotropic viruses, EBV and KSHV are associated with several lymphoproliferative diseases or plasmacytic/plasmablastic neoplasms. Interestingly, these viruses can also infect epithelial cells causing carcinomas and, in the case of KSHV, endothelial cells, causing sarcoma. EBV is associated with Burkitt lymphoma, classic Hodgkin lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, plasmablastic lymphoma, lymphomatoid granulomatosis, leiomyosarcoma, and subsets of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder, and gastric carcinoma. KSHV is implicated in Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, multicentric Castleman disease, and KSHV-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Pathogenesis by these two herpesviruses is intrinsically linked to viral proteins expressed during the lytic and latent lifecycles. This comprehensive review intends to provide an overview of the EBV and KSHV viral cycles, viral proteins that contribute to oncogenesis, and the current understanding of the pathogenesis and clinicopathology of their related neoplastic entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwun Wah Wen
- Department of Pathology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Linlin Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Joshua R. Menke
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304
| | - Blossom Damania
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology & Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
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7
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Godfrey A, Osborn K, Sinclair AJ. Interaction sites of the Epstein-Barr virus Zta transcription factor with the host genome in epithelial cells. Access Microbiol 2022; 3:000282. [PMID: 35018326 PMCID: PMC8742585 DOI: 10.1099/acmi.0.000282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is present in a state of latency in infected memory B-cells and EBV-associated lymphoid and epithelial cancers. Cell stimulation or differentiation of infected B-cells and epithelial cells induces reactivation to the lytic replication cycle. In each cell type, the EBV transcription and replication factor Zta (BZLF1, EB1) plays a role in mediating the lytic cycle of EBV. Zta is a transcription factor that interacts directly with Zta response elements (ZREs) within viral and cellular genomes. Here we undertake chromatin-precipitation coupled to DNA-sequencing (ChIP-Seq) of Zta-associated DNA from cancer-derived epithelial cells. The analysis identified over 14 000 Zta-binding sites in the cellular genome. We assessed the impact of lytic cycle reactivation on changes in gene expression for a panel of Zta-associated cellular genes. Finally, we compared the Zta-binding sites identified in this study with those previously identified in B-cells and reveal substantial conservation in genes associated with Zta-binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Godfrey
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Kay Osborn
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
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8
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Pavez Loriè E, Baatout S, Choukér A, Buchheim JI, Baselet B, Dello Russo C, Wotring V, Monici M, Morbidelli L, Gagliardi D, Stingl JC, Surdo L, Yip VLM. The Future of Personalized Medicine in Space: From Observations to Countermeasures. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:739747. [PMID: 34966726 PMCID: PMC8710508 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.739747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of personalized medicine is to detach from a “one-size fits all approach” and improve patient health by individualization to achieve the best outcomes in disease prevention, diagnosis and treatment. Technological advances in sequencing, improved knowledge of omics, integration with bioinformatics and new in vitro testing formats, have enabled personalized medicine to become a reality. Individual variation in response to environmental factors can affect susceptibility to disease and response to treatments. Space travel exposes humans to environmental stressors that lead to physiological adaptations, from altered cell behavior to abnormal tissue responses, including immune system impairment. In the context of human space flight research, human health studies have shown a significant inter-individual variability in response to space analogue conditions. A substantial degree of variability has been noticed in response to medications (from both an efficacy and toxicity perspective) as well as in susceptibility to damage from radiation exposure and in physiological changes such as loss of bone mineral density and muscle mass in response to deconditioning. At present, personalized medicine for astronauts is limited. With the advent of longer duration missions beyond low Earth orbit, it is imperative that space agencies adopt a personalized strategy for each astronaut, starting from pre-emptive personalized pre-clinical approaches through to individualized countermeasures to minimize harmful physiological changes and find targeted treatment for disease. Advances in space medicine can also be translated to terrestrial applications, and vice versa. This review places the astronaut at the center of personalized medicine, will appraise existing evidence and future preclinical tools as well as clinical, ethical and legal considerations for future space travel.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Baatout
- Radiobiology Unit, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Mol, Belgium.,Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alexander Choukér
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anesthesiology, Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Judith-Irina Buchheim
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anesthesiology, Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Bjorn Baselet
- Radiobiology Unit, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK CEN), Mol, Belgium
| | - Cinzia Dello Russo
- Department of Healthcare Surveillance and Bioethics, Section of Pharmacology, Università Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science and Wolfson Centre for Personalized Medicine, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology (ISMIB), University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | - Monica Monici
- ASA Campus Joint Laboratory, ASA Research Division, Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | | | - Dimitri Gagliardi
- Manchester Institute of Innovation Research, Alliance Manchester Business School, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Caroline Stingl
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of the RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Leonardo Surdo
- Space Applications Services NV/SA for the European Space Agency, Noordwijk, Netherlands
| | - Vincent Lai Ming Yip
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science and Wolfson Centre for Personalized Medicine, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology (ISMIB), University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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9
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Frappier L. Epstein-Barr virus: Current questions and challenges. Tumour Virus Res 2021; 12:200218. [PMID: 34052467 PMCID: PMC8173096 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvr.2021.200218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects most people worldwide and persists for life due to complicated interplay between lytic infection and multiple types of latent infections. While usually asymptomatic, EBV is a causative agent in several types of cancer and has a strong association with multiple sclerosis. Exactly how EBV promotes these diseases and why they are rare consequences of infection are incompletely understood. Here I will discuss current ideas on disease induction by EBV, including the importance of lytic protein expression in the context of latent infection as well as the possible importance of specific EBV variants in disease induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Frappier
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, 661 University Ave, Suite 1600, Toronto, ON, M5G 1M1, Canada.
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10
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Ahmed EH, Brooks E, Sloan S, Schlotter S, Jeney F, Hale C, Mao C, Zhang X, McLaughlin E, Shindiapina P, Shire S, Das M, Prouty A, Lozanski G, Mamuye AT, Abebe T, Alinari L, Caligiuri MA, Baiocchi RA. Targeted Delivery of BZLF1 to DEC205 Drives EBV-Protective Immunity in a Spontaneous Model of EBV-Driven Lymphoproliferative Disease. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:555. [PMID: 34073261 PMCID: PMC8228306 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9060555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human herpes virus that infects over 90% of the world's population and is linked to development of cancer. In immune-competent individuals, EBV infection is mitigated by a highly efficient virus-specific memory T-cell response. Risk of EBV-driven cancers increases with immune suppression (IS). EBV-seronegative recipients of solid organ transplants are at high risk of developing post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) due to iatrogenic IS. While reducing the level of IS may improve EBV-specific immunity and regression of PTLD, patients are at high risk for allograft rejection and need for immune-chemotherapy. Strategies to prevent PTLD in this vulnerable patient population represents an unmet need. We have previously shown that BZLF1-specific cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) expansion following reduced IS correlated with immune-mediated PTLD regression and improved patient survival. We have developed a vaccine to bolster EBV-specific immunity to the BZLF1 protein and show that co-culture of dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with a αDEC205-BZLF1 fusion protein with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PMBCs) leads to expansion and increased cytotoxic activity of central-effector memory CTLs against EBV-transformed B-cells. Human-murine chimeric Hu-PBL-SCID mice were vaccinated with DCs loaded with αDEC205-BZLF1 or control to assess prevention of fatal human EBV lymphoproliferative disease. Despite a profoundly immunosuppressive environment, vaccination with αDEC205-BZLF1 stimulated clonal expansion of antigen-specific T-cells that produced abundant IFNγ and significantly prolonged survival. These results support preclinical and clinical development of vaccine approaches using BZLF1 as an immunogen to harness adaptive cellular responses and prevent PTLD in vulnerable patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elshafa Hassan Ahmed
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.H.A.); (S.S.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Eric Brooks
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Shelby Sloan
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.H.A.); (S.S.)
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Sarah Schlotter
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Frankie Jeney
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Claire Hale
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Charlene Mao
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Informatics/Center for Biostatistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (X.Z.); (E.M.)
| | - Eric McLaughlin
- Department of Biomedical Informatics/Center for Biostatistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (X.Z.); (E.M.)
| | - Polina Shindiapina
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Salma Shire
- College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Manjusri Das
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Alexander Prouty
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
| | - Gerard Lozanski
- Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Admasu T. Mamuye
- Department of Internal Medicine, Black Lion Hospital, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa 3614, Ethiopia;
| | - Tamrat Abebe
- Department of Microbiology, Black Lion Hospital, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa 3614, Ethiopia;
| | - Lapo Alinari
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | | | - Robert A. Baiocchi
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.J.); (C.M.); (P.S.); (M.D.); (A.P.); (L.A.)
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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11
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Buschle A, Mrozek-Gorska P, Cernilogar FM, Ettinger A, Pich D, Krebs S, Mocanu B, Blum H, Schotta G, Straub T, Hammerschmidt W. Epstein-Barr virus inactivates the transcriptome and disrupts the chromatin architecture of its host cell in the first phase of lytic reactivation. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:3217-3241. [PMID: 33675667 PMCID: PMC8034645 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a herpes virus also termed HHV 4 and the first identified human tumor virus, establishes a stable, long-term latent infection in human B cells, its preferred host. Upon induction of EBV's lytic phase, the latently infected cells turn into a virus factory, a process that is governed by EBV. In the lytic, productive phase, all herpes viruses ensure the efficient induction of all lytic viral genes to produce progeny, but certain of these genes also repress the ensuing antiviral responses of the virally infected host cells, regulate their apoptotic death or control the cellular transcriptome. We now find that EBV causes previously unknown massive and global alterations in the chromatin of its host cell upon induction of the viral lytic phase and prior to the onset of viral DNA replication. The viral initiator protein of the lytic cycle, BZLF1, binds to >105 binding sites with different sequence motifs in cellular chromatin in a concentration dependent manner implementing a binary molar switch probably to prevent noise-induced erroneous induction of EBV's lytic phase. Concomitant with DNA binding of BZLF1, silent chromatin opens locally as shown by ATAC-seq experiments, while previously wide-open cellular chromatin becomes inaccessible on a global scale within hours. While viral transcripts increase drastically, the induction of the lytic phase results in a massive reduction of cellular transcripts and a loss of chromatin-chromatin interactions of cellular promoters with their distal regulatory elements as shown in Capture-C experiments. Our data document that EBV's lytic cycle induces discrete early processes that disrupt the architecture of host cellular chromatin and repress the cellular epigenome and transcriptome likely supporting the efficient de novo synthesis of this herpes virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Buschle
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 21, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Paulina Mrozek-Gorska
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 21, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Filippo M Cernilogar
- Division of Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) München, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Andreas Ettinger
- Institute of Epigenetics and Stem Cells, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 21 D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Dagmar Pich
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 21, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Krebs
- Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis (LAFUGA), Gene Center of the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) München, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Bianca Mocanu
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 21, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Helmut Blum
- Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis (LAFUGA), Gene Center of the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) München, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Gunnar Schotta
- Division of Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) München, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Tobias Straub
- Bioinformatics Unit, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) München, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 21, D-81377 Munich, Germany
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12
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Roles of Lytic Viral Replication and Co-Infections in the Oncogenesis and Immune Control of the Epstein-Barr Virus. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13092275. [PMID: 34068598 PMCID: PMC8126045 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13092275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) colonizes more than 95% of the adult human population. Its cancer-forming potential is usually contained by lifelong immune control. Genetic alterations and immune modulation by co-infection point towards cytotoxic lymphocytes, such as natural killer and CD8+ T cells, as the main pillars of this immune protection. In this review, we discuss how the EBV infection program that leads to infectious virion production and co-infections, such as with malaria parasites, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), modulate this immune control. Abstract Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is the prototypic human tumor virus whose continuous lifelong immune control is required to prevent lymphomagenesis in the more than 90% of the human adult population that are healthy carriers of the virus. Here, we review recent evidence that this immune control has not only to target latent oncogenes, but also lytic replication of EBV. Furthermore, genetic variations identify the molecular machinery of cytotoxic lymphocytes as essential for this immune control and recent studies in mice with reconstituted human immune system components (humanized mice) have begun to provide insights into the mechanistic role of these molecules during EBV infection. Finally, EBV often does not act in isolation to cause disease. Some of EBV infection-modulating co-infections, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), have been modeled in humanized mice. These preclinical in vivo models for EBV infection, lymphomagenesis, and cell-mediated immune control do not only promise a better understanding of the biology of this human tumor virus, but also the possibility to explore vaccine candidates against it.
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13
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The Role of ND10 Nuclear Bodies in Herpesvirus Infection: A Frenemy for the Virus? Viruses 2021; 13:v13020239. [PMID: 33546431 PMCID: PMC7913651 DOI: 10.3390/v13020239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear domains 10 (ND10), a.k.a. promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), are membraneless subnuclear domains that are highly dynamic in their protein composition in response to cellular cues. They are known to be involved in many key cellular processes including DNA damage response, transcription regulation, apoptosis, oncogenesis, and antiviral defenses. The diversity and dynamics of ND10 residents enable them to play seemingly opposite roles under different physiological conditions. Although the molecular mechanisms are not completely clear, the pro- and anti-cancer effects of ND10 have been well established in tumorigenesis. However, in herpesvirus research, until the recently emerged evidence of pro-viral contributions, ND10 nuclear bodies have been generally recognized as part of the intrinsic antiviral defenses that converge to the incoming viral DNA to inhibit the viral gene expression. In this review, we evaluate the newly discovered pro-infection influences of ND10 in various human herpesviruses and analyze their molecular foundation along with the traditional antiviral functions of ND10. We hope to shed light on the explicit role of ND10 in both the lytic and latent cycles of herpesvirus infection, which is imperative to the delineation of herpes pathogenesis and the development of prophylactic/therapeutic treatments for herpetic diseases.
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14
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Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: The Human Herpesviruses Are Back! Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11020185. [PMID: 33572802 PMCID: PMC7912523 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) or Systemic Exertion Intolerance Disease (SEID) is a chronic multisystem illness of unconfirmed etiology. There are currently no biomarkers and/or signatures available to assist in the diagnosis of the syndrome and while numerous mechanisms have been hypothesized to explain the pathology of ME/CFS, the triggers and/or drivers remain unknown. Initial studies suggested a potential role of the human herpesviruses especially Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in the disease process but inconsistent and conflicting data led to the erroneous suggestion that these viruses had no role in the syndrome. New studies using more advanced approaches have now demonstrated that specific proteins encoded by EBV could contribute to the immune and neurological abnormalities exhibited by a subgroup of patients with ME/CFS. Elucidating the role of these herpesvirus proteins in ME/CFS may lead to the identification of specific biomarkers and the development of novel therapeutics.
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15
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Inagaki T, Sato Y, Ito J, Takaki M, Okuno Y, Yaguchi M, Masud HMAA, Watanabe T, Sato K, Iwami S, Murata T, Kimura H. Direct Evidence of Abortive Lytic Infection-Mediated Establishment of Epstein-Barr Virus Latency During B-Cell Infection. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:575255. [PMID: 33613459 PMCID: PMC7888302 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.575255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infection induces dynamic changes in transcriptional profiles. Virus-induced and antiviral responses are intertwined during the infection. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human gammaherpesvirus that provides a model of herpesvirus latency. To measure the transcriptome changes during the establishment of EBV latency, we infected EBV-negative Akata cells with EBV-EGFP and performed transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) at 0, 2, 4, 7, 10, and 14 days after infection. We found transient downregulation of mitotic division-related genes, reflecting reprogramming of cell growth by EBV, and a burst of viral lytic gene expression in the early phase of infection. Experimental and mathematical investigations demonstrate that infectious virions were not produced in the pre-latent phase, suggesting the presence of an abortive lytic infection. Fate mapping using recombinant EBV provided direct evidence that the abortive lytic infection in the pre-latent phase converges to latent infection during EBV infection of B-cells, shedding light on novel roles of viral lytic gene(s) in establishing latency. Furthermore, we find that the BZLF1 protein, which is a key regulator of reactivation, was dispensable for abortive lytic infection in the pre-latent phase, suggesting the divergent regulation of viral gene expressions from a productive lytic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Inagaki
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Sato
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Japan
| | - Jumpei Ito
- Division of Systems Virology, Department of Infectious Disease Control, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsuaki Takaki
- Mathematical Biology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yusuke Okuno
- Medical Genomics Center, Nagoya University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yaguchi
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - H. M. Abdullah Al Masud
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Takahiro Watanabe
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kei Sato
- Division of Systems Virology, Department of Infectious Disease Control, International Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shingo Iwami
- Mathematical Biology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Japan
- MIRAI, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Japan
| | - Takayuki Murata
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kimura
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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16
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Epstein-Barr Virus: How Its Lytic Phase Contributes to Oncogenesis. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8111824. [PMID: 33228078 PMCID: PMC7699388 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) contributes to the development of lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. While EBV’s latent phase is more commonly associated with EBV-associated malignancies, there is increasing evidence that EBV’s lytic phase plays a role in EBV-mediated oncogenesis. The lytic phase contributes to oncogenesis primarily in two ways: (1) the production of infectious particles to infect more cells, and (2) the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways, both cell autonomously and non-cell autonomously. The production of infectious particles requires the completion of the lytic phase. However, the regulation of cellular oncogenic pathways can be mediated by an incomplete (abortive) lytic phase, in which early lytic gene products contribute substantially, whereas late lytic products are largely dispensable. In this review, we discuss the evidence of EBV’s lytic phase contributing to oncogenesis and the role it plays in tumor formation and progression, as well as summarize known mechanisms by which EBV lytic products regulate oncogenic pathways. Understanding the contribution of EBV’s lytic phase to oncogenesis will help design ways to target it to treat EBV-associated malignancies.
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17
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Shindiapina P, Ahmed EH, Mozhenkova A, Abebe T, Baiocchi RA. Immunology of EBV-Related Lymphoproliferative Disease in HIV-Positive Individuals. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1723. [PMID: 33102204 PMCID: PMC7556212 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Bar virus (EBV) can directly cause lymphoproliferative disease (LPD), including AIDS-defining lymphomas such as Burkitt’s lymphoma and other non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL), as well as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related Hodgkin lymphoma (HL). The prevalence of EBV in HL and NHL is elevated in HIV-positive individuals compared with the general population. Rates of incidence of AIDS-defining cancers have been declining in HIV-infected individuals since initiation of combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART) use in 1996. However, HIV-infected persons remain at an increased risk of cancers related to infections with oncogenic viruses. Proposed pathogenic mechanisms of HIV-related cancers include decreased immune surveillance, decreased ability to suppress infection-related oncogenic processes and a state of chronic inflammation marked by alteration of the cytokine profile and expanded numbers of cytotoxic T lymphocytes with down-regulated co-stimulatory molecules and increased expression of markers of senescence in the setting of treated HIV infection. Here we discuss the cooperation of EBV-infected B cell- and environment-associated factors that may contribute to EBV-related lymphomagenesis in HIV-infected individuals. Environment-derived lymphomagenic factors include impaired host adaptive and innate immune surveillance, cytokine dysregulation and a pro-inflammatory state observed in the setting of chronic, cART-treated HIV infection. B cell factors include distinctive EBV latency patterns and host protein expression in HIV-associated LPD, as well as B cell-stimulating factors derived from HIV infection. We review the future directions for expanding therapeutic approaches in targeting the viral and immune components of EBV LPD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polina Shindiapina
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Elshafa H Ahmed
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Anna Mozhenkova
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Tamrat Abebe
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, School of Medicine Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Robert A Baiocchi
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, The James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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18
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The BHLF1 Locus of Epstein-Barr Virus Contributes to Viral Latency and B-Cell Immortalization. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01215-20. [PMID: 32581094 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01215-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BHLF1 gene encodes an abundant linear and several circular RNAs believed to perform noncoding functions during virus replication, although an open reading frame (ORF) is retained among an unknown percentage of EBV isolates. Evidence suggests that BHLF1 is also transcribed during latent infection, which prompted us to investigate the contribution of this locus to latency. Analysis of transcripts transiting BHLF1 revealed that its transcription is widespread among B-cell lines supporting the latency I or III program of EBV protein expression and is more complex than originally presumed. EBV-negative Burkitt lymphoma cell lines infected with either wild-type or two different BHLF1 mutant EBVs were initially indistinguishable in supporting latency III. However, cells infected with BHLF1 - virus ultimately transitioned to the more restrictive latency I program, whereas cells infected with wild-type virus either sustained latency III or transitioned more slowly to latency I. Upon infection of primary B cells, which require latency III for growth in vitro, both BHLF1 - viruses exhibited variably reduced immortalization potential relative to the wild-type virus. Finally, in transfection experiments, efficient protein expression from an intact BHLF1 ORF required the EBV posttranscriptional regulator protein SM, whose expression is limited to the replicative cycle. Thus, one way in which BHLF1 may contribute to latency is through a mechanism, possibly mediated or regulated by a long noncoding RNA, that supports latency III critical for the establishment of EBV latency and lifelong persistence within its host, whereas any retained protein-dependent function of BHLF1 may be restricted to the replication cycle.IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has significant oncogenic potential that is linked to its latent infection of B lymphocytes, during which virus replication is not supported. The establishment of latent infection, which is lifelong and can precede tumor development by years, requires the concerted actions of nearly a dozen EBV proteins and numerous small non-protein-coding RNAs. Elucidating how these EBV products contribute to latency is crucial for understanding EBV's role in specific malignancies and, ultimately, for clinical intervention. Historically, EBV genes that contribute to virus replication have been excluded from consideration of a role in latency, primarily because of the general incompatibility between virus production and cell survival. However, here, we provide evidence that the genetic locus containing one such gene, BHLF1, indeed contributes to key aspects of EBV latency, including its ability to promote the continuous growth of B lymphocytes, thus providing significant new insight into EBV biology and oncogenic potential.
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19
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Germini D, Sall FB, Shmakova A, Wiels J, Dokudovskaya S, Drouet E, Vassetzky Y. Oncogenic Properties of the EBV ZEBRA Protein. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1479. [PMID: 32517128 PMCID: PMC7352903 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12061479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) is one of the most common human herpesviruses. After primary infection, it can persist in the host throughout their lifetime in a latent form, from which it can reactivate following specific stimuli. EBV reactivation is triggered by transcriptional transactivator proteins ZEBRA (also known as Z, EB-1, Zta or BZLF1) and RTA (also known as BRLF1). Here we discuss the structural and functional features of ZEBRA, its role in oncogenesis and its possible implication as a prognostic or diagnostic marker. Modulation of host gene expression by ZEBRA can deregulate the immune surveillance, allow the immune escape, and favor tumor progression. It also interacts with host proteins, thereby modifying their functions. ZEBRA is released into the bloodstream by infected cells and can potentially penetrate any cell through its cell-penetrating domain; therefore, it can also change the fate of non-infected cells. The features of ZEBRA described in this review outline its importance in EBV-related malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Germini
- CNRS UMR9018, Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France; (D.G.); (F.B.S.); (A.S.); (J.W.); (S.D.)
| | - Fatimata Bintou Sall
- CNRS UMR9018, Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France; (D.G.); (F.B.S.); (A.S.); (J.W.); (S.D.)
- Laboratory of Hematology, Aristide Le Dantec Hospital, Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar 12900, Senegal
| | - Anna Shmakova
- CNRS UMR9018, Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France; (D.G.); (F.B.S.); (A.S.); (J.W.); (S.D.)
| | - Joëlle Wiels
- CNRS UMR9018, Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France; (D.G.); (F.B.S.); (A.S.); (J.W.); (S.D.)
| | - Svetlana Dokudovskaya
- CNRS UMR9018, Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France; (D.G.); (F.B.S.); (A.S.); (J.W.); (S.D.)
| | - Emmanuel Drouet
- CIBB-IBS UMR 5075 Université Grenoble Alpes, 38044 Grenoble, France;
| | - Yegor Vassetzky
- CNRS UMR9018, Université Paris-Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, 94805 Villejuif, France; (D.G.); (F.B.S.); (A.S.); (J.W.); (S.D.)
- Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, 117334 Moscow, Russia
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20
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Buschle A, Hammerschmidt W. Epigenetic lifestyle of Epstein-Barr virus. Semin Immunopathol 2020; 42:131-142. [PMID: 32232535 PMCID: PMC7174264 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-020-00792-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a model of herpesvirus latency and epigenetic changes. The virus preferentially infects human B-lymphocytes (and also other cell types) but does not turn them straight into virus factories. Instead, it establishes a strictly latent infection in them and concomitantly induces the activation and proliferation of infected B cells. How the virus establishes latency in its target cells is only partially understood, but its latent state has been studied intensively by many. During latency, several copies of the viral genome are maintained as minichromosomes in the nucleus. In latently infected cells, most viral genes are epigenetically repressed by cellular chromatin constituents and DNA methylation, but certain EBV genes are spared and remain expressed to support the latent state of the virus in its host cell. Latency is not a dead end, but the virus can escape from this state and reactivate. Reactivation is a coordinated process that requires the removal of repressive chromatin components and a gain in accessibility for viral and cellular factors and machines to support the entire transcriptional program of EBV's ensuing lytic phase. We have a detailed picture of the initiating events of EBV's lytic phase, which are orchestrated by a single viral protein - BZLF1. Its induced expression can lead to the expression of all lytic viral proteins, but initially it fosters the non-licensed amplification of viral DNA that is incorporated into preformed capsids. In the virions, the viral DNA is free of histones and lacks methylated cytosine residues which are lost during lytic DNA amplification. This review provides an overview of EBV's dynamic epigenetic changes, which are an integral part of its ingenious lifestyle in human host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Buschle
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Marchioninistr. 25, D-81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Marchioninistr. 25, D-81377, Munich, Germany.
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21
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Rubinstein JD, Burns K, Absalon M, Lutzko C, Leemhuis T, Chandra S, Hanley PJ, Keller MD, Davies SM, Nelson A, Grimley M. EBV-directed viral-specific T-lymphocyte therapy for the treatment of EBV-driven lymphoma in two patients with primary immunodeficiency and DNA repair defects. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2020; 67:e28126. [PMID: 31850668 DOI: 10.1002/pbc.28126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Children with ataxia telangiectasia (AT), a primary immunodeficiency caused by mutations in ATM, which is critical for repairing DNA defects, are at risk for the development of hematologic malignancy, frequently driven by infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Conventional chemotherapy is poorly tolerated by patients with AT, with excessive toxicity even when doses are reduced. Here, we report on two patients with AT and EBV-positive neoplasms who were treated with EBV-targeted viral-specific T cells (VST). One patient had a prolonged complete response to VSTs while the other had a partial response. Therapy was well tolerated without infusion toxicity or graft-versus-host disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy D Rubinstein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Immune Deficiency, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Karen Burns
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Oncology, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Michael Absalon
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Oncology, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Carolyn Lutzko
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Experimental Hematology, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Tom Leemhuis
- Hoxworth Blood Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Sharat Chandra
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Immune Deficiency, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Patrick J Hanley
- Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Children's National Health System and Department of Pediatrics, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Michael D Keller
- Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Children's National Health System and Department of Pediatrics, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Stella M Davies
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Immune Deficiency, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Adam Nelson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Immune Deficiency, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Michael Grimley
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio.,Division of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Immune Deficiency, Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio
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22
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Lupia T, Milia MG, Atzori C, Gianella S, Audagnotto S, Imperiale D, Mighetto L, Pirriatore V, Gregori G, Lipani F, Ghisetti V, Bonora S, Di Perri G, Calcagno A. Presence of Epstein-Barr virus DNA in cerebrospinal fluid is associated with greater HIV RNA and inflammation. AIDS 2020; 34:373-380. [PMID: 31764071 PMCID: PMC7773520 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000002442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The current study aimed to investigate whether cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA was associated with viral, inflammatory and neuronal damage biomarkers in people living with HIV (PLWH). DESIGN A cross-sectional diagnostic study on CSF fluid samples in patients undergoing lumbar punctures for clinical reasons, to better understand the role of EBV and CMV in the CNS on HIV RNA replication, blood-brain-barrier (BBB) damage and biomarkers of neuronal damage/inflammation. METHODS EBV, CMV DNA and HIV RNA were measured on CSF, through real time (RT)-PCR, from PLWHs undergoing lumbar punctures for clinical reasons (excluding oncho-haematological comorbidities). Immune-enzymatic assays evaluated blood-brain barrier inflammation and damage. Patients were stratified according to plasma HIV RNA levels in viremic (≥50 copies/ml) and aviremic (<50 copies/ml). RESULTS We included 297 participants. Among 167 viremic patients CSF EBV and CMV DNA were detectable in 42 (25.1%) and 10 (6.3%) participants; among 130 aviremic individuals CSF EBV and CMV DNA were detectable in 12 (9.2%) and 0 (0%) participants, respectively. In viremic group detectable CSF EBV DNA was associated with CSF pleocytosis (P < 0.001), higher CSF HIV RNA (P < 0.001) and neopterin levels (P = 0.002). In aviremic participants detectable EBV DNA was associated with pleocytosis (P = 0.056), higher neopterin (P = 0.027) and immune globulins (P = 0.016) in the CSF; CSF escape was more common in those with detectable EBV DNA (50 vs. 21.2%, P = 0.036). CONCLUSION EBV DNA was frequently detected in the CSF of viremic and fewer aviremic patients on antiretroviral treatment. In PLWH without clinical evidence of encephalitis CSF EBV DNA was associated with higher biomarkers levels of neuronal damage/inflammation. The role of EBV reactivation in HIV-associated central nervous system disorders warrants further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Lupia
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
| | - Maria Grazia Milia
- Laboratory of Virology and Molecular Biology, Ospedale Amedeo di Savoia, ASL ‘Città di Torino’
| | - Cristiana Atzori
- Unit of Neurology, Ospedale Maria Vittoria, ASL ‘Città di Torino’, Torino, Italy
| | - Sara Gianella
- University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sabrina Audagnotto
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
| | - Daniele Imperiale
- Unit of Neurology, Ospedale Maria Vittoria, ASL ‘Città di Torino’, Torino, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Mighetto
- Laboratory of Immunology, Ospedale Maria Vittoria, ASL ‘Città di Torino’, Torino, Italy
| | - Veronica Pirriatore
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
| | - Gabriella Gregori
- Laboratory of Virology and Molecular Biology, Ospedale Amedeo di Savoia, ASL ‘Città di Torino’
| | - Filippo Lipani
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
| | - Valeria Ghisetti
- Laboratory of Virology and Molecular Biology, Ospedale Amedeo di Savoia, ASL ‘Città di Torino’
| | - Stefano Bonora
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
| | - Giovanni Di Perri
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
| | - Andrea Calcagno
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Torino
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Shao Z, Borde C, Quignon F, Escargueil A, Maréchal V. Epstein-Barr Virus BALF0 and BALF1 Modulate Autophagy. Viruses 2019; 11:v11121099. [PMID: 31783609 PMCID: PMC6950364 DOI: 10.3390/v11121099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an essential catabolic process that degrades cytoplasmic components within the lysosome, therefore ensuring cell survival and homeostasis. A growing number of viruses, including members of the Herpesviridae family, have been shown to manipulate autophagy to facilitate their persistence or optimize their replication. Previous works showed that the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), a human transforming gammaherpesvirus, hijacked autophagy during the lytic phase of its cycle, possibly to favor the formation of viral particles. However, the viral proteins that are responsible for an EBV-mediated subversion of the autophagy pathways remain to be characterized. Here we provide the first evidence that the BALF0/1 open reading frame encodes for two conserved proteins of the Bcl-2 family, BALF0 and BALF1, that are expressed during the early phase of the lytic cycle and can modulate autophagy. A putative LC3-interacting region (LIR) has been identified that is required both for BALF1 colocalization with autophagosomes and for its ability to stimulate autophagy.
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24
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Identification of ARKL1 as a Negative Regulator of Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00989-19. [PMID: 31341047 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00989-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) maintains a life-long infection due to the ability to alternate between latent and lytic modes of replication. Lytic reactivation starts with derepression of the Zp promoter controlling BZLF1 gene expression, which binds and is activated by the c-Jun transcriptional activator. Here, we identified the cellular Arkadia-like 1 (ARKL1) protein as a negative regulator of Zp and EBV reactivation. Silencing of ARKL1 in the context of EBV-positive gastric carcinoma (AGS) cells, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC43) cells, and B (M81) cells led to increased lytic protein expression, whereas overexpression inhibited BZLF1 expression. Similar effects of ARKL1 modulation were seen on BZLF1 transcripts as well as on Zp activity in Zp reporter assays, showing that ARKL1 repressed Zp. Proteomic profiling of ARKL1-host interactions identified c-Jun as an ARKL1 interactor, and reporter assays for Jun transcriptional activity showed that ARKL1 inhibited Jun activity. The ARKL1-Jun interaction required ARKL1 sequences that we previously showed mediated binding to the CK2 kinase regulatory subunit CK2β, suggesting that CK2β might mediate the ARKL1-Jun interaction. This model was supported by the findings that silencing of CK2β, but not the CK2α catalytic subunit, abrogated the ARKL1-Jun interaction and phenocopied ARKL1 silencing in promoting EBV reactivation. Additionally, ARKL1 was associated with Zp in reporter assays and this was increased by additional CK2β. Together, the data indicate that ARKL1 is a negative regulator of Zp and EBV reactivation that acts by inhibiting Jun activity through a CK2β-mediated interaction.IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) maintains a life-long infection due to the ability to alternate between latent and lytic modes of replication and is associated with several types of cancer. We have identified a cellular protein (ARKL1) that acts to repress the reactivation of EBV from the latent to the lytic cycle. We show that ARKL1 acts to repress transcription of the EBV lytic switch protein by inhibiting the activity of the cellular transcription factor c-Jun. This not only provides a new mechanism of regulating EBV reactivation but also identifies a novel cellular function of ARKL1 as an inhibitor of Jun-mediated transcription.
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25
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Pich D, Mrozek-Gorska P, Bouvet M, Sugimoto A, Akidil E, Grundhoff A, Hamperl S, Ling PD, Hammerschmidt W. First Days in the Life of Naive Human B Lymphocytes Infected with Epstein-Barr Virus. mBio 2019; 10:e01723-19. [PMID: 31530670 PMCID: PMC6751056 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01723-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects and activates resting human B lymphocytes, reprograms them, induces their proliferation, and establishes a latent infection in them. In established EBV-infected cell lines, many viral latent genes are expressed. Their roles in supporting the continuous proliferation of EBV-infected B cells in vitro are known, but their functions in the early, prelatent phase of infection have not been investigated systematically. In studies during the first 8 days of infection using derivatives of EBV with mutations in single genes of EBVs, we found only Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2) to be essential for activating naive human B lymphocytes, inducing their growth in cell volume, driving them into rapid cell divisions, and preventing cell death in a subset of infected cells. EBNA-LP, latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A), and the viral microRNAs have supportive, auxiliary functions, but mutants of LMP1, EBNA3A, EBNA3C, and the noncoding Epstein-Barr virus with small RNA (EBERs) had no discernible phenotype compared with wild-type EBV. B cells infected with a double mutant of EBNA3A and 3C had an unexpected proliferative advantage and did not regulate the DNA damage response (DDR) of the infected host cell in the prelatent phase. Even EBNA1, which has very critical long-term functions in maintaining and replicating the viral genomic DNA in established cell lines, was dispensable for the early activation of infected cells. Our findings document that the virus dose is a decisive parameter and indicate that EBNA2 governs the infected cells initially and implements a strictly controlled temporal program independent of other viral latent genes. It thus appears that EBNA2 is sufficient to control all requirements for clonal cellular expansion and to reprogram human B lymphocytes from energetically quiescent to activated cells.IMPORTANCE The preferred target of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is human resting B lymphocytes. We found that their infection induces a well-coordinated, time-driven program that starts with a substantial increase in cell volume, followed by cellular DNA synthesis after 3 days and subsequent rapid rounds of cell divisions on the next day accompanied by some DNA replication stress (DRS). Two to 3 days later, the cells decelerate and turn into stably proliferating lymphoblast cell lines. With the aid of 16 different recombinant EBV strains, we investigated the individual contributions of EBV's multiple latent genes during early B-cell infection and found that many do not exert a detectable phenotype or contribute little to EBV's prelatent phase. The exception is EBNA2 that is essential in governing all aspects of B-cell reprogramming. EBV relies on EBNA2 to turn the infected B lymphocytes into proliferating lymphoblasts preparing the infected host cell for the ensuing stable, latent phase of viral infection. In the early steps of B-cell reprogramming, viral latent genes other than EBNA2 are dispensable, but some, EBNA-LP, for example, support the viral program and presumably stabilize the infected cells once viral latency is established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Pich
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich, Germany
| | - Paulina Mrozek-Gorska
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich, Germany
| | - Mickaël Bouvet
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich, Germany
| | - Atsuko Sugimoto
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich, Germany
| | - Ezgi Akidil
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich, Germany
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Hamperl
- Institute of Epigenetics and Stem Cells, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
| | - Paul D Ling
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Munich, Germany
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26
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Kusano S, Ikeda M. Interaction of phospholipid scramblase 1 with the Epstein-Barr virus protein BZLF1 represses BZLF1-mediated lytic gene transcription. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:15104-15116. [PMID: 31434743 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.008193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human phospholipid scramblase 1 (PLSCR1) is strongly expressed in response to interferon (IFN) treatment and viral infection, and PLSCR1 has been suggested to play an important role in IFN-dependent antiviral responses. In this study, we showed that the basal expression of PLSCR1 was significantly elevated in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). PLSCR1 was observed to directly interact with the EBV immediate-early transactivator BZLF1 in vitro and in vivo, and this interaction repressed the BZLF1-mediated transactivation of an EBV lytic BMRF1 promoter construct. In addition, PLSCR1 expression decreased the BZLF1-mediated up-regulation of lytic BMRF1 mRNA and protein expression in WT and PLSCR1-knockout EBV-infected NPC cells. Furthermore, we showed that PLSCR1 represses the interaction between BZLF1 and CREB-binding protein (CBP), which enhances the BZLF1-mediated transactivation of EBV lytic promoters. These results reveal for the first time that PLSCR1 specifically interacts with BZLF1 and negatively regulates its transcriptional regulatory activity by preventing the formation of the BZLF1-CBP complex. This interaction may contribute to the establishment of latent EBV infection in EBV-infected NPC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Kusano
- Division of Biological Information Technology, Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kagoshima University, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima-shi, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Masanori Ikeda
- Division of Biological Information Technology, Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kagoshima University, 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima-shi, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
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27
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Mrozek-Gorska P, Buschle A, Pich D, Schwarzmayr T, Fechtner R, Scialdone A, Hammerschmidt W. Epstein-Barr virus reprograms human B lymphocytes immediately in the prelatent phase of infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:16046-16055. [PMID: 31341086 PMCID: PMC6690029 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1901314116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human tumor virus and a model of herpesviral latency. The virus efficiently infects resting human B lymphocytes and induces their continuous proliferation in vitro, which mimics certain aspects of EBV's oncogenic potential in vivo. How lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) evolve from the infected lymphocytes is uncertain. We conducted a systematic time-resolved longitudinal study of cellular functions and transcriptional profiles of newly infected naïve primary B lymphocytes. EBV reprograms the cells comprehensively and globally. Rapid and extensive transcriptional changes occur within 24 h and precede any metabolic and phenotypic changes. Within 72 h, the virus activates the cells, changes their phenotypes with respect to cell size, RNA, and protein content, and induces metabolic pathways to cope with the increased demand for energy, supporting an efficient cell cycle entry on day 3 postinfection. The transcriptional program that EBV initiates consists of 3 waves of clearly discernable clusters of cellular genes that peak on day 2, 3, or 4 and regulate RNA synthesis, metabolic pathways, and cell division, respectively. Upon onset of cell doublings on day 4, the cellular transcriptome appears to be completely reprogrammed to support the proliferating cells, but 3 additional clusters of EBV-regulated genes fine-tune cell signaling, migration, and immune response pathways, eventually. Our study reveals that more than 11,000 genes are regulated upon EBV infection as naïve B cells exit quiescence to enter a germinal center-like differentiation program, which culminates in immortalized, proliferating cells that partially resemble plasmablasts and early plasma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Mrozek-Gorska
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander Buschle
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Dagmar Pich
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Schwarzmayr
- Institute of Human Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Ron Fechtner
- Institute of Epigenetics and Stem Cells, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Antonio Scialdone
- Institute of Epigenetics and Stem Cells, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-81377 Munich, Germany;
- Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Functional Epigenetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research, D-81377 Munich, Germany;
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28
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Nakhoul H, Lin Z, Wang X, Roberts C, Dong Y, Flemington E. High-Throughput Sequence Analysis of Peripheral T-Cell Lymphomas Indicates Subtype-Specific Viral Gene Expression Patterns and Immune Cell Microenvironments. mSphere 2019; 4:e00248-19. [PMID: 31292228 PMCID: PMC6620372 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00248-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCLs) have been associated with viral infection, particularly infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). However, a comprehensive virome analysis across PTCLs has not previously been reported. Here we utilized published whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data sets from seven different PTCL studies and new RNA-seq data from our laboratory to screen for virus association, to analyze viral gene expression, and to assess B- and T-cell receptor diversity paradigms across PTCL subtypes. In addition to identifying EBV in angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) and extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma (ENKTL), two PTCL subtypes with well-established EBV associations, we also detected EBV in several cases of anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL), and we found evidence of infection by the oncogenic viruses Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 in isolated PTCL cases. In AITLs, EBV gene expression analysis showed expression of immediate early, early, and late lytic genes, suggesting either low-level lytic gene expression or productive infection in a subset of EBV-infected B-lymphocyte stromal cells. Deconvolution of immune cell subpopulations demonstrated a greater B-cell signal in AITLs than in other PTCL subtypes, consistent with a larger role for B-cell support in the pathogenesis of AITL. Reconstructed T-cell receptor (TCR) and B-cell receptor (BCR) repertoires demonstrated increased BCR diversity in AITLs, consistent with a possible EBV-driven polyclonal response. These findings indicate potential alternative roles for EBV in PTCLs, in addition to the canonical oncogenic mechanisms associated with EBV latent infection. Our findings also suggest the involvement of other viruses in PTCL pathogenesis and demonstrate immunological alterations associated with these cancers.IMPORTANCE In this study, we utilized next-generation sequencing data from 7 different studies of peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) patient samples to globally assess viral associations, provide insights into the contributions of EBV gene expression to the tumor phenotype, and assess the unique roles of EBV in modulating the immune cell tumor microenvironment. These studies revealed potential roles for EBV replication genes in some PTCL subtypes, the possible role of additional human tumor viruses in rare cases of PTCLs, and a role for EBV in providing a unique immune microenvironmental niche in one subtype of PTCLs. Together, these studies provide new insights into the understudied role of tumor viruses in PTCLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani Nakhoul
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Zhen Lin
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Xia Wang
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Claire Roberts
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Yan Dong
- Department of Structural and Cellular Biology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Erik Flemington
- Department of Pathology, Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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29
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Chakravorty A, Sugden B, Johannsen EC. An Epigenetic Journey: Epstein-Barr Virus Transcribes Chromatinized and Subsequently Unchromatinized Templates during Its Lytic Cycle. J Virol 2019; 93:e02247-18. [PMID: 30700606 PMCID: PMC6450099 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02247-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lytic phase, like those of all herpesviruses, proceeds via an orderly cascade that integrates DNA replication and gene expression. EBV early genes are expressed independently of viral DNA amplification, and several early gene products facilitate DNA amplification. On the other hand, EBV late genes are defined by their dependence on viral DNA replication for expression. Recently, a set of orthologous genes found in beta- and gammaherpesviruses have been determined to encode a viral preinitiation complex (vPIC) that mediates late gene expression. The EBV vPIC requires an origin of lytic replication in cis, implying that the vPIC mediates transcription from newly replicated DNA. In agreement with this implication, EBV late gene mRNAs localize to replication factories. Notably, these factories exclude canonical histones. In this review, we compare and contrast the mechanisms and epigenetics of EBV early and late gene expression. We summarize recent findings, propose a model explaining the dependence of EBV late gene expression on lytic DNA amplification, and suggest some directions for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adityarup Chakravorty
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Bill Sugden
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Eric C Johannsen
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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30
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van Zyl DG, Mautner J, Delecluse HJ. Progress in EBV Vaccines. Front Oncol 2019; 9:104. [PMID: 30859093 PMCID: PMC6398348 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous pathogen that imparts a significant burden of disease on the human population. EBV is the primary cause of infectious mononucleosis and is etiologically linked to the development of numerous malignancies. In recent years, evidence has also been amassed that strongly implicate EBV in the development of several autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis. Prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination has been touted as a possible means of preventing EBV infection and controlling EBV-associated diseases. However, despite several decades of research, no licensed EBV vaccine is available. The majority of EBV vaccination studies over the last two decades have focused on the major envelope protein gp350, culminating in a phase II clinical trial that showed soluble gp350 reduced the incidence of IM, although it was unable to protect against EBV infection. Recently, novel vaccine candidates with increased structural complexity and antigenic content have been developed. The ability of next generation vaccines to safeguard against B-cell and epithelial cell infection, as well as to target infected cells during all phases of infection, is likely to decrease the negative impact of EBV infection on the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dwain G. van Zyl
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Josef Mautner
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Heidelberg, Germany
- Children's Hospital, Technische Universität München, and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Bavaria, Germany
| | - Henri-Jacques Delecluse
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Heidelberg, Germany
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31
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Frost TC, Gewurz BE. Epigenetic crossroads of the Epstein-Barr virus B-cell relationship. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 32:15-23. [PMID: 30227386 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a gamma-herpesvirus that establishes lifelong infection in the majority of people worldwide. EBV uses epigenetic reprogramming to switch between multiple latency states in order to colonize the memory B-cell compartment and to then periodically undergo lytic reactivation upon plasma cell differentiation. This review focuses on recent advances in the understanding of epigenetic mechanisms that EBV uses to control its lifecycle and to subvert the growth and survival pathways that underly EBV-driven B-cell differentiation versus B-cell growth transformation, a hallmark of the first human tumor virus. These include the formation of viral super enhancers that drive expression of key host dependency factors, evasion of tumor suppressor responses, prevention of plasmablast differentiation, and regulation of the B-cell lytic switch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Frost
- Graduate Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Benjamin E Gewurz
- Graduate Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA; Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.
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32
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The Immunomodulatory Capacity of an Epstein-Barr Virus Abortive Lytic Cycle: Potential Contribution to Viral Tumorigenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10040098. [PMID: 29601503 PMCID: PMC5923353 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10040098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is characterized by a bipartite life cycle in which latent and lytic stages are alternated. Latency is compatible with long-lasting persistency within the infected host, while lytic expression, preferentially found in oropharyngeal epithelial tissue, is thought to favor host-to-host viral dissemination. The clinical importance of EBV relates to its association with cancer, which we think is mainly a consequence of the latency/persistency mechanisms. However, studies in murine models of tumorigenesis/lymphomagenesis indicate that the lytic cycle also contributes to cancer formation. Indeed, EBV lytic expression is often observed in established cell lines and tumor biopsies. Within the lytic cycle EBV expresses a handful of immunomodulatory (BCRF1, BARF1, BNLF2A, BGLF5 & BILF1) and anti-apoptotic (BHRF1 & BALF1) proteins. In this review, we discuss the evidence supporting an abortive lytic cycle in which these lytic genes are expressed, and how the immunomodulatory mechanisms of EBV and related herpesviruses Kaposi Sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) result in paracrine signals that feed tumor cells. An abortive lytic cycle would reconcile the need of lytic expression for viral tumorigenesis without relaying in a complete cycle that would induce cell lysis to release the newly formed infective viral particles.
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Hassani A, Corboy JR, Al-Salam S, Khan G. Epstein-Barr virus is present in the brain of most cases of multiple sclerosis and may engage more than just B cells. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192109. [PMID: 29394264 PMCID: PMC5796799 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neuroinflammatory condition of the central nervous system (CNS). It is a major cause of neurological disability in young adults, particularly women. What triggers the destruction of myelin sheaths covering nerve fibres is unknown. Both genetic and infectious agents have been implicated. Of the infectious agents, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a common herpesvirus, has the strongest epidemiological and serological evidence. However, the presence of EBV in the CNS and demonstration of the underlying mechanism(s) linking EBV to the pathogenesis of MS remain to be elucidated. We aimed at understanding the contribution of EBV infection in the pathology of MS. We examined 1055 specimens (440 DNA samples and 615 brain tissues) from 101 MS and 21 non-MS cases for the presence of EBV using PCR and EBER-in situ hybridization (EBER-ISH). EBV was detected by PCR and/or EBER-ISH in 91/101 (90%) of MS cases compared to only 5/21 (24%) of non-MS cases with other neuropathologies. None of the samples were PCR positive for other common herpesviruses (HSV-1, CMV, HHV-6). By quantitative PCR, EBV viral load in MS brain was mainly low to moderate in most cases. However, in 18/101 (18%) of MS cases, widespread but scattered presence of EBV infected cells was noted in the affected tissues by EBER-ISH. Immunohistochemical analysis of EBV gene expression in the 18 heavily infected cases, revealed that the EBV latent protein EBNA1, and to a lesser extent the early lytic protein BZLF1 were expressed. Furthermore, using double-staining we show for the first time that astrocytes and microglia, in addition to B-cells can also be infected. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most comprehensive study demonstrating that EBV is present and transcriptionally active in the brain of most cases of MS and supports a role for the virus in MS pathogenesis. Further studies are required to address the mechanism of EBV involvement in MS pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Hassani
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Tawam Hospital Campus, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE
| | - John R. Corboy
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Rocky Mountain MS Center at University of Colorado, Aurora, United States of America
| | - Suhail Al-Salam
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Tawam Hospital Campus, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE
| | - Gulfaraz Khan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Tawam Hospital Campus, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE
- * E-mail:
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Fitzsimmons L, Kelly GL. EBV and Apoptosis: The Viral Master Regulator of Cell Fate? Viruses 2017; 9:E339. [PMID: 29137176 PMCID: PMC5707546 DOI: 10.3390/v9110339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was first discovered in cells from a patient with Burkitt lymphoma (BL), and is now known to be a contributory factor in 1-2% of all cancers, for which there are as yet, no EBV-targeted therapies available. Like other herpesviruses, EBV adopts a persistent latent infection in vivo and only rarely reactivates into replicative lytic cycle. Although latency is associated with restricted patterns of gene expression, genes are never expressed in isolation; always in groups. Here, we discuss (1) the ways in which the latent genes of EBV are known to modulate cell death, (2) how these mechanisms relate to growth transformation and lymphomagenesis, and (3) how EBV genes cooperate to coordinately regulate key cell death pathways in BL and lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Since manipulation of the cell death machinery is critical in EBV pathogenesis, understanding the mechanisms that underpin EBV regulation of apoptosis therefore provides opportunities for novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Fitzsimmons
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences and Centre for Human Virology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Gemma L Kelly
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
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Cavalcante P, Marcuzzo S, Franzi S, Galbardi B, Maggi L, Motta T, Ghislandi R, Buzzi A, Spinelli L, Novellino L, Baggi F, Antozzi C, Conforti F, De Pas TM, Barberis M, Bernasconi P, Mantegazza R. Epstein-Barr virus in tumor-infiltrating B cells of myasthenia gravis thymoma: an innocent bystander or an autoimmunity mediator? Oncotarget 2017; 8:95432-95449. [PMID: 29221139 PMCID: PMC5707033 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.20731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The thymus plays a key role in myasthenia gravis (MG), a B cell-mediated autoimmune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction. Most MG patients have thymic abnormalities, including hyperplasia and thymoma, a neoplasm of thymic epithelial cells. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with autoimmune diseases and tumors. Recently, we showed EBV persistence and reactivation in hyperplastic MG thymuses, suggesting that EBV might contribute to intra-thymic B cell dysregulation in MG patients. Here, we investigated EBV involvement in thymoma-associated MG, by searching for EBV markers in MG (n=26) and non-MG (n=14) thymomas. EBV DNA and EBV-encoded small nuclear RNA (EBER) 1 transcript were detected in 14/26 (53.8%) and 22/26 (84.6%) MG thymomas, and only in 3 of 14 (21.4%) non-MG thymomas. Latent EBNA2 and late gp350/220 lytic transcripts were undetectable in all, but one, thymomas, and early lytic BZLF1 transcript was absent in all samples, suggesting that early infection events and EBV reactivation were very rare in thymomas. EBER1 and 2-positive cells were detected in MG, but not in non-MG, thymomas, as well as cells expressing EBV latency proteins (EBNA1, LMP1, LMP2A), that were mainly of B cell phenotype, indicating EBV association with MG rather than with thymoma. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 transcriptional levels were higher in MG than non-MG thymomas and positively correlated with EBER1 levels, suggesting a role for EBERs in TLR3 activation. Our findings show that EBV is commonly present in thymoma-infiltrating B cells of myasthenic patients, indicating a contribution of EBV to B cell-mediated autoreactivity in MG associated with thymic tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Cavalcante
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Marcuzzo
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Franzi
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Barbara Galbardi
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Maggi
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Teresio Motta
- Department of Pathological Anatomy, ASST - Bergamo Est Ospedale Bolognini Seriate, 24068 Seriate Bergamo, Italy
| | - Raffaella Ghislandi
- Department of Pathological Anatomy, ASST - Bergamo Est Ospedale Bolognini Seriate, 24068 Seriate Bergamo, Italy
| | - Antonella Buzzi
- Department of Pathological Anatomy, ASST - Bergamo Est Ospedale Bolognini Seriate, 24068 Seriate Bergamo, Italy
| | - Luisella Spinelli
- Department of General Surgery, ASST - Bergamo Est Ospedale Bolognini Seriate, 24068 Seriate Bergamo, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Novellino
- Department of General Surgery, ASST - Bergamo Est Ospedale Bolognini Seriate, 24068 Seriate Bergamo, Italy
| | - Fulvio Baggi
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Carlo Antozzi
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Conforti
- Unit of Sarcomas and Thymomas, European Institute of Oncology, 20136 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Massimo Barberis
- Histopathology and Molecular Diagnostics Unit, European Institute of Oncology, 20136 Milan, Italy
| | - Pia Bernasconi
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Renato Mantegazza
- Neurology IV - Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta", 20133 Milan, Italy
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a common human herpes virus known to infect the majority of the world population. Infection with EBV is often asymptomatic but can manifest in a range of pathologies from infectious mononucleosis to severe cancers of epithelial and lymphocytic origin. Indeed, in the past decade, EBV has been linked to nearly 10% of all gastric cancers. Furthermore, recent advances in high-throughput next-generation sequencing and the development of humanized mice, which effectively model EBV pathogenesis, have led to a wealth of knowledge pertaining to strain variation and host-pathogen interaction. This review highlights some recent advances in our understanding of EBV biology, focusing on new findings on the early events of infection, the role EBV plays in gastric cancer, new strain variation, and humanized mouse models of EBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent A Stanfield
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Micah A Luftig
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke Center for Virology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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Abstract
It is more than 50 years since the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the first human tumour virus, was discovered. EBV has subsequently been found to be associated with a diverse range of tumours of both lymphoid and epithelial origin. Progress in the molecular analysis of EBV has revealed fundamental mechanisms of more general relevance to the oncogenic process. This Timeline article highlights key milestones in the 50-year history of EBV and discusses how this virus provides a paradigm for exploiting insights at the molecular level in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence S Young
- Warwick Medical School, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Lee Fah Yap
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Sciences and Oral Cancer Research Coordinating Centre, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Paul G Murray
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Medicine, University of Birmingham, Vincent Drive, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Fang Chiu
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705;
- Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, Wisconsin 53715
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Bill Sugden
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705;
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Tagawa T, Albanese M, Bouvet M, Moosmann A, Mautner J, Heissmeyer V, Zielinski C, Lutter D, Hoser J, Hastreiter M, Hayes M, Sugden B, Hammerschmidt W. Epstein-Barr viral miRNAs inhibit antiviral CD4+ T cell responses targeting IL-12 and peptide processing. J Exp Med 2016; 213:2065-80. [PMID: 27621419 PMCID: PMC5030804 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20160248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
EBV reduces the activation of cytotoxic CD4+ effector T cells by inducing a state of reduced immunogenicity in infected B cells. EBV-derived miRNAs suppress release of proinflammatory cytokines, interfere with peptide processing and presentation on HLA class II, repress differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells to Th1 cells, and ultimately avoid killing of infected B cells. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a tumor virus that establishes lifelong infection in most of humanity, despite eliciting strong and stable virus-specific immune responses. EBV encodes at least 44 miRNAs, most of them with unknown function. Here, we show that multiple EBV miRNAs modulate immune recognition of recently infected primary B cells, EBV's natural target cells. EBV miRNAs collectively and specifically suppress release of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-12, repress differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells to Th1 cells, interfere with peptide processing and presentation on HLA class II, and thus reduce activation of cytotoxic EBV-specific CD4+ effector T cells and killing of infected B cells. Our findings identify a previously unknown viral strategy of immune evasion. By rapidly expressing multiple miRNAs, which are themselves nonimmunogenic, EBV counteracts recognition by CD4+ T cells and establishes a program of reduced immunogenicity in recently infected B cells, allowing the virus to express viral proteins required for establishment of life-long infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanobu Tagawa
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Manuel Albanese
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Mickaël Bouvet
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Moosmann
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Josef Mautner
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany Children's Hospital, Technical University Munich, D-80337 Munich, Germany
| | - Vigo Heissmeyer
- Research Unit Molecular Immune Regulation, Institute of Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health Munich, University of Munich, D-80539 Munich, Germany Institute for Immunology, University of Munich, D-80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Christina Zielinski
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University Munich, D-80337 Munich, Germany
| | - Dominik Lutter
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Munich, Germany
| | - Jonathan Hoser
- Institute of Bioinformatics and System Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Munich, Germany
| | - Maximilian Hastreiter
- Institute of Bioinformatics and System Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, D-85764 Munich, Germany
| | - Mitch Hayes
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Bill Sugden
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Germany, D-81377 Munich, Germany
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Tan EM, Smolen JS. Historical observations contributing insights on etiopathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis and role of rheumatoid factor. J Exp Med 2016; 213:1937-50. [PMID: 27621417 PMCID: PMC5030811 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20160792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
When studies on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) that were made many decades ago and could be considered "historical" in nature are analyzed in the context of recent observations, important insights on RA and on the function of rheumatoid factor (RF) become apparent. RF in the role of antibody to immune complexes (ICs) appears to be involved in activation of the complement system and in the production of chemotactic and inflammatory mediators, creating a condition that can be sustained and reinitiated. In the synovial cavity, a state of nonresolving inflammation is produced with the formation of citrullinated protein antigen-antibody complexes or other forms of ICs. This is followed by a second wave of IC production in the form of RF acting as antibody reactive with the initial ICs. Both of these processes are associated with complement consumption and production of inflammatory mediators. We present a model of an initiation phase of RA that might represent an example of repetitive formation of ICs and complement-mediated inflammation. Targeting therapy at this phase of RA to break the cycles of recurrent inflammation might be a novel approach to aid in further control of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eng M Tan
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Josef S Smolen
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine 3, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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Brooks JM, Long HM, Tierney RJ, Shannon-Lowe C, Leese AM, Fitzpatrick M, Taylor GS, Rickinson AB. Early T Cell Recognition of B Cells following Epstein-Barr Virus Infection: Identifying Potential Targets for Prophylactic Vaccination. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005549. [PMID: 27096949 PMCID: PMC4838210 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus, a B-lymphotropic herpesvirus, is the cause of infectious mononucleosis, has strong aetiologic links with several malignancies and has been implicated in certain autoimmune diseases. Efforts to develop a prophylactic vaccine to prevent or reduce EBV-associated disease have, to date, focused on the induction of neutralising antibody responses. However, such vaccines might be further improved by inducing T cell responses capable of recognising and killing recently-infected B cells. In that context, EBNA2, EBNA-LP and BHRF1 are the first viral antigens expressed during the initial stage of B cell growth transformation, yet have been poorly characterised as CD8+ T cell targets. Here we describe CD8+ T cell responses against each of these three "first wave" proteins, identifying target epitopes and HLA restricting alleles. While EBNA-LP and BHRF1 each contained one strong CD8 epitope, epitopes within EBNA2 induced immunodominant responses through several less common HLA class I alleles (e.g. B*3801 and B*5501), as well as subdominant responses through common class I alleles (e.g. B7 and C*0304). Importantly, such EBNA2-specific CD8+ T cells recognised B cells within the first day post-infection, prior to CD8+ T cells against well-characterised latent target antigens such as EBNA3B or LMP2, and effectively inhibited outgrowth of EBV-transformed B cell lines. We infer that "first wave" antigens of the growth-transforming infection, especially EBNA2, constitute potential CD8+ T cell immunogens for inclusion in prophylactic EBV vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill M. Brooks
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Heather M. Long
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Rose J. Tierney
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Shannon-Lowe
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alison M. Leese
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Fitzpatrick
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Group, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Graham S. Taylor
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alan B. Rickinson
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Zekri ARN, Abdullah D, Osman A, El-Rouby MN, Zayed N, Esmat G, Elakel W, Hafez HA. Epstein-Barr virus and Interleukin-28B polymorphism in the prediction of response to interferon therapy in hepatitis C patients. Arab J Gastroenterol 2015; 16:84-9. [PMID: 26526510 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajg.2015.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS In chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV), viral and host factors are known to be predictors for anti-viral therapy. IL-28B genotype strongly influences treatment outcome, while Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) co-infection could accelerate the course of chronic HCV infection. This study was conducted to assess whether EBV co-infection adds to the predictive value of IL-28B. PATIENTS AND METHODS A total of 105 patients with chronic HCV were classified according to their response to treatment into two groups: 38 sustained virological responders (SVRs) and 67 nonresponders (NRs). Collected sera at baseline and follow-up (FUP) were used for assessing EBV antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the expression of EBV genes (BNLF-1, BZLF-1, and EBER-2) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Collected peripheral blood was used for detecting IL-28B rs.12979860 single-nucleotide polymorphism. RESULTS Regarding IL-28B genotype frequencies, a significant difference (p=0.003) was observed between SVRs (C/C=51.4%, C/T=48.6%, T/T=0%) and NRs (C/C=25%, C/T=55%, T/T=20%). On assessing EBV infection at baseline and FUP, it was found that 61% and 55% were positive, respectively, with no significant difference between SVRs and NRs. As for anti-viral capsid antigen (VCA) antibodies, the NRs had significantly higher baseline anti-VCA immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels than SVRs (p=0.01). While FUP anti-Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen-1 (EBNA-1) IgG reported a significant decline within SVR patients (p=0.02), neither baseline nor FUP anti-VCA IgG levels showed a statistically significant viral response. Finally, on comparing EBV markers with CC versus CT and TT genotypes, it was found that FUP anti-VCA IgG levels were significantly increased in CC genotype (p=0.003). CONCLUSION Interleukin-28B polymorphism could be a possible predictor of response to pegylated interferon/ribavirin therapy (PEG-IFN/RBV). Furthermore, co-infection with EBV did not affect the response to IFN-based therapy in HCV-infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdel-Rahman N Zekri
- Virology and Immunology Unit, Cancer Biology Department, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Dina Abdullah
- Virology and Immunology Unit, Cancer Biology Department, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Osman
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Ainshams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud N El-Rouby
- Virology and Immunology Unit, Cancer Biology Department, National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Naglaa Zayed
- Endemic Medicine and Hepatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Gamal Esmat
- Endemic Medicine and Hepatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Wafaa Elakel
- Endemic Medicine and Hepatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hanan Abdel Hafez
- Endemic Medicine and Hepatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Iwakiri D. Multifunctional non-coding Epstein-Barr virus encoded RNAs (EBERs) contribute to viral pathogenesis. Virus Res 2015; 212:30-8. [PMID: 26292159 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 08/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is known as an oncogenic herpesvirus implicated in the pathogenesis of various malignancies. It has been reported that EBV non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including EBV-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) and EBV-miRNAs contribute to viral pathogenesis. EBERs that are expressed abundantly in latently EBV-infected cells have been reported to play significant roles in tumorigenesis by EBV. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the modulation of host innate immune signals by EBERs contributes to EBV-mediated pathogenesis including oncogenesis. Recently it was demonstrated that EBERs are secreted via exosomes by EBV-infected cells. It was also demonstrated that exosomes contain a number of EBV-encoded miRNAs. Various mRNAs have been identified as targets for regulation by EBV-miRNAs in host cells, therefore, EBERs and EBV-miRNAs might function through the transfer of exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Iwakiri
- Institute for Genetic Medicine, Hokkaido University, N15 W7 Kita-Ku, Sapporo 060-0815, Japan.
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44
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To be or not IIb: a multi-step process for Epstein-Barr virus latency establishment and consequences for B cell tumorigenesis. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004656. [PMID: 25790223 PMCID: PMC4366242 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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Murata T. Regulation of Epstein-Barr virus reactivation from latency. Microbiol Immunol 2015; 58:307-17. [PMID: 24786491 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human gamma-herpesvirus that is implicated in various types of proliferative diseases. Upon infection, it predominantly establishes latency in B cells and cannot ever be eradicated; it persists for the host's lifetime. Reactivation of the virus from latency depends on expression of the viral immediate-early gene, BamHI Z fragment leftward open reading frame 1 (BZLF1). The BZLF1 promoter normally exhibits only low basal activity but is activated in response to chemical or biological inducers, such as 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, calcium ionophore, histone deacetylase inhibitor, or anti-Ig. Transcription from the BZLF1 promoter is activated by myocyte enhancer factor 2, specificity protein 1, b-Zip type transcription factors and mediating epigenetic modifications of the promoter, such as histone acetylation and H3K4me3. In contrast, repression of the promoter is mediated by transcriptional suppressors, such as ZEB, ZIIR-BP, and jun dimerization protein 2, causing suppressive histone modifications like histone H3K27me3, H3K9me2/3 and H4K20me3. Interestingly, there is little CpG DNA methylation of the promoter, indicating that DNA methylation is not crucial for suppression of BZLF1. This review will focus on the molecular mechanisms by which the EBV lytic switch is controlled and discuss the physiological significance of this switching for its survival and oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Murata
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan; Division of Virology, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, 1-Kanokoden, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8681, Japan
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus, which mainly infects B cells and epithelial cells, has two modes of infection: latent and lytic. Epstein-Barr virus infection is predominantly latent; however, lytic infection is detected in healthy seropositive individuals and becomes more prominent in certain pathological conditions. Lytic infection is divided into several stages: early gene expression, DNA replication, late gene expression, assembly, and egress. This chapter summarizes the most recent progress made toward understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate the different lytic stages leading to production of viral progeny. In addition, the chapter highlights the potential role of lytic infection in disease development and current attempts to purposely induce lytic infection as a therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica McKenzie
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Ayman El-Guindy
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
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Abstract
Ever since the discovery of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) more than 50 years ago, this virus has been studied for its capacity to readily establish a latent infection, which is the prominent hallmark of this member of the herpesvirus family. EBV has become an important model for many aspects of herpesviral latency, but the molecular steps and mechanisms that lead to and promote viral latency have only emerged recently. It now appears that the virus exploits diverse facets of epigenetic gene regulation in the cellular host to establish a latent infection. Most viral genes are transcriptionally repressed, and viral chromatin is densely compacted during EBV's latent phase, but latent infection is not a dead end. In order to escape from this phase, epigenetic silencing must be reverted efficiently and quickly. It appears that EBV has perfected a clever strategy to overcome transcriptional repression of its many lytic genes to initiate virus de novo synthesis within a few hours after induction of its lytic cycle. This review tries to summarize the known molecular mechanisms, the current models, concepts, and ideas underlying this viral strategy. This review also attempts to identify and address gaps in our current understanding of EBV's epigenetic mechanisms within the infected cellular host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Munich, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377, Munich, Germany.
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Arfelt KN, Fares S, Rosenkilde MM. EBV, the Human Host, and the 7TM Receptors. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2015; 129:395-427. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2014.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Tierney RJ, Shannon-Lowe CD, Fitzsimmons L, Bell AI, Rowe M. Unexpected patterns of Epstein-Barr virus transcription revealed by a high throughput PCR array for absolute quantification of viral mRNA. Virology 2015; 474:117-30. [PMID: 25463610 PMCID: PMC4266535 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 10/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We have validated a flexible, high-throughput and relatively inexpensive RT-QPCR array platform for absolute quantification of Epstein-Barr virus transcripts in different latent and lytic infection states. Several novel observations are reported. First, during infection of normal B cells, Wp-initiated latent gene transcripts remain far more abundant following activation of the Cp promoter than was hitherto suspected. Second, EBNA1 transcript levels are remarkably low in all forms of latency, typically ranging from 1 to 10 transcripts per cell. EBNA3A, -3B and -3C transcripts are likewise very low in Latency III, typically at levels similar to or less than EBNA1 transcripts. Thirdly, a subset of lytic gene transcripts is detectable in Burkitt lymphoma lines at low levels, including: BILF1, which has oncogenic properties, and the poorly characterized LF1, LF2 and LF3 genes. Analysis of seven African BL biopsies confirmed this transcription profile but additionally revealed significant expression of LMP2 transcripts.
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MESH Headings
- B-Lymphocytes/virology
- Burkitt Lymphoma/virology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Epstein-Barr Virus Nuclear Antigens/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral
- Genes, Viral
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/genetics
- Humans
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Viral/analysis
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods
- Transcription, Genetic
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Virion/genetics
- Virus Latency/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary J Tierney
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Claire D Shannon-Lowe
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Leah Fitzsimmons
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew I Bell
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
| | - Martin Rowe
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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Transcriptome analysis of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus during de novo primary infection of human B and endothelial cells. J Virol 2014; 89:3093-111. [PMID: 25552714 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02507-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) infects many target cells (e.g., endothelial, epithelial, and B cells, keratinocytes, and monocytes) to establish lifelong latent infections. Viral latent-protein expression is critical in inducing and maintaining KSHV latency. Infected cells are programmed to retain the incoming viral genomes during primary infection. Immediately after infection, KSHV transcribes many lytic genes that modulate various cellular pathways to establish successful infection. Analysis of the virion particle showed that the virions contain viral mRNAs, microRNAs, and other noncoding RNAs that are transduced into the target cells during infection, but their biological functions are largely unknown. We performed a comprehensive analysis of the KSHV virion packaged transcripts and the profiles of viral genes transcribed after de novo infections of various cell types (human peripheral blood mononuclear cells [PBMCs], CD14(+) monocytes, and telomerase-immortalized vascular endothelial [TIVE] cells), from viral entry until latency establishment. A next-generation sequence analysis of the total transcriptome showed that several viral RNAs (polyadenylated nuclear RNA, open reading frame 58 [ORF58], ORF59, T0.7, and ORF17) were abundantly present in the KSHV virions and effectively transduced into the target cells. Analysis of the transcription profiles of each viral gene showed specific expression patterns in different cell lines, with the majority of the genes, other than latent genes, silencing after 24 h postinfection. We differentiated the actively transcribing genes from the virion-transduced transcripts using a nascent RNA capture approach (Click-iT chemistry), which identified transcription of a number of viral genes during primary infection. Treating the infected cells with phosphonoacetic acid (PAA) to block the activity of viral DNA polymerase confirmed the involvement of lytic DNA replication during primary infection. To further understand the role of DNA replication during primary infection, we performed de novo PBMC infections with a recombinant ORF59-deleted KSHV virus, which showed significantly reduced numbers of viral copies in the latently infected cells. In summary, the transduced KSHV RNAs as well as the actively transcribed genes control critical processes of early infection to establish KSHV latency. IMPORTANCE Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the causative agent of multiple human malignancies in immunocompromised individuals. KSHV establishes a lifelong latency in the infected host, during which only a limited number of viral genes are expressed. However, a fraction of latently infected cells undergo spontaneous reactivation to produce virions that infect the surrounding cells. These newly infected cells are primed early to retain the incoming viral genome and induce cell growth. KSHV transcribes a variety of lytic proteins during de novo infections that modulate various cellular pathways to establish the latent infection. Interestingly, a large number of viral proteins and RNA are encapsidated in the infectious virions and transduced into the infected cells during a de novo infection. This study determined the kinetics of the viral gene expression during de novo KSHV infections and the functional role of the incoming viral transcripts in establishing latency.
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