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Choi A, Kots ED, Singleton DT, Weinstein H, Whittaker GR. Analysis of the molecular determinants for furin cleavage of the spike protein S1/S2 site in defined strains of the prototype coronavirus murine hepatitis virus (MHV). Virus Res 2024; 340:199283. [PMID: 38043726 PMCID: PMC10755501 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the spike protein S1/S2 cleavage of selected strains of a prototype coronavirus, mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) by the cellular protease furin, in order to understand the structural requirements underlying the sequence selectivity of the scissile segment. The probability of cleavage of selected MHV strains was first evaluated from furin cleavage scores predicted by the ProP computer software, and then cleavage was measured experimentally with a fluorogenic peptide cleavage assay consisting of S1/S2 peptide mimics and purified furin. We found that in vitro cleavability varied across MHV strains in line with predicted results-but with the notable exception of MHV-A59, which was not cleaved despite a high score predicted for its sequence. Using the known X-Ray structure of furin in complex with a substrate-like inhibitor as an initial structural reference, we carried out molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to learn the modes of binding of the peptides in the furin active site, and the suitability of the complex for initiation of the enzymatic cleavage. We identified the 3D structural requirements of the furin active site configuration that enable bound peptides to undergo cleavage, and the way in which the various strains tested experimentally are fulfilling these requirements. We find that despite some flexibility in the organization of the peptide bound to the active site of the enzyme, the presence of a histidine at P2 of MHV-A59 fails to properly orient the sidechain of His194 of the furin catalytic triad and therefore produces a distortion that renders the peptide/complex structural configuration in the active site incompatible with requirements for cleavage initiation. The Ser/Thr in P1 of MHV-2 and MHV-S has a similar effect of distorting the conformation of the furin active site residues produced by the elimination of the canonical salt-bridge formed by arginine in P1 position. This work informs a study of coronavirus infection and pathogenesis with respect to the function of the viral spike protein, and suggests an important process of viral adaptation and evolution within the spike S1/S2 structural loop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Choi
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Ekaterina D Kots
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, New York, NY, USA; Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Harel Weinstein
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, New York, NY, USA; Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Gary R Whittaker
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA; Public & Ecosystem Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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2
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Smith TJ, Fusco RM, Elmore ZC, Asokan A. Interplay between Furin and Sialoglycans in Modulating Adeno-Associated Viral Cell Entry. J Virol 2023; 97:e0009323. [PMID: 37097176 PMCID: PMC10231208 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00093-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are small, helper-dependent, single-stranded DNA viruses that exploit a broad spectrum of host factors for cell entry. During the course of infection, several AAV serotypes have been shown to transit through the trans-Golgi network within the host cell. In the current study, we investigated whether the Golgi-localized, calcium-dependent protease furin influences AAV transduction. While CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout (KO) of the Furin gene minimally affected the transduction efficiency of most recombinant AAV serotypes tested, we observed a striking increase in transgene expression (~2 log orders) for the African green monkey isolate AAV4. Interrogation of different steps in the infectious pathway revealed that AAV4 binding, uptake, and transcript levels are increased in furin KO cells, but postentry steps such as uncoating or nuclear entry remain unaffected. Recombinant furin does not cleave AAV4 capsid proteins nor alter cellular expression levels of essential factors such as AAVR or GPR108. Interestingly, fluorescent lectin screening revealed a marked increase in 2,3-O-linked sialoglycan staining on the surface and perinuclear space of furin KO cells. The essential nature of increased sialoglycan expression in furin KO cells in enhancing AAV4 transduction was further corroborated by (i) increased transduction by the closely related isolates AAVrh.32.33 and sea lion AAV and (ii) selective blockade or removal of cellular 2,3-O-linked sialoglycans by specific lectins or neuraminidase, respectively. Based on the overall findings, we postulate that furin likely plays a key role in regulating expression of cellular sialoglycans, which in turn can influence permissivity to AAVs and possibly other viruses. IMPORTANCE Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are a proven recombinant vector platform for gene therapy and have demonstrated success in the clinic. Continuing to improve our knowledge of AAV-host cell interactions is critical for improving the safety and efficacy. The current study dissects the interplay between furin, a common intracellular protease, and certain cell surface sialoglycans that serve as viral attachment factors for cell entry. Based on the findings, we postulate that differential expression of furin in host cells and tissues is likely to influence gene expression by certain recombinant AAV serotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Smith
- Department of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Robert M. Fusco
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Zachary C. Elmore
- Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Aravind Asokan
- Department of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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de Bruin ACM, Spronken MI, Bestebroer TM, Fouchier RAM, Richard M. Conserved Expression and Functionality of Furin between Chickens and Ducks as an Activating Protease of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Hemagglutinins. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0460222. [PMID: 36916982 PMCID: PMC10100678 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04602-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) typically emerge from low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) of the H5 and H7 subtypes upon spillover from wild aquatic birds into poultry. The conversion from LPAIV to HPAIV is characterized by the acquisition of a multibasic cleavage site (MBCS) at the proteolytic cleavage site in the viral binding and fusion protein, hemagglutinin (HA), resulting in cleavage and activation of HA by ubiquitously expressed furin-like proteases. The ensuing HPAIVs disseminate systemically in gallinaceous poultry, are endotheliotropic, and cause hemorrhagic disease with high mortality. HPAIV infections in wild aquatic birds are generally milder, often asymptomatic, and generally not associated with systemic dissemination nor endotheliotropic. As MBCS cleavage by host proteases is the main virulence determinant of HPAIVs in poultry, we set out to determine whether cleavage of HPAIV HA by host proteases might influence the observed species-specific pathogenesis and tropism. Here, we sequenced, cloned, and characterized the expression and functionality of duck furin. The furin sequence was strongly conserved between chickens and ducks, and duck furin cleaved HPAIV and tetrabasic HA in an overexpression system, confirming its functionality. Furin was expressed ubiquitously and to similar extents in duck and chicken tissues, including in primary duck endothelial cells, which sustained multicycle replication of H5N1 HPAIV but not LPAIVs. In conclusion, differences in furin-like protease biology between wild aquatic birds and gallinaceous poultry are unlikely to largely determine the stark differences observed in species-specific pathogenesis of HPAIVs. IMPORTANCE HPAIV outbreaks are a global concern due to the health risks for poultry, wildlife, and humans and their major economic impact. The number of LPAIV-to-HPAIV conversions, which is associated with spillover from wild birds to poultry, has been increasing over recent decades. Furthermore, H5 HPAIVs from the A/goose/Guangdong/1/96 lineage have been circulating in migratory birds, causing increasingly frequent epizootics in poultry and wild birds. Milder symptoms in migratory birds allow for dispersion of HPAIVs over long distances, justifying the importance of understanding the pathogenesis of HPAIVs in wild birds. Here, we examined whether host proteases are a likely candidate to explain some differences in the degree of HPAIV systemic dissemination between avian species. This is the first report to show that furin function and expression is comparable between chickens and ducks, which renders the hypothesis unlikely that furin-like protease differences influence the HPAIV species-specific pathogenesis and tropism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja C. M. de Bruin
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Monique I. Spronken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Theo M. Bestebroer
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ron A. M. Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mathilde Richard
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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Proprotein convertases regulate trafficking and maturation of key proteins within the secretory pathway. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 133:1-54. [PMID: 36707198 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2022.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Proprotein Convertases (PCs) are serine endoproteases that regulate the homeostasis of protein substrates in the cell. The PCs family counts 9 members-PC1/3, PC2, PC4, PACE4, PC5/6, PC7, Furin, SKI-1/S1P, and PCSK9. The first seven PCs are known as Basic Proprotein Convertases due to their propensity to cleave after polybasic clusters. SKI-1/S1P requires the additional presence of hydrophobic residues for processing, whereas PCSK9 is catalytically dead after autoactivation and exerts its functions using mechanisms alternative to direct cleavage. All PCs traffic through the canonical secretory pathway, reaching different compartments where the various substrates reside. Despite PCs members do not share the same subcellular localization, most of the cellular organelles count one or more Proprotein Convertases, including ER, Golgi stack, endosomes, secretory granules, and plasma membranes. The widespread expression of these enzymes at the systemic level speaks for their importance in the homeostasis of a large number of biological functions. Among others, PCs cleave precursors of hormones and growth factors and activate receptors and transcription factors. Notably, dysregulation of the enzymatic activity of Proprotein Convertases is associated to major human pathologies, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, infections, inflammation, autoimmunity diseases, and Parkinson. In the current COVID-19 pandemic, Furin has further attracted the attention as a key player for conferring high pathogenicity to SARS-CoV-2. Here, we review the Proprotein Convertases family and their most important substrates along the secretory pathway. Knowledge about the complex functions of PCs is important to identify potential drug strategies targeting this class of enzymes.
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Genetic, Antigenic, and Pathobiological Characterization of H9 and H6 Low Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated in Vietnam from 2014 to 2018. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020244. [PMID: 36838209 PMCID: PMC9962344 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The H9 and H6 subtypes of low pathogenicity avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) cause substantial economic losses in poultry worldwide, including Vietnam. Herein, we characterized Vietnamese H9 and H6 LPAIVs to facilitate the control of avian influenza. The space-time representative viruses of each subtype were selected based on active surveillance from 2014 to 2018 in Vietnam. Phylogenetic analysis using hemagglutinin genes revealed that 54 H9 and 48 H6 Vietnamese LPAIVs were classified into the sublineages Y280/BJ94 and Group II, respectively. Gene constellation analysis indicated that 6 and 19 genotypes of the H9 and H6 subtypes, respectively, belonged to the representative viruses. The Vietnamese viruses are genetically related to the previous isolates and those in neighboring countries, indicating their circulation in poultry after being introduced into Vietnam. The antigenicity of these subtypes was different from that of viruses isolated from wild birds. Antigenicity was more conserved in the H9 viruses than in the H6 viruses. Furthermore, a representative H9 LPAIV exhibited systemic replication in chickens, which was enhanced by coinfection with avian pathogenic Escherichia coli O2. Although H9 and H6 were classified as LPAIVs, their characterization indicated that their silent spread might significantly affect the poultry industry.
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Choi A, Kots ED, Singleton DT, Weinstein HA, Whittaker GR. Analysis of the molecular determinants for furin cleavage of the spike protein S1/S2 site in defined strains of the prototype coronavirus murine hepatitis virus (MHV). BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.11.523687. [PMID: 36711446 PMCID: PMC9882190 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.11.523687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
We have analyzed the spike protein S1/S2 cleavage site of selected strains of MHV by the cellular protease furin, in order to understand the structural requirements underlying the sequence selectivity of the scissile segment. The probability of cleavage of the various MHV strains was first evaluated from furin cleavage scores predicted by the ProP computer software, and then cleavage was measured experimentally with a fluorogenic peptide cleavage assay consisting of S1/S2 peptide mimics and purified furin. We found that in vitro cleavability varied across MHV strains in line with predicted results-but with the notable exception of MHV-A59, which was not cleaved despite a high score predicted for its sequence. Using the known X-Ray structure of furin in complex with a substrate-like inhibitor as an initial structural reference, we carried out molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to learn the modes of binding of the peptides in the furin active site, and the suitability of the complex for initiation of the enzymatic cleavage. We thus identified the 3D structural requirements of the furin active site configuration that enable bound peptides to undergo cleavage, and the way in which the various strains tested experimentally are fulfilling these requirements. We find that despite some flexibility in the organization of the peptide bound to the active site of the enzyme, the presence of a histidine at P2 of MHV-A59 fails to properly orient the sidechain of His194 of the furin catalytic triad and therefore produces a distortion that renders the peptide/complex structural configuration in the active site incompatible with requirements for cleavage initiation. The Ser/Thr in P1 of MHV-2 and MHV-S has a similar effect of distorting the conformation of the furin active site residues produced by the elimination of the canonical salt-bridge formed by arginine in P1 position. This work informs a study of coronavirus infection and pathogenesis with respect to the function of the viral spike protein, and suggests an important process of viral adaptation and evolution within the spike S1/S2 structural loop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Choi
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Ekaterina D. Kots
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Harel A. Weinstein
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Institute for Computational Biomedicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gary R. Whittaker
- Departments of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Public & Ecosystem Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Jayabal K, Elumalai D, Leelakrishnan S, Bhattacharya S, Rengarajan V, Kannan T, Chuang SC. Green and Regioselective Approach for the Synthesis of 3-Substituted Indole Based 1,2-Dihydropyridine and Azaxanthone Derivatives as a Potential Lead for SARS-CoV-2 and Delta Plus Mutant Virus: DFT and Docking Studies. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:43856-43876. [PMID: 36506171 PMCID: PMC9730777 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c04990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Great attempts have been done for the development of novel antiviral compounds against SAR-CoV-2 to end this pandemic situation and save human society. Herewith, we have synthesized 3-substituted indole/2-substituted pyrrole 1,2-dihydropyridine and azaxanthone scaffolds using simple, commercially available starting materials in a one-pot, green, and regioselective manner. Further, the regioselectivity of product formation was confirmed by various studies such as controlled experiments, density functional theory (DFT), Mulliken atomic charge, and electrostatic potential (ESP) surface. In addition, 3-substituted indole 1,2-dihydropyridine was successfully converted into a biologically enriched pharmacophore scaffold, viz., indolylimidazopyridinylbenzofuran scaffold, in excellent yield. Moreover, the synthesized 3-substituted indole 1,2-dihydropyridine/2-substituted pyrroles were analyzed in docking studies for anti-SARS-CoV-2 properties against their main protease (Mpro) and anti-Delta plus properties against their protein of the Delta plus K417N mutant. Further, the drug-likeness prediction was analyzed by the Lipinski rule and other pharmacokinetic properties like absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity using preADMET prediction. Interestingly, the docking results show that out of 20 synthesized compounds, 5 of them for Mpro of SAR-CoV-2 and 9 of them for 7NX7 spike glycoprotein's A chain of Delta plus K417N show greater binding affinity when compared with remdesivir that is the first to receive FDA approval and is currently used as a potent drug for the treatment of COVID-19. These results suggest that indole/pyrrole substituted 1,2-dihydropyridine derivatives are capable of combating SARS-CoV-2 and its Delta plus mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamalraja Jayabal
- Department
of Chemistry, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, National Yang Ming
Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan R.O.C
| | | | - Saraswathi Leelakrishnan
- Department
of Chemistry, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
- Department
of Chemistry, Nirmala College for Women, Coimbatore 641018, India
| | - Suman Bhattacharya
- Department
of Physics, University of Limerick, Castletroy, Limerick V94
T9PX , Republic of Ireland
| | | | | | - Shih-Ching Chuang
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, National Yang Ming
Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan R.O.C
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de Bruin ACM, Funk M, Spronken MI, Gultyaev AP, Fouchier RAM, Richard M. Hemagglutinin Subtype Specificity and Mechanisms of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Genesis. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071566. [PMID: 35891546 PMCID: PMC9321182 DOI: 10.3390/v14071566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses (HPAIVs) arise from low pathogenic precursors following spillover from wild waterfowl into poultry populations. The main virulence determinant of HPAIVs is the presence of a multi-basic cleavage site (MBCS) in the hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein. The MBCS allows for HA cleavage and, consequently, activation by ubiquitous proteases, which results in systemic dissemination in terrestrial poultry. Since 1959, 51 independent MBCS acquisition events have been documented, virtually all in HA from the H5 and H7 subtypes. In the present article, data from natural LPAIV to HPAIV conversions and experimental in vitro and in vivo studies were reviewed in order to compile recent advances in understanding HA cleavage efficiency, protease usage, and MBCS acquisition mechanisms. Finally, recent hypotheses that might explain the unique predisposition of the H5 and H7 HA sequences to obtain an MBCS in nature are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja C. M. de Bruin
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Mathis Funk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Monique I. Spronken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Alexander P. Gultyaev
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
- Group Imaging and Bioinformatics, Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science (LIACS), Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ron A. M. Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Mathilde Richard
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
- Correspondence:
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Kircheis R, Planz O. Could a Lower Toll-like Receptor (TLR) and NF-κB Activation Due to a Changed Charge Distribution in the Spike Protein Be the Reason for the Lower Pathogenicity of Omicron? Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23115966. [PMID: 35682644 PMCID: PMC9180620 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23115966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The novel SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant B.1.1.529, which emerged in late 2021, is currently active worldwide, replacing other variants, including the Delta variant, due to an enormously increased infectivity. Multiple substitutions and deletions in the N-terminal domain (NTD) and the receptor binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein collaborate with the observed increased infectivity and evasion from therapeutic monoclonal antibodies and vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies after primary/secondary immunization. In contrast, although three mutations near the S1/S2 furin cleavage site were predicted to favor cleavage, observed cleavage efficacy is substantially lower than in the Delta variant and also lower compared to the wild-type virus correlating with significantly lower TMPRSS2-dependent replication in the lungs, and lower cellular syncytium formation. In contrast, the Omicron variant shows high TMPRSS2-independent replication in the upper airway organs, but lower pathogenicity in animal studies and clinics. Based on recent data, we present here a hypothesis proposing that the changed charge distribution in the Omicron’s spike protein could lead to lower activation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in innate immune cells, resulting in lower NF-κB activation, furin expression, and viral replication in the lungs, and lower immune hyper-activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Kircheis
- Syntacoll GmbH, 93342 Saal an der Donau, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-151-167-90606
| | - Oliver Planz
- Interfaculty Institute for Cell Biology, Department of Immunology, Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany;
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Abstract
Maturation of dengue viruses (DENVs) alters the structure, immunity, and infectivity of the virion and highly mature particles represent the dominant form in vivo. The production of highly mature virions principally relies on the structure and function of the viral premature membrane protein (prM) and its cleavage by the host protease furin. We redeveloped a reliable clonal cell line (VF1) which produces single-round mature DENVs without the need for DENV reverse genetics. More importantly, using protein engineering and directed evolution of the prM cleavage site, we engineered genetically stable mature DENVs in all serotypes independent of cell or host, usually with minimal impact on viral yield. Using these complementary strategies to regulate maturation, we demonstrate that the resulting mature DENVs are antigenically distinct from their isogenic partially mature forms. Given the clinical importance of mature DENVs in immunity, our study provides reliable strategies and reagents for the production of stable, high-titer mature DENVs for DENV antibody neutralization and vaccination immunity studies. Biologically, our data from directed evolution across host species reveals distinct maturation-dependent selective pressures between mammalian and insect cells, verifying the substrate preference between mammalian and insect furin, while hinting at an evolutionary equilibrium of DENV prM cleavage site between its host and vector in nature.
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11
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Known Cellular and Receptor Interactions of Animal and Human Coronaviruses: A Review. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020351. [PMID: 35215937 PMCID: PMC8878323 DOI: 10.3390/v14020351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This article aims to review all currently known interactions between animal and human coronaviruses and their cellular receptors. Over the past 20 years, three novel coronaviruses have emerged that have caused severe disease in humans, including SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome virus 2); therefore, a deeper understanding of coronavirus host-cell interactions is essential. Receptor-binding is the first stage in coronavirus entry prior to replication and can be altered by minor changes within the spike protein-the coronavirus surface glycoprotein responsible for the recognition of cell-surface receptors. The recognition of receptors by coronaviruses is also a major determinant in infection, tropism, and pathogenesis and acts as a key target for host-immune surveillance and other potential intervention strategies. We aim to highlight the need for a continued in-depth understanding of this subject area following on from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, with the possibility for more zoonotic transmission events. We also acknowledge the need for more targeted research towards glycan-coronavirus interactions as zoonotic spillover events from animals to humans, following an alteration in glycan-binding capability, have been well-documented for other viruses such as Influenza A.
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12
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Aimrane A, Laaradia MA, Sereno D, Perrin P, Draoui A, Bougadir B, Hadach M, Zahir M, Fdil N, El Hiba O, El Hidan MA, Kahime K. Insight into COVID-19's epidemiology, pathology, and treatment. Heliyon 2022; 8:e08799. [PMID: 35071819 PMCID: PMC8767941 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The newly emerged 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has urged scientific and medical communities to focus on epidemiology, pathophysiology, and treatment of SARS-CoV-2. Indeed, little is known about the virus causing this severe acute respiratory syndrome pandemic, coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Data already collected on viruses belonging to the coronaviridae family are of interest to improve our knowledge rapidly on this pandemic. The current review aims at delivering insight into the fundamental advances inSARS-CoV-2 epidemiology, pathophysiology, life cycle, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmohcine Aimrane
- Metabolics Platform, Biochemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Cadi Ayad University, Marrakech, Morocco
- Nutritional Physiopathology Team, Faculty of Sciences, ChouaibDoukkali University, El Jadida, 24000, Morocco
| | - Mehdi Ait Laaradia
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Neurobiology and Behavior, Semlalia Faculty of Sciences, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Denis Sereno
- IRD, University of Montpellier, InterTryp, Parasite Infectiology Research Group, 34000, Montpellier, France
| | - Pascale Perrin
- IRD, University of Montpellier, MiVeGec, Parasite Infectiology Research Group, 34000, Montpellier, France
| | - Ahmed Draoui
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Neurosciences and Environment, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cadi Ayyad University, Morocco
| | - Blaid Bougadir
- SAEDD Laboratory, School of Technology Essaouira, Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakesh, Morocco
| | - Mohamed Hadach
- SAEDD Laboratory, School of Technology Essaouira, Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakesh, Morocco
| | - Mustapha Zahir
- SAEDD Laboratory, School of Technology Essaouira, Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakesh, Morocco
| | - Naima Fdil
- Metabolics Platform, Biochemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Cadi Ayad University, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Omar El Hiba
- Nutritional Physiopathology Team, Faculty of Sciences, ChouaibDoukkali University, El Jadida, 24000, Morocco
| | | | - Kholoud Kahime
- SAEDD Laboratory, School of Technology Essaouira, Cadi Ayyad University of Marrakesh, Morocco
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13
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Chen Z, Du R, Galvan Achi JM, Rong L, Cui Q. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and targeted antiviral development. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:3879-3888. [PMID: 34002130 PMCID: PMC8117542 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which threatens human health and public safety. In the urgent campaign to develop anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies, the initial entry step is one of the most appealing targets. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry, and the development of targeted antiviral strategies. Moreover, we speculate upon future directions toward next-generation of SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors during the upcoming post-pandemic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zinuo Chen
- College of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China
| | - Ruikun Du
- College of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China
- Qingdao Academy of Chinese Medicinal Sciences, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Qingdao 266122, China
- Experimental Center, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China
| | - Jazmin M. Galvan Achi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Lijun Rong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Qinghua Cui
- College of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China
- Qingdao Academy of Chinese Medicinal Sciences, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Qingdao 266122, China
- Experimental Center, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China
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14
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Dynamic, but Not Necessarily Disordered, Human-Virus Interactions Mediated through SLiMs in Viral Proteins. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122369. [PMID: 34960638 PMCID: PMC8703344 DOI: 10.3390/v13122369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most viruses have small genomes that encode proteins needed to perform essential enzymatic functions. Across virus families, primary enzyme functions are under functional constraint; however, secondary functions mediated by exposed protein surfaces that promote interactions with the host proteins may be less constrained. Viruses often form transient interactions with host proteins through conformationally flexible interfaces. Exposed flexible amino acid residues are known to evolve rapidly suggesting that secondary functions may generate diverse interaction potentials between viruses within the same viral family. One mechanism of interaction is viral mimicry through short linear motifs (SLiMs) that act as functional signatures in host proteins. Viral SLiMs display specific patterns of adjacent amino acids that resemble their host SLiMs and may occur by chance numerous times in viral proteins due to mutational and selective processes. Through mimicry of SLiMs in the host cell proteome, viruses can interfere with the protein interaction network of the host and utilize the host-cell machinery to their benefit. The overlap between rapidly evolving protein regions and the location of functionally critical SLiMs suggest that these motifs and their functional potential may be rapidly rewired causing variation in pathogenicity, infectivity, and virulence of related viruses. The following review provides an overview of known viral SLiMs with select examples of their role in the life cycle of a virus, and a discussion of the structural properties of experimentally validated SLiMs highlighting that a large portion of known viral SLiMs are devoid of predicted intrinsic disorder based on the viral SLiMs from the ELM database.
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15
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Gül Ş. In silico drug repositioning against human NRP1 to block SARS-CoV-2 host entry. Turk J Biol 2021; 45:442-458. [PMID: 34803446 PMCID: PMC8573850 DOI: 10.3906/biy-2012-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite COVID-19 turned into a pandemic, no approved drug for the treatment or globally available vaccine is out yet. In such a global emergency, drug repurposing approach that bypasses a costly and long-time demanding drug discovery process is an effective way in search of finding drugs for the COVID-19 treatment. Recent studies showed that SARS-CoV-2 uses neuropilin-1 (NRP1) for host entry. Here we took advantage of structural information of the NRP1 in complex with C-terminal of spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 to identify drugs that may inhibit NRP1 and S protein interaction. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs were screened using docking simulations. Among top drugs, well-tolerated drugs were selected for further analysis. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of drugs-NRP1 complexes were run for 100 ns to assess the persistency of binding. MM/GBSA calculations from MD simulations showed that eltrombopag, glimepiride, sitagliptin, dutasteride, and ergotamine stably and strongly bind to NRP1. In silico Alanine scanning analysis revealed that Tyr297, Trp301, and Tyr353 amino acids of NRP1 are critical for drug binding. Validating the effect of drugs analyzed in this paper by experimental studies and clinical trials will expedite the drug discovery process for COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Şeref Gül
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Koç University, İstanbul Turkey.,Biotechnology Division, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, İstanbul University, İstanbul Turkey
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16
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Volkwein W, Pavlovic M, Anton M, Haase M, Stellberger T, Jarrar A, Busch U, Baiker A. Detection and differentiation of murine leukemia virus (MLV) and murine stem cell virus (MSCV) and therefrom derived nucleic acids. J Virol Methods 2021; 299:114316. [PMID: 34627947 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Murine leukemia virus (MLV) and murine stem cell virus (MSCV) and derived retroviral vectors are widely used to study retrovirus biology and as tools for gene delivery. The method described here represents a quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) with hydrolysis probe that can be applied within classical qPCR as well as in digital droplet PCR (ddPCR). The method targets a 60 bp long fragment located within the U5 region of the MLV/MSCV genome sequence. For the here described method a LOD95% of 25 copies per PCR reaction (DNA) and 80 copies per PCR reaction (RNA) was determined, and PCR efficiencies of 92.5 % and 98.5 %, respectively, were observed. This method enables the fast and simple titration of viral genomic RNA present in retroviral vector stocks for accurate and consistent transduction experiments. Furthermore, it enables the detection of proviral and transfer plasmid derived DNA sequences and can be modified to differentiate between retroviral RNA and DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfram Volkwein
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Melanie Pavlovic
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Martina Anton
- Institute of Molecular Immunology and Experimental Oncology and Therapy Research, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Str. 22, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Maren Haase
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Thorsten Stellberger
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Amin Jarrar
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Ulrich Busch
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Armin Baiker
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany.
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17
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Hashemi SMA, Thijssen M, Hosseini SY, Tabarraei A, Pourkarim MR, Sarvari J. Human gene polymorphisms and their possible impact on the clinical outcome of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Arch Virol 2021; 166:2089-2108. [PMID: 33934196 PMCID: PMC8088757 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05070-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has become one of the most serious health concerns globally. Although multiple vaccines have recently been approved for the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), an effective treatment is still lacking. Our knowledge of the pathogenicity of this virus is still incomplete. Studies have revealed that viral factors such as the viral load, duration of exposure to the virus, and viral mutations are important variables in COVID-19 outcome. Furthermore, host factors, including age, health condition, co-morbidities, and genetic background, might also be involved in clinical manifestations and infection outcome. This review focuses on the importance of variations in the host genetic background and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. We will discuss the significance of polymorphisms in the ACE-2, TMPRSS2, vitamin D receptor, vitamin D binding protein, CD147, glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), neuropilin-1, heme oxygenase, apolipoprotein L1, vitamin K epoxide reductase complex 1 (VKORC1), and immune system genes for the clinical outcome of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Mohammad Ali Hashemi
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Microbiology, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Marijn Thijssen
- Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Seyed Younes Hosseini
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Alijan Tabarraei
- Infectious Diseases Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Reza Pourkarim
- Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Health Policy Research Centre, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Jamal Sarvari
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Gastroenterohepatology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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18
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Nagy A, Basiouni S, Parvin R, Hafez HM, Shehata AA. Evolutionary insights into the furin cleavage sites of SARS-CoV-2 variants from humans and animals. Arch Virol 2021; 166:2541-2549. [PMID: 34258664 PMCID: PMC8276844 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05166-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein Q677P/H mutation and furin cleavage site (FCS) have been shown to affect cell tropism and virus transmissibility. Here, we analyzed the frequency of Q677P/H and FCS point mutations in 1,144,793 human and 1042 animal spike protein sequences and from those of the emergent variants B.1.1.7, B.1.351, P.1, B.1.429 + B.1.427, and B.1.525, which were deposited in the database of the GISAID Initiative. Different genetic polymorphisms, particularly P681H and A688V, were detected in the FCS, mainly in human isolates, and otherwise, only pangolin and bat sequences had these mutations. Multiple FCS amino acid deletions such as Δ680SPRRA684 and Δ685RSVA688 were only detected in eight and four human isolates, respectively. Surprisingly, deletion of the entire FCS motif as Δ680SPRRARSVA688 and Δ680SPRRARSVAS689 was detected only in three human isolates. On the other hand, analysis of FCS from emergent variants showed no deletions in the FCS except for spike P681del, which was detected in seven B.1.1.7 isolates from the USA. Spike Q677P was detected only once in variant, B.1.1.7, whereas Q677H was detected in all variants, i.e., B.1.1.7 (n = 1938), B.1.351 (n = 28), P.1 (n = 9), B.1.429 + B.1.427 (n = 132), and B.1.525 (n = 1584). Structural modeling predicted that mutations or deletions at or near the FCS significantly alter the cleavage loop structure and would presumably affect furin binding. Taken together, our results show that Q677H and FCS point mutations are prevalent and may have various biological effects on the circulating variants. Therefore, we recommend urgent monitoring and surveillance of the investigated mutations, as well as laboratory assessment of their pathogenicity and transmissibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdou Nagy
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, 44511, Egypt.
| | - Shereen Basiouni
- Clinical Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Benha, Egypt
| | - Rokshana Parvin
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Hafez M Hafez
- Institute of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Free University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Awad A Shehata
- Avian and Rabbit Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sadat City University, Sadat City, Egypt. .,Research and Development Section, PerNaturam GmbH, Gödenroth, Germany.
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19
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Saleki K, Banazadeh M, Miri NS, Azadmehr A. Triangle of cytokine storm, central nervous system involvement, and viral infection in COVID-19: the role of sFasL and neuropilin-1. Rev Neurosci 2021; 33:147-160. [PMID: 34225390 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2021-0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) is identified as the cause of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and is often linked to extreme inflammatory responses by over activation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), cytokine storm, and sepsis. These are robust causes for multi-organ damage. In particular, potential routes of SARS-CoV2 entry, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), have been linked to central nervous system (CNS) involvement. CNS has been recognized as one of the most susceptible compartments to cytokine storm, which can be affected by neuropilin-1 (NRP-1). ACE2 is widely-recognized as a SARS-CoV2 entry pathway; However, NRP-1 has been recently introduced as a novel path of viral entry. Apoptosis of cells invaded by this virus involves Fas receptor-Fas ligand (FasL) signaling; moreover, Fas receptor may function as a controller of inflammation. Furthermore, NRP-1 may influence FasL and modulate cytokine profile. The neuroimmunological insult by SARS-CoV2 infection may be inhibited by therapeutic approaches targeting soluble Fas ligand (sFasL), cytokine storm elements, or related viral entry pathways. In the current review, we explain pivotal players behind the activation of cytokine storm that are associated with vast CNS injury. We also hypothesize that sFasL may affect neuroinflammatory processes and trigger the cytokine storm in COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiarash Saleki
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, 47176-47745, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, 47176-47745, Iran
- National Elite Foundation, Mazandaran Province Branch, Tehran, 48157-66435, Iran
| | - Mohammad Banazadeh
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Cosmetic Products Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, 76169-13555, Iran
| | - Niloufar Sadat Miri
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, 47176-47745, Iran
| | - Abbas Azadmehr
- National Elite Foundation, Mazandaran Province Branch, Tehran, 48157-66435, Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, 47176-47745, Iran
- Medical Immunology Department, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, 47176-47745, Iran
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20
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Khodajou-Masouleh H, Shahangian SS, Rasti B. Reinforcing our defense or weakening the enemy? A comparative overview of defensive and offensive strategies developed to confront COVID-19. Drug Metab Rev 2021; 53:508-541. [PMID: 33980089 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2021.1928686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Developing effective strategies to confront coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become one of the greatest concerns of the scientific community. In addition to the vast number of global mortalities due to COVID-19, since its outbreak, almost every aspect of human lives has changed one way or another. In the present review, various defensive and offensive strategies developed to confront COVID-19 are illustrated. The Administration of immune-boosting micronutrients/agents, as well as the inhibition of the activity of incompetent gatekeepers, including some host cell receptors (e.g. ACE2) and proteases (e.g. TMPRSS2), are some efficient defensive strategies. Antibody/phage therapies and specifically vaccines also play a prominent role in the enhancement of host defense against COVID-19. Nanotechnology, however, can considerably weaken the virulence of SARS-CoV-2, utilizing fake cellular locks (compounds mimicking cell receptors) to block the viral keys (spike proteins). Generally, two strategies are developed to interfere with the binding of spike proteins to the host cell receptors, either utilizing fake cellular locks to block the viral keys or utilizing fake viral keys to block the cellular locks. Due to their evolutionary conserved nature, viral enzymes, including 3CLpro, PLpro, RdRp, and helicase are highly potential targets for drug repurposing strategy. Thus, various steps of viral replication/transcription can effectively be blocked by their inhibition, leading to the elimination of SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, RNA decoy and CRISPR technologies likely offer the best offensive strategies after viral entry into the host cells, inhibiting the viral replication/assembly in the infected cells and substantially reducing the quantity of viral progeny.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S Shirin Shahangian
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
| | - Behnam Rasti
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University (IAU), Lahijan, Guilan, Iran
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21
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Abstract
The recent outbreak of COVID-19 has affected human lives severely. The human-to-human transmission of this viral disease has become deadly due to the unavailability of COVID-19 specific drugs. Here, an overview of various attempts made to design different therapeutic agents against various structural and non-structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 has been summarized. Emphasis has been made to highlight the mechanisms of drug action and ways to design better inhibitors of these proteins. The roles of anti-oxidants and vitamins in suppressing COVID-19 are also discussed.
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22
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Jobe A, Vijayan R. Neuropilins: C-end rule peptides and their association with nociception and COVID-19. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2021; 19:1889-1895. [PMID: 33815686 PMCID: PMC7997051 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2021.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral internalization is aided by host cell surface receptors. In the case of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV, the primary host receptor is the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Considering the disparities in the transmission rate and viral tropism of the two coronaviruses, additional host factors were suspected. Recently, a novel host factor for SARS-CoV-2 entry, neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) has been identified. These receptors potentiate viral infection in the presence of other host factors like ACE2. Through its C-end rule (CendR) motif exposed following furin processing, the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds to the CendR pocket of NRP-1 and achieves cell entry through endocytosis. The binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to the NRP-1 receptor interferes with the docking of its endogenous ligand VEGF-A, signaling that would otherwise promote nociception. This review looks at the function of neuropilins and how it contributes to SARS-CoV-2 infection and nociception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amie Jobe
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, PO Box 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ranjit Vijayan
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, PO Box 15551, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
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23
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Budhraja A, Pandey S, Kannan S, Verma CS, Venkatraman P. The polybasic insert, the RBD of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, and the feline coronavirus - evolved or yet to evolve. Biochem Biophys Rep 2021; 25:100907. [PMID: 33521335 PMCID: PMC7833556 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2021.100907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent research on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has exploded around the furin-cleavable polybasic insert PRRAR↓S, found within the spike protein. The insert and the receptor-binding domain, (RBD), are vital clues in the Sherlock Holmes-like investigation into the origin of the virus and in its zoonotic crossover. Based on comparative analysis of the whole genome and the sequence features of the insert and the RBD domain, the bat and the pangolin have been proposed as very likely intermediary hosts. In this study, using the various databases, in-house developed tools, sequence comparisons, structure-guided docking, and molecular dynamics simulations, we cautiously present a fresh, theoretical perspective on the SARS-CoV-2 virus activation and its intermediary host. They are a) the SARS-CoV-2 has not yet acquired a fully optimal furin binding site or this seemingly less optimal sequence, PRRARS, has been selected for survival; b) in structural models of furin complexed with peptides, PRRAR↓S binds less well and with distinct differences as compared to the all basic RRKRR↓S; c) these differences may be exploited for the design of virus-specific inhibitors; d) the novel polybasic insert of SARS-CoV-2 may be promiscuous enough to be cleaved by multiple enzymes of the human airway epithelium and tissues which may explain its unexpected broad tropism; e) the RBD domain of the feline coronavirus spike protein carries residues that are responsible for high-affinity binding of the SARS-CoV-2 to the ACE 2 receptor; f) en route zoonotic transfer, the virus may have passed through the domestic cat whose very human-like ACE2 receptor and furin may have played some role in optimizing the traits required for zoonotic transfer. Polybasic insert of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is rare among several hundred proteins with a motif ‘RRARS’. SARS CoV-2 shares furin-like site and RBD interface residues including hotspot sites, with some of the lethal form of Feline coronavirus spike protein and those from the healthy cats. Polybasic sequence PRRARS binds less well to furin in structural models. SARS-CoV-2 may have passed through the domestic cat during zoonotic transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshul Budhraja
- School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, D.Y. Patil University, Sector 15, Plot No 50, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400614, India
- Protein Interactome Lab for Structural and Functional Biology, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, 410210, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, 2nd Floor, BARC Training School Complex, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400094, India
| | - Sakshi Pandey
- School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, D.Y. Patil University, Sector 15, Plot No 50, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400614, India
- Protein Interactome Lab for Structural and Functional Biology, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, 410210, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, 2nd Floor, BARC Training School Complex, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400094, India
| | - Srinivasaraghavan Kannan
- Bioinformatics Institute, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 30 Biopolis Street, #07-01 Matrix, 138671, Singapore
| | - Chandra S. Verma
- Bioinformatics Institute, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 30 Biopolis Street, #07-01 Matrix, 138671, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551, Singapore
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Prasanna Venkatraman
- Protein Interactome Lab for Structural and Functional Biology, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, 410210, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, 2nd Floor, BARC Training School Complex, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400094, India
- Corresponding author. Protein Interactome Lab for Structural and Functional Biology, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer, Sector 22, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, 410210, India.
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24
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A risk marker of tribasic hemagglutinin cleavage site in influenza A (H9N2) virus. Commun Biol 2021; 4:71. [PMID: 33452423 PMCID: PMC7811019 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-01589-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Low pathogenic avian influenza A(H9N2) virus is endemic worldwide and continually recruit internal genes to generate human-infecting H5N1, H5N6, H7N9, and H10N8 influenza variants. Here we show that hemagglutinin cleavage sites (HACS) of H9N2 viruses tended to mutate towards hydrophilic via evolutionary transition, and the tribasic HACS were found at high prevalence in Asia and the Middle East. Our finding suggested that the tribasic H9N2 viruses increased the viral replication, stability, pathogenicity and transmission in chickens and the virulence of mice compared to the monobasic H9N2 viruses. Notably, the enlarged stem-loop structures of HACS in the RNA region were found in the increasing tribasic H9N2 viruses. The enlarged HACS RNA secondary structures of H9N2 viruses did not influence the viral replication but accelerated the frequency of nucleotide insertion in HACS. With the prevailing tendency of the tribasic H9N2 viruses, the tribasic HACS in H9N2 viruses should be paid more attention.
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Pathania AS, Prathipati P, Abdul BAA, Chava S, Katta SS, Gupta SC, Gangula PR, Pandey MK, Durden DL, Byrareddy SN, Challagundla KB. COVID-19 and Cancer Comorbidity: Therapeutic Opportunities and Challenges. Theranostics 2021; 11:731-753. [PMID: 33391502 PMCID: PMC7738845 DOI: 10.7150/thno.51471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a viral disease caused by a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that affects the respiratory system of infected individuals. COVID-19 spreads between humans through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The COVID-19 outbreak originated in Wuhan, China at the end of 2019. As of 29 Sept 2020, over 235 countries, areas or territories across the globe reported a total of 33,441,919 confirmed cases, and 1,003,497 confirmed deaths due to COVID-19. Individuals of all ages are at risk for infection, but in most cases disease severity is associated with age and pre-existing diseases that compromise immunity, like cancer. Numerous reports suggest that people with cancer can be at higher risk of severe illness and related deaths from COVID-19. Therefore, managing cancer care under this pandemic is challenging and requires a collaborative multidisciplinary approach for optimal care of cancer patients in hospital settings. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer patients, their care, and treatment. Further, this review covers the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, genome characterization, COVID-19 pathophysiology, and associated signaling pathways in cancer, and the choice of anticancer agents as repurposed drugs for treating COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anup S. Pathania
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & The Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center; University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Philip Prathipati
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Saito-Asagi Ibaraki City, Osaka 567-0085, Japan
| | - Bakrudeen AA. Abdul
- Department of Biochemistry, Center for Research & Development, PRIST Deemed University, Vallam, Tamil Nadu 613403, India
| | - Srinivas Chava
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & The Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center; University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Santharam S. Katta
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Sciences, REVA University, Rukmini Knowledge Park Kattigenahalli, Yelahanka, Bangalore, Karnataka 560064, India
| | - Subash C. Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Pandu R. Gangula
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences and Research, School of Dentistry, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
| | - Manoj K. Pandey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Camden, NJ 08103, USA
| | - Donald L. Durden
- Levine Cancer Institute, Atrium Health, Charlotte, NC 28202, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
- SignalRx Pharmaceuticals, Omaha, NE 68124, USA
| | - Siddappa N. Byrareddy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & The Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center; University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Kishore B. Challagundla
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & The Fred and Pamela Buffett Cancer Center; University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
- The Children's Health Research Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
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Segreto R, Deigin Y, McCairn K, Sousa A, Sirotkin D, Sirotkin K, Couey JJ, Jones A, Zhang D. Should we discount the laboratory origin of COVID-19? ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS 2021; 19:2743-2757. [PMID: 33786037 PMCID: PMC7993900 DOI: 10.1007/s10311-021-01211-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rossana Segreto
- Department of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | | | - Alejandro Sousa
- Regional Hospital of Monforte, Lugo, Spain
- University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Adrian Jones
- Independent Bioinformatics Researcher, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Daoyu Zhang
- Independent Genetics Researcher, Sydney, Australia
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27
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Blaurock C, Scheibner D, Landmann M, Vallbracht M, Ulrich R, Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Mettenleiter TC, Abdelwhab EM. Non-basic amino acids in the hemagglutinin proteolytic cleavage site of a European H9N2 avian influenza virus modulate virulence in turkeys. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21226. [PMID: 33277593 PMCID: PMC7718272 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78210-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) is the most widespread low pathogenic (LP) AIV in poultry and poses a serious zoonotic risk. Vaccination is used extensively to mitigate the economic impact of the virus. However, mutations were acquired after long-term circulation of H9N2 virus in poultry, particularly in the hemagglutinin (HA) proteolytic cleavage site (CS), a main virulence determinant of AIV. Compared to chickens, little is known about the genetic determinants for adaptation of H9N2 AIV to turkeys. Here, we describe 36 different CS motifs in Eurasian H9N2 viruses identified from 1966 to 2019. The European H9N2 viruses specify unique HACS with particular polymorphism by insertion of non-basic amino acids at position 319. Recombinant viruses carrying single HACS mutations resembling field viruses were constructed (designated G319, A319, N319, S319, D319 and K319). Several viruses replicated to significantly higher titers in turkey cells than in chicken cells. Serine proteases were more efficient than trypsin to support multicycle replication in mammalian cells. Mutations affected cell-to-cell spread and pH-dependent HA fusion activity. In contrast to chickens, mutations in the HACS modulated clinical signs in inoculated and co-housed turkeys. G319 exhibited the lowest virulence, however, it replicated to significantly higher titers in contact-turkeys and in vitro. Interestingly, H9N2 viruses, particularly G319, replicated in brain cells of turkeys and to a lesser extent in mammalian brain cells independent of trypsin. Therefore, the silent circulation of potentially zoonotic H9N2 viruses in poultry should be monitored carefully. These results are important for understanding the adaptation of H9N2 in poultry and replication in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Blaurock
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - David Scheibner
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Maria Landmann
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Melina Vallbracht
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Elsayed M Abdelwhab
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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28
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Jin X, Xu K, Jiang P, Lian J, Hao S, Yao H, Jia H, Zhang Y, Zheng L, Zheng N, Chen D, Yao J, Hu J, Gao J, Wen L, Shen J, Ren Y, Yu G, Wang X, Lu Y, Yu X, Yu L, Xiang D, Wu N, Lu X, Cheng L, Liu F, Wu H, Jin C, Yang X, Qian P, Qiu Y, Sheng J, Liang T, Li L, Yang Y. Virus strain from a mild COVID-19 patient in Hangzhou represents a new trend in SARS-CoV-2 evolution potentially related to Furin cleavage site. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020; 9:1474-1488. [PMID: 32543348 PMCID: PMC7473176 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1781551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 06/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 virus genome during COVID-19 dissemination are unclear. In 788 COVID-19 patients from Zhejiang province, we observed decreased rate of severe/critical cases compared with patients in Wuhan. For mechanisms exploration, we isolated one strain of SARS-CoV-2 (ZJ01) from a mild COVID-19 patient. Thirty-five specific gene mutations were identified. Phylogenetic and relative synonymous codon usage analysis suggested that ZJ01 may be a potential evolutionary branch of SARS-CoV-2. We classified 54 global virus strains based on the base (C or T) at positions 8824 and 28247 while ZJ01 has T at both sites. The prediction of the Furin cleavage site (FCS) and sequence alignment indicated that the FCS may be an important site of coronavirus evolution. ZJ01 mutations identified near the FCS (F1-2) caused changes in the structure and electrostatic distribution of the S surface protein, further affecting the binding capacity of Furin. Single-cell sequencing and ACE2-Furin co-expression results confirmed that the Furin expression was especially higher in glands, liver, kidneys, and colon. The evolutionary pattern of SARS-CoV-2 towards FCS formation may result in its clinical symptom becoming closer to HKU-1 and OC43 caused mild flu-like symptoms, further showing its potential in differentiating into mild COVID-19 subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Jin
- Department of Gastroenterology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kangli Xu
- Emergency and Trauma Center, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Penglei Jiang
- Center of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, and Bone Marrow Transplantation Center of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunotherapy, Institute of Hematology, Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiangshan Lian
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shaorui Hao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hangping Yao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongyu Jia
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yimin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lin Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Nuoheng Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dong Chen
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jinmei Yao
- Laboratory Department, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianhua Hu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianguo Gao
- Department of Gastroenterology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Liang Wen
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jian Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Ren
- Department of Gastroenterology, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guodong Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yingfeng Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaopeng Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Liang Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dairong Xiang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Nanping Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiangyun Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Linfang Cheng
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fumin Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Haibo Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Changzhong Jin
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaofeng Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pengxu Qian
- Center of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, and Bone Marrow Transplantation Center of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory for Stem Cell and Immunotherapy, Institute of Hematology, Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yunqing Qiu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jifang Sheng
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tingbo Liang
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yida Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
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29
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Chaudhry F, Lavandero S, Xie X, Sabharwal B, Zheng YY, Correa A, Narula J, Levy P. Manipulation of ACE2 expression in COVID-19. Open Heart 2020; 7:e001424. [PMID: 33443121 PMCID: PMC7757413 DOI: 10.1136/openhrt-2020-001424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is the virus responsible for the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak. The virus uses ACE2 receptor for viral entry. ACE2 is part of the counter-regulatory renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and is also expressed in the lower respiratory tract along the alveolar epithelium. There is, however, significant controversy regarding the role of ACE2 expression in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Some have argued that decreasing ACE2 expression would result in decreased susceptibility to the virus by decreasing available binding sites for SARS-CoV-2 and restricting viral entry into the cells. Others have argued that, like the pathogenesis of other viral pneumonias, including those stemming from previous severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) viruses, once SARS-CoV-2 binds to ACE2, it downregulates ACE2 expression. Lack of the favourable effects of ACE2 might exaggerate lung injury by a variety of mechanisms. In order to help address this controversy, we conducted a literature search and review of relevant preclinical and clinical publications pertaining to SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, ACE2, viral pneumonia, SARS, acute respiratory distress syndrome and lung injury. Our review suggests, although controversial, that patients at increased susceptibility to COVID-19 complications may have reduced baseline ACE2, and by modulating ACE2 expression one can possibly improve COVID-19 outcomes. Herein, we elucidate why and how this potential mechanism might work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhan Chaudhry
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Integrative Biosciences Center, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Sergio Lavandero
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas y Farmaceuticas and Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Internal Medicine (Cardiology Division), University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Xiang Xie
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Basera Sabharwal
- Division of Cardiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ying-Ying Zheng
- Department of Cardiology, First Affiliated Hospital, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Ashish Correa
- Division of Cardiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jagat Narula
- Division of Cardiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Phillip Levy
- Department of Emergency Medicine and Integrative Biosciences Center, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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30
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Stratton CW, Tang YW, Lu H. Pathogenesis-directed therapy of 2019 novel coronavirus disease. J Med Virol 2020; 93:1320-1342. [PMID: 33073355 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) now is considered a global public health emergency. One of the unprecedented challenges is defining the optimal therapy for those patients with severe pneumonia and systemic manifestations of COVID-19. The optimal therapy should be largely based on the pathogenesis of infections caused by this novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Since the onset of COVID-19, there have been many prepublications and publications reviewing the therapy of COVID-19 as well as many prepublications and publications reviewing the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. However, there have been no comprehensive reviews that link COVID-19 therapies to the pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. To link COVID-19 therapies to pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2, we performed a comprehensive search through MEDLINE, PubMed, medRxiv, EMBASE, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science using the following keywords: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, novel 2019 coronavirus, pathology, pathologic, pathogenesis, pathophysiology, coronavirus pneumonia, coronavirus infection, coronavirus pulmonary infection, coronavirus cardiovascular infection, coronavirus gastroenteritis, coronavirus autopsy findings, viral sepsis, endotheliitis, thrombosis, coagulation abnormalities, immunology, humeral immunity, cellular immunity, inflammation, cytokine storm, superantigen, therapy, treatment, therapeutics, immune-based therapeutics, antiviral agents, respiratory therapy, oxygen therapy, anticoagulation therapy, adjuvant therapy, and preventative therapy. Opinions expressed in this review also are based on personal experience as clinicians, authors, peer reviewers, and editors. This narrative review linking COVID-19 therapies with pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in six major therapeutic goals for COVID-19 therapy based on the pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. These goals are listed below: 1. The first goal is identifying COVID-19 patients that require both testing and therapy. This is best accomplished with a COVID-19 molecular test from symptomatic patients as well as determining the oxygen saturation in such patients with a pulse oximeter. Whether a symptomatic respiratory illness is COVID-19, influenza, or another respiratory pathogen, an oxygen saturation less than 90% means that the patient requires medical assistance. 2. The second goal is to correct the hypoxia. This goal generally requires hospitalization for oxygen therapy; other respiratory-directed therapies such as prone positioning or mechanical ventilation are often used in the attempt to correct hypoxemia due to COVID-19. 3. The third goal is to reduce the viral load of SARS-CoV-2. Ideally, there would be an oral antiviral agent available such as seen with the use of oseltamivir phosphate for influenza. This oral antiviral agent should be taken early in the course of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Such an oral agent is not available yet. Currently, two options are available for reducing the viral load of SARS-CoV-2. These are post-Covid-19 plasma with a high neutralizing antibody titer against SARS-CoV-2 or intravenous remdesivir; both options require hospitalization. 4. The fourth goal is to identify and address the hyperinflammation phase often seen in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Currently, fever with an elevated C-reactive protein is useful for diagnosing this hyperinflammation syndrome. Low-dose dexamethasone therapy currently is the best therapeutic approach. 5. The fifth goal is to identify and address the hypercoagulability phase seen in many hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Patients who would benefit from anticoagulation therapy can be identified by a marked increase in d-dimer and prothrombin time with a decrease in fibrinogen. To correct this disseminated intravascular coagulation-like phase, anticoagulation therapy with low molecular weight heparin is preferred. Anticoagulation therapy with unfractionated heparin is preferred in COVID-19 patients with acute kidney injuries. 6. The last goal is prophylaxis for persons who are not yet infected. Potential supplements include vitamin D and zinc. Although the data for such supplements is not extremely strong, it can be argued that almost 50% of the population worldwide has a vitamin D deficiency. Correcting this deficiency would be beneficial regardless of any impact of COVID-19. Similarly, zinc is an important supplement that is important in one's diet regardless of any effect on SARS-CoV-2. As emerging therapies are found to be more effective against the SARS-CoV-2 pathogenic mechanisms identified, they can be substituted for those therapies presented in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles W Stratton
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yi-Wei Tang
- Danaher Diagnostic Platform/Cepheid, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongzhou Lu
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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31
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Cantuti-Castelvetri L, Ojha R, Pedro LD, Djannatian M, Franz J, Kuivanen S, van der Meer F, Kallio K, Kaya T, Anastasina M, Smura T, Levanov L, Szirovicza L, Tobi A, Kallio-Kokko H, Österlund P, Joensuu M, Meunier FA, Butcher SJ, Winkler MS, Mollenhauer B, Helenius A, Gokce O, Teesalu T, Hepojoki J, Vapalahti O, Stadelmann C, Balistreri G, Simons M. Neuropilin-1 facilitates SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and infectivity. Science 2020; 370:856-860. [PMID: 33082293 PMCID: PMC7857391 DOI: 10.1126/science.abd2985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1263] [Impact Index Per Article: 315.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Virus-host interactions determine cellular entry and spreading in tissues. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the earlier SARS-CoV use angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a receptor; however, their tissue tropism differs, raising the possibility that additional host factors are involved. The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 contains a cleavage site for the protease furin that is absent from SARS-CoV (see the Perspective by Kielian). Cantuti-Castelvetri et al. now show that neuropilin-1 (NRP1), which is known to bind furin-cleaved substrates, potentiates SARS-CoV-2 infectivity. NRP1 is abundantly expressed in the respiratory and olfactory epithelium, with highest expression in endothelial and epithelial cells. Daly et al. found that the furin-cleaved S1 fragment of the spike protein binds directly to cell surface NRP1 and blocking this interaction with a small-molecule inhibitor or monoclonal antibodies reduced viral infection in cell culture. Understanding the role of NRP1 in SARS-CoV-2 infection may suggest potential targets for future antiviral therapeutics. Science, this issue p. 856, p. 861; see also p. 765 The causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). For many viruses, tissue tropism is determined by the availability of virus receptors and entry cofactors on the surface of host cells. In this study, we found that neuropilin-1 (NRP1), known to bind furin-cleaved substrates, significantly potentiates SARS-CoV-2 infectivity, an effect blocked by a monoclonal blocking antibody against NRP1. A SARS-CoV-2 mutant with an altered furin cleavage site did not depend on NRP1 for infectivity. Pathological analysis of olfactory epithelium obtained from human COVID-19 autopsies revealed that SARS-CoV-2 infected NRP1-positive cells facing the nasal cavity. Our data provide insight into SARS-CoV-2 cell infectivity and define a potential target for antiviral intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovico Cantuti-Castelvetri
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | - Ravi Ojha
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Liliana D Pedro
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | - Minou Djannatian
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | - Jonas Franz
- Department of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological Networks, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Suvi Kuivanen
- Department of Virology, Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Katri Kallio
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tuğberk Kaya
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Maria Anastasina
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences-Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teemu Smura
- Department of Virology, Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lev Levanov
- Department of Virology, Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Leonora Szirovicza
- Department of Virology, Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Allan Tobi
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Hannimari Kallio-Kokko
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pamela Österlund
- Department of Health Security, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Merja Joensuu
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Frédéric A Meunier
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sarah J Butcher
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences-Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martin Sebastian Winkler
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Brit Mollenhauer
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Paracelsus-Elena-Klinik Kassel, Kassel, Germany
| | - Ari Helenius
- Institute of Biochemistry, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Ozgun Gokce
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tambet Teesalu
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Cancer Research Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Center for Nanomedicine and Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Jussi Hepojoki
- Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological Networks, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Olli Vapalahti
- Department of Virology, Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Christine Stadelmann
- Department of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Giuseppe Balistreri
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. .,The Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mikael Simons
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany. .,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
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32
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Nchioua R, Kmiec D, Müller JA, Conzelmann C, Groß R, Swanson CM, Neil SJD, Stenger S, Sauter D, Münch J, Sparrer KMJ, Kirchhoff F. SARS-CoV-2 Is Restricted by Zinc Finger Antiviral Protein despite Preadaptation to the Low-CpG Environment in Humans. mBio 2020; 11:e01930-20. [PMID: 33067384 PMCID: PMC7569149 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01930-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence shows that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is sensitive to interferons (IFNs). However, the most effective types of IFNs and the underlying antiviral effectors remain to be defined. Here, we show that zinc finger antiviral protein (ZAP), which preferentially targets CpG dinucleotides in viral RNA sequences, restricts SARS-CoV-2. We further demonstrate that ZAP and its cofactors KHNYN and TRIM25 are expressed in human lung cells. Type I, II, and III IFNs all strongly inhibited SARS-CoV-2 and further induced ZAP expression. Comprehensive sequence analyses revealed that SARS-CoV-2 and its closest relatives from horseshoe bats showed the strongest CpG suppression among all known human and bat coronaviruses, respectively. Nevertheless, endogenous ZAP expression restricted SARS-CoV-2 replication in human lung cells, particularly upon treatment with IFN-α or IFN-γ. Both the long and the short isoforms of human ZAP reduced SARS-CoV-2 RNA expression levels, but the former did so with greater efficiency. Finally, we show that the ability to restrict SARS-CoV-2 is conserved in ZAP orthologues of the reservoir bat and potential intermediate pangolin hosts of human coronaviruses. Altogether, our results show that ZAP is an important effector of the innate response against SARS-CoV-2, although this pandemic pathogen emerged from zoonosis of a coronavirus that was preadapted to the low-CpG environment in humans.IMPORTANCE Although interferons inhibit SARS-CoV-2 and have been evaluated for treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the most effective types and antiviral effectors remain to be defined. Here, we show that IFN-γ is particularly potent in restricting SARS-CoV-2 and in inducing expression of the antiviral factor ZAP in human lung cells. Knockdown experiments revealed that endogenous ZAP significantly restricts SARS-CoV-2. We further show that CpG dinucleotides which are specifically targeted by ZAP are strongly suppressed in the SARS-CoV-2 genome and that the two closest horseshoe bat relatives of SARS-CoV-2 show the lowest genomic CpG content of all coronavirus sequences available from this reservoir host. Nonetheless, both the short and long isoforms of human ZAP reduced SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels, and this activity was conserved in horseshoe bat and pangolin ZAP orthologues. Our findings indicating that type II interferon is particularly efficient against SARS-CoV-2 and that ZAP restricts this pandemic viral pathogen might promote the development of effective immune therapies against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayhane Nchioua
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Dorota Kmiec
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Janis A Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Carina Conzelmann
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Groß
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Chad M Swanson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J D Neil
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Steffen Stenger
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Daniel Sauter
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Jan Münch
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
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33
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Chen L, Chen H, Dong S, Huang W, Chen L, Wei Y, Shi L, Li J, Zhu F, Zhu Z, Wang Y, Lv X, Yu X, Li H, Wei W, Zhang K, Zhu L, Qu C, Hong J, Hu C, Dong J, Qi R, Lu D, Wang H, Peng S, Hao G. The Effects of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine on ACE2-Related Coronavirus Pathology and the Cardiovascular System: An Evidence-Based Review. FUNCTION 2020; 1:zqaa012. [PMID: 38626250 PMCID: PMC7454642 DOI: 10.1093/function/zqaa012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a serious threat to global public health and there is currently no effective antiviral therapy. It has been suggested that chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), which were primarily employed as prophylaxis and treatment for malaria, could be used to treat COVID-19. CQ and HCQ may be potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells, which are mediated via the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and may also inhibit subsequent intracellular processes which lead to COVID-19, including damage to the cardiovascular (CV) system. However, paradoxically, CQ and HCQ have also been reported to cause damage to the CV system. In this review, we provide a critical examination of the published evidence. CQ and HCQ could potentially be useful drugs in the treatment of COVID-19 and other ACE2 involved virus infections, but the antiviral effects of CQ and HCQ need to be tested in more well-designed clinical randomized studies and their actions on the CV system need to be further elucidated. However, even if it were to turn out that CQ and HCQ are not useful drugs in practice, further studies of their mechanism of action could be helpful in improving our understanding of COVID-19 pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Department of Medicine, Georgia Prevention Institute, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Haiyan Chen
- Department of Endemic Disease, Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou 510440, China
| | - Shan Dong
- Guangzhou First People’s Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510180, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Li Chen
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Yuan Wei
- Center for Scientific Research and Institute of Exercise and Health, Guangzhou Sports University, Guangzhou 510500, China
| | - Liping Shi
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Jinying Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Fengfeng Zhu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreas Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital Of University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
| | - Zhu Zhu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreas Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital Of University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
| | - Yiyang Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiuxiu Lv
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Xiaohui Yu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Hongmei Li
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Keke Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Lihong Zhu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Chen Qu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jian Hong
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Chaofeng Hu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Jun Dong
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Renbin Qi
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Daxiang Lu
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Huadong Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Key Laboratory of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People’s Republic of China, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Shuang Peng
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Guang Hao
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
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34
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Ji HL, Zhao R, Matalon S, Matthay MA. Elevated Plasmin(ogen) as a Common Risk Factor for COVID-19 Susceptibility. Physiol Rev 2020; 100:1065-1075. [PMID: 32216698 PMCID: PMC7191627 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00013.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular illness, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and kidney dysfunction have worse clinical outcomes when infected with SARS-CoV-2, for unknown reasons. The purpose of this review is to summarize the evidence for the existence of elevated plasmin(ogen) in COVID-19 patients with these comorbid conditions. Plasmin, and other proteases, may cleave a newly inserted furin site in the S protein of SARS-CoV-2, extracellularly, which increases its infectivity and virulence. Hyperfibrinolysis associated with plasmin leads to elevated D-dimer in severe patients. The plasmin(ogen) system may prove a promising therapeutic target for combating COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Long Ji
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Texas Lung Injury Institute, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, Pulmonary Injury and Repair Center, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; and Department of Medicine and Anesthesia, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Runzhen Zhao
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Texas Lung Injury Institute, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, Pulmonary Injury and Repair Center, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; and Department of Medicine and Anesthesia, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Sadis Matalon
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Texas Lung Injury Institute, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, Pulmonary Injury and Repair Center, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; and Department of Medicine and Anesthesia, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Michael A Matthay
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Texas Lung Injury Institute, University of Texas Health Science Centre at Tyler, Tyler, Texas; Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, Pulmonary Injury and Repair Center, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; and Department of Medicine and Anesthesia, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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35
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Li W. Delving deep into the structural aspects of a furin cleavage site inserted into the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2: A structural biophysical perspective. Biophys Chem 2020; 264:106420. [PMID: 32622243 PMCID: PMC7322478 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2020.106420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
One notable feature of the SARS-CoV-2 genome, the spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2 has a polybasic furin cleavage site (FCS) at its S1-S2 boundary through the insertion of 12 nucleotides encoding four amino acid residues PRRA. Quite intriguingly, this polybasic FCS is absent in coronaviruses of the same clade as SARS-CoV-2. Thus, with currently available experimental structural data for S protein, this short article presents a set of comprehensive structural characterization of the insertion of FCS into S protein, and argues against a hypothesis of the origin of SARS-CoV-2 from purposeful manipulation: (1), the inserted FCS is spatially located at a random coil loop region, mostly distantly solvent-exposed (instead of deeply buried), with no structural proximity to the other part of the S protein; (2), the insertion of FCS itself does not alter, neither stabilize nor de-stabilize, the three-dimensional structure of S; (3), the net result here is the insertion of a furin cleavage site into S protein, whose S1 and S2 subunits will still be strongly electrostatically bonded together from a structural and biophysical point of view, even if the polybasic FCS is actually cleaved by furin protease before or after viral cell entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Nantong University, No. 9, Seyuan Road, Nantong City, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China.
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36
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Carnaccini S, Perez DR. H9 Influenza Viruses: An Emerging Challenge. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2020; 10:cshperspect.a038588. [PMID: 31871234 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a038588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) of the H9 subtype are enzootic in Asia, the Middle East, and parts of North and Central Africa, where they cause significant economic losses to the poultry industry. Of note, some strains of H9N2 viruses have been linked to zoonotic episodes of mild respiratory diseases. Because of the threat posed by H9N2 viruses to poultry and human health, these viruses are considered of pandemic concern by the World Health Organization (WHO). H9N2 IAVs continue to diversify into multiple antigenically and phylogenetically distinct lineages that can further promote the emergence of strains with pandemic potential. Somewhat neglected compared with the H5 and H7 subtypes, there are numerous indicators that H9N2 viruses could be involved directly or indirectly in the emergence of the next influenza pandemic. The goal of this work is to discuss the state of knowledge on H9N2 IAVs and to provide an update on the contemporary global situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Carnaccini
- Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
| | - Daniel R Perez
- Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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37
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Proteolytic Cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein and the Role of the Novel S1/S2 Site. iScience 2020; 23:101212. [PMID: 32512386 PMCID: PMC7255728 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has rapidly spread to the entire world within a few months. The origin of SARS-CoV-2 has been related to the lineage B Betacoronavirus SARS-CoV and SARS-related coronaviruses found in bats. Early characterizations of the SARS-CoV-2 genome revealed the existence of a distinct four amino acid insert within the spike (S) protein (underlined, SPRRAR↓S), at the S1/S2 site located at the interface between the S1 receptor binding subunit and the S2 fusion subunit. Notably, this insert appears to be a distinguishing feature among SARS-related sequences and introduces a potential cleavage site for the protease furin. Here, we investigate the potential role of this novel S1/S2 cleavage site and present direct biochemical evidence for proteolytic processing by a variety of proteases. We discuss these findings in the context of the origin of SARS-CoV-2, viral stability, and transmission.
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38
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Abstract
A novel severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is causing the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding how SARS-CoV-2 enters human cells is a high priority for deciphering its mystery and curbing its spread. A virus surface spike protein mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. To fulfill its function, SARS-CoV-2 spike binds to its receptor human ACE2 (hACE2) through its receptor-binding domain (RBD) and is proteolytically activated by human proteases. Here we investigated receptor binding and protease activation of SARS-CoV-2 spike using biochemical and pseudovirus entry assays. Our findings have identified key cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. First, SARS-CoV-2 RBD has higher hACE2 binding affinity than SARS-CoV RBD, supporting efficient cell entry. Second, paradoxically, the hACE2 binding affinity of the entire SARS-CoV-2 spike is comparable to or lower than that of SARS-CoV spike, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 RBD, albeit more potent, is less exposed than SARS-CoV RBD. Third, unlike SARS-CoV, cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 is preactivated by proprotein convertase furin, reducing its dependence on target cell proteases for entry. The high hACE2 binding affinity of the RBD, furin preactivation of the spike, and hidden RBD in the spike potentially allow SARS-CoV-2 to maintain efficient cell entry while evading immune surveillance. These features may contribute to the wide spread of the virus. Successful intervention strategies must target both the potency of SARS-CoV-2 and its evasiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Shang
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Yushun Wan
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Chuming Luo
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Gang Ye
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Qibin Geng
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Ashley Auerbach
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
| | - Fang Li
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108
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39
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Abstract
A key to curbing SARS-CoV-2 is to understand how it enters cells. SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV both use human ACE2 as entry receptor and human proteases as entry activators. Using biochemical and pseudovirus entry assays and SARS-CoV as a comparison, we have identified key cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 that potentially contribute to the immune evasion, cell infectivity, and wide spread of the virus. This study also clarifies conflicting reports from recent studies on cell entry of SARS-CoV-2. Finally, by highlighting the potency and the evasiveness of SARS-CoV-2, the study provides insight into intervention strategies that target its cell entry mechanisms. A novel severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is causing the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding how SARS-CoV-2 enters human cells is a high priority for deciphering its mystery and curbing its spread. A virus surface spike protein mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. To fulfill its function, SARS-CoV-2 spike binds to its receptor human ACE2 (hACE2) through its receptor-binding domain (RBD) and is proteolytically activated by human proteases. Here we investigated receptor binding and protease activation of SARS-CoV-2 spike using biochemical and pseudovirus entry assays. Our findings have identified key cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. First, SARS-CoV-2 RBD has higher hACE2 binding affinity than SARS-CoV RBD, supporting efficient cell entry. Second, paradoxically, the hACE2 binding affinity of the entire SARS-CoV-2 spike is comparable to or lower than that of SARS-CoV spike, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 RBD, albeit more potent, is less exposed than SARS-CoV RBD. Third, unlike SARS-CoV, cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 is preactivated by proprotein convertase furin, reducing its dependence on target cell proteases for entry. The high hACE2 binding affinity of the RBD, furin preactivation of the spike, and hidden RBD in the spike potentially allow SARS-CoV-2 to maintain efficient cell entry while evading immune surveillance. These features may contribute to the wide spread of the virus. Successful intervention strategies must target both the potency of SARS-CoV-2 and its evasiveness.
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40
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Jaimes JA, Millet JK, Whittaker GR. Proteolytic cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and the role of the novel S1/S2 site. SSRN 2020:3581359. [PMID: 32714113 PMCID: PMC7366798 DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3581359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has rapidly spread from an initial outbreak in Wuhan, China in December 2019 to the rest of the world within a few months. On March 11th 2020, the rapidly evolving COVID-19 situation was characterized as a pandemic by the WHO. Much attention has been drawn to the origin of SARS-CoV-2, a virus which is related to the lineage B betacoronavirus SARS-CoV and SARS-related coronaviruses found in bat species. The closest known relative to SARS-CoV-2 is a bat coronavirus named RaTG13 (BatCoV-RaTG13). Early characterizations of the SARS-CoV-2 genome revealed the existence of a distinct 4 amino acid insert (underlined, SPRRAR↓S), found within the spike (S) protein, at a position termed the S1/S2 site located at the interface between the S1 receptor binding subunit and the S2 fusion subunit. Notably, this S1/S2 insert appears to be distinguishing feature among SARS-related sequences and introduces a potential cleavage site for the protease furin. Here, we investigate the potential role of this novel S1/S2 cleavage site and present direct biochemical evidence for proteolytic processing by a variety of proteases, including furin, trypsin-like proteases and cathepsins. We discuss these findings in the broader context of the origin of SARS-CoV-2, viral stability and transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier A Jaimes
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
| | - Jean K Millet
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, UVSQ, Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Gary R Whittaker
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
- Master of Public Health Program, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
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41
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Ghabeshi S, Ebrahimie E, Salimi V, Ghanizadeh A, Khodakhah F, Yavarian J, Norouzbabaei Z, Sasani F, Rezaie F, Azad TM. Experimental direct-contact transmission of influenza A/H9N2 virus in the guinea pig model in Iran. Future Virol 2020. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2019-0141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aim: The present study aims to evaluate risk factors for the transmission of A/H9N2 viruses in guinea pig model. Materials & methods: Lung tissue samples were collected from the chicken clinically infected with influenza A/H9N2 virus in 2018. Next, virus isolation and titration, as well as reverse transcription PCR were performed. Then, hemagglutnation and neuraminidase genes was sequenced to identify different positions (hotspots) involved in transmission and host adaptation. Results: Influenza A/H9N2 virus could replicate in low titers in the nasal turbinate and transmit from infected to noninfected guinea pigs. Conclusion: Hotspots on the surface glycoproteins had the potential to alter transmission properties in the new host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soad Ghabeshi
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Esmaeil Ebrahimie
- School of Animal and VeterinarySciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
- Genomics Research Platform, Schoolof Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Vahid Salimi
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Arash Ghanizadeh
- Department of Biotechnology, Razi Vaccine & Serum Research Institute, Karaj, Alborz, Iran
| | - Farshad Khodakhah
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jila Yavarian
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Norouzbabaei
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farhang Sasani
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farhad Rezaie
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Talat Mokhtari Azad
- Virology Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Parvin R, Schinkoethe J, Grund C, Ulrich R, Bönte F, Behr KP, Voss M, Samad MA, Hassan KE, Luttermann C, Beer M, Harder T. Comparison of pathogenicity of subtype H9 avian influenza wild-type viruses from a wide geographic origin expressing mono-, di-, or tri-basic hemagglutinin cleavage sites. Vet Res 2020; 51:48. [PMID: 32234073 PMCID: PMC7106749 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00771-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
An intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI) of > 1.2 in chickens or, in case of subtypes H5 and H7, expression of a polybasic hemagglutinin cleavage site (HACS), signals high pathogenicity (HP). Viruses of the H9N2-G1 lineage, which spread across Asia and Africa, are classified to be of low pathogenicity although, in the field, they became associated with severe clinical signs and epizootics in chickens. Here we report on a pre-eminent trait of recent H9N2-G1 isolates from Bangladesh and India, which express a tribasic HACS (motif PAKSKR-GLF; reminiscent of an HPAIV-like polybasic HACS) and compare their features to H9Nx viruses with di- and monobasic HACS from other phylogenetic and geographic origins. In an in vitro assay, the tribasic HACS of H9N2 was processed by furin-like proteases similar to bona fide H5 HPAIV while some dibasic sites showed increased cleavability but monobasic HACS none. Yet, all viruses remained trypsin-dependent in cell culture. In ovo, only tribasic H9N2 viruses were found to replicate in a grossly extended spectrum of embryonic organs. In contrast to all subtype H5/H7 HPAI viruses, tribasic H9N2 viruses did not replicate in endothelial cells either in the chorio-allantoic membrane or in other embryonic tissues. By IVPI, all H9Nx isolates proved to be of low pathogenicity. Pathogenicity assessment of tribasic H9N2-G1 viruses remains problematic. It cannot be excluded that the formation of a third basic amino acid in the HACS forms an intermediate step towards a gain in pathogenicity. Continued observation of the evolution of these viruses in the field is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rokshana Parvin
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Jan Schinkoethe
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christian Grund
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Bönte
- University of Applied Sciences Wedel, Feldstraße 143, 22880, Wedel, Germany
| | - Klaus P Behr
- AniCon Labor GmbH, Mühlenstraße, 49685, Höltinghausen, Germany
| | - Matthias Voss
- Lohmann Tierzucht GmbH, Veterinär-Labor, Abschnede 64, 27472, Cuxhaven, Germany
| | - Mohammed A Samad
- NRL-AI, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI), Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kareem E Hassan
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.,Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef, Egypt
| | - Christine Luttermann
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Greifswald-Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Timm Harder
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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43
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Yeo SJ, Than DD, Park HS, Sung HW, Park H. Molecular Characterization of a Novel Avian Influenza A (H2N9) Strain Isolated from Wild Duck in Korea in 2018. Viruses 2019; 11:v11111046. [PMID: 31717636 PMCID: PMC6893532 DOI: 10.3390/v11111046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel avian influenza virus (A/wild duck/Korea/K102/2018) (H2N9) was isolated from wild birds in South Korea in 2018, and phylogenetic and molecular analyses were conducted on complete gene sequences obtained by next-generation sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes of the A/wild duck/Korea/K102/2018 (H2N9) virus belonged to the Eurasian countries, whereas other internal genes (polymerase basic protein 1 (PB1), PB2, nucleoprotein (NP), polymerase acidic protein (PA), matrix protein (M), and non-structural protein (NS)) belonged to the East Asian countries. A monobasic amino acid (PQIEPR/GLF) at the HA cleavage site, E627 in the PB2 gene, and no deletion of the stalk region in the NA gene indicated that the A/wild duck/Korea/K102/2018 (H2N9) isolate was a typical low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI). Nucleotide sequence similarity analysis of HA revealed that the highest homology (98.34%) is to that of A/duck/Mongolia/482/2015 (H2N3), and amino acid sequence of NA was closely related to that of A/duck/Bangladesh/8987/2010 (H10N9) (96.45%). In contrast, internal genes showed homology higher than 98% compared to those of other isolates derived from duck and wild birds of China or Japan in 2016–2018. The newly isolated A/wild duck/Korea/K102/2018 (H2N9) strain is the first reported avian influenza virus in Korea, and may have evolved from multiple genotypes in wild birds and ducks in Mongolia, China, and Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seon-Ju Yeo
- Zoonosis Research Center, Department of Infection Biology, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Korea; (S.-J.Y.); (D.-D.T.)
| | - Duc-Duong Than
- Zoonosis Research Center, Department of Infection Biology, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Korea; (S.-J.Y.); (D.-D.T.)
| | - Hong-Seog Park
- GnCBio Inc, 4F, Yegan Plaza, 36, Banseok-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34069, Korea;
| | - Haan Woo Sung
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Korea
- Correspondence: (H.W.S.); (H.P.)
| | - Hyun Park
- Zoonosis Research Center, Department of Infection Biology, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Korea; (S.-J.Y.); (D.-D.T.)
- Correspondence: (H.W.S.); (H.P.)
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A Novel Neuraminidase-Dependent Hemagglutinin Cleavage Mechanism Enables the Systemic Spread of an H7N6 Avian Influenza Virus. mBio 2019; 10:mBio.02369-19. [PMID: 31690675 PMCID: PMC6831776 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02369-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification of virulence markers in influenza viruses underpins risk assessment programs and the development of novel therapeutics. The cleavage of the influenza virus HA is a required step in the viral life cycle, and phenotypic differences in viruses can be caused by changes in this process. Here, we describe a novel mechanism for HA cleavage in an H7N6 influenza virus isolated from a mallard duck. The mechanism requires the N6 protein and full activity of thrombin-like proteases and allows the virus to cause systemic infection in chickens, ducks, and mice. The thrombin-mediated cleavage of HA is thus a novel virulence determinant of avian influenza viruses. In this study, we demonstrate a novel mechanism for hemagglutinin (HA) activation in a naturally occurring H7N6 avian influenza A virus strain, A/mallard duck/Korea/6L/2007 (A/Mdk/6L/07). This novel mechanism allows for systemic infection of chickens, ducks, and mice, and A/Mdk/6L/07 can replicate in vitro without exogenous trypsin and exhibits broad tissue tropism in animals despite the presence of a monobasic HA cleavage motif (PEIPKGR/G). The trypsin-independent growth phenotype requires the N6 neuraminidase and the specific recognition of glycine at the P2 position of the HA cleavage motif by a thrombin-like protease. Correspondingly, viral growth is significantly attenuated by the addition of a thrombin-like protease inhibitor (argatroban). These data provide evidence for a previously unrecognized virus replication mechanism and support the hypothesis that thrombin-mediated HA cleavage is an important virulence marker and potential therapeutic target for H7 influenza viruses.
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45
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Izaguirre G. The Proteolytic Regulation of Virus Cell Entry by Furin and Other Proprotein Convertases. Viruses 2019; 11:v11090837. [PMID: 31505793 PMCID: PMC6784293 DOI: 10.3390/v11090837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A wide variety of viruses exploit furin and other proprotein convertases (PCs) of the constitutive protein secretion pathway in order to regulate their cell entry mechanism and infectivity. Surface proteins of enveloped, as well as non-enveloped, viruses become processed by these proteases intracellularly during morphogenesis or extracellularly after egress and during entry in order to produce mature virions activated for infection. Although viruses also take advantage of other proteases, it is when some viruses become reactive with PCs that they may develop high pathogenicity. Besides reacting with furin, some viruses may also react with the PCs of the other specificity group constituted by PC4/PC5/PACE4/PC7. The targeting of PCs for inhibition may result in a useful strategy to treat infections with some highly pathogenic viruses. A wide variety of PC inhibitors have been developed and tested for their antiviral activity in cell-based assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Izaguirre
- College of Dentistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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46
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Braun E, Sauter D. Furin-mediated protein processing in infectious diseases and cancer. Clin Transl Immunology 2019; 8:e1073. [PMID: 31406574 PMCID: PMC6682551 DOI: 10.1002/cti2.1073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteolytic cleavage regulates numerous processes in health and disease. One key player is the ubiquitously expressed serine protease furin, which cleaves a plethora of proteins at polybasic recognition motifs. Mammalian substrates of furin include cytokines, hormones, growth factors and receptors. Thus, it is not surprising that aberrant furin activity is associated with a variety of disorders including cancer. Furthermore, the enzymatic activity of furin is exploited by numerous viral and bacterial pathogens, thereby enhancing their virulence and spread. In this review, we describe the physiological and pathophysiological substrates of furin and discuss how dysregulation of a simple proteolytic cleavage event may promote infectious diseases and cancer. One major focus is the role of furin in viral glycoprotein maturation and pathogenicity. We also outline cellular mechanisms regulating the expression and activation of furin and summarise current approaches that target this protease for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Braun
- Institute of Molecular VirologyUlm University Medical CenterUlmGermany
| | - Daniel Sauter
- Institute of Molecular VirologyUlm University Medical CenterUlmGermany
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47
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Millet JK, Tang T, Nathan L, Jaimes JA, Hsu HL, Daniel S, Whittaker GR. Production of Pseudotyped Particles to Study Highly Pathogenic Coronaviruses in a Biosafety Level 2 Setting. J Vis Exp 2019. [PMID: 30882796 DOI: 10.3791/59010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The protocol aims to generate coronavirus (CoV) spike (S) fusion protein pseudotyped particles with a murine leukemia virus (MLV) core and luciferase reporter, using a simple transfection procedure of the widely available HEK-293T cell line. Once formed and released from producer cells, these pseudovirions incorporate a luciferase reporter gene. Since they only contain the heterologous coronavirus spike protein on their surface, the particles behave like their native coronavirus counterparts for entry steps. As such, they are the excellent surrogates of native virions for studying viral entry into host cells. Upon successful entry and infection into target cells, the luciferase reporter gets integrated into the host cell genome and is expressed. Using a simple luciferase assay, transduced cells can be easily quantified. An important advantage of the procedure is that it can be performed in biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) facilities instead of BSL-3 facilities required for work with highly pathogenic coronaviruses such as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Another benefit comes from its versatility as it can be applied to envelope proteins belonging to all three classes of viral fusion proteins, such as the class I influenza hemagglutinin (HA) and Ebola virus glycoprotein (GP), the class II Semliki forest virus E1 protein, or the class III vesicular stomatitis virus G glycoprotein. A limitation of the methodology is that it can only recapitulate virus entry steps mediated by the envelope protein being investigated. For studying other viral life cycle steps, other methods are required. Examples of the many applications these pseudotype particles can be used in include investigation of host cell susceptibility and tropism and testing the effects of virus entry inhibitors to dissect viral entry pathways used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean K Millet
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University; INRA, Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires
| | - Tiffany Tang
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University
| | - Lakshmi Nathan
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University
| | - Javier A Jaimes
- Department of Microbiology, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Cornell University
| | - Hung-Lun Hsu
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University; Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School
| | - Susan Daniel
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University
| | - Gary R Whittaker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University;
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Gonzales JL, Roberts H, Smietanka K, Baldinelli F, Ortiz-Pelaez A, Verdonck F. Assessment of low pathogenic avian influenza virus transmission via raw poultry meat and raw table eggs. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05431. [PMID: 32625713 PMCID: PMC7009628 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
A rapid qualitative assessment has been done by performing a theoretical analysis on the transmission of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) via fresh meat from poultry reared or kept in captivity for the production of meat (raw poultry meat) or raw table eggs. A predetermined transmission pathway followed a number of steps from a commercial or non-commercial poultry establishment within the EU exposed to LPAI virus (LPAIV) to the onward virus transmission to animals and humans. The combined probability of exposure and subsequent LPAIV infection via raw poultry meat containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans exposed via consumption whereas it is very unlikely for non-commercial poultry, wild birds and humans exposed via handling and manipulation. The probability of LPAIV transmission from an individual infected via raw poultry meat containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans, whereas it is very unlikely for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. The combined probability of exposure and subsequent LPAIV infection via raw table eggs containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans and extremely unlikely to negligible for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. The probability of LPAIV transmission from an individual infected via raw table eggs containing LPAIV is negligible for commercial poultry and humans and very unlikely to negligible for non-commercial poultry and wild birds. Although the presence of LPAIV in raw poultry meat and table eggs is very unlikely to negligible, there is in general a high level of uncertainty on the estimation of the subsequent probabilities of key steps of the transmission pathways for poultry and wild birds, mainly due to the limited number of studies available, for instance on the viral load required to infect a bird via raw poultry meat or raw table eggs containing LPAIV.
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Slomka MJ, Seekings AH, Mahmood S, Thomas S, Puranik A, Watson S, Byrne AMP, Hicks D, Nunez A, Brown IH, Brookes SM. Unexpected infection outcomes of China-origin H7N9 low pathogenicity avian influenza virus in turkeys. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7322. [PMID: 29743603 PMCID: PMC5943237 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25062-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The China-origin H7N9 low pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV) emerged as a zoonotic threat in 2013 where it continues to circulate in live poultry markets. Absence of overt clinical signs in poultry is a typical LPAIV infection outcome, and has contributed to its insidious maintenance in China. This study is the first description of H7N9 LPAIV (A/Anhui/1/13) infection in turkeys, with efficient transmission to two additional rounds of introduced contact turkeys which all became infected during cohousing. Surprisingly, mortality was observed in six of eight (75%) second-round contact turkeys which is unusual for LPAIV infection, with unexpected systemic dissemination to many organs beyond the respiratory and enteric tracts, but interestingly no accompanying mutation to highly pathogenic AIV. The intravenous pathogenicity index score for a turkey-derived isolate (0.39) affirmed the LPAIV phenotype. However, the amino acid change L235Q in the haemagglutinin gene occurred in directly-infected turkeys and transmitted to the contacts, including those that died and the two which resolved infection to survive to the end of the study. This polymorphism was indicative of a reversion from mammalian to avian adaptation for the H7N9 virus. This study underlined a new risk to poultry in the event of H7N9 spread beyond China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek J Slomka
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.
| | - Amanda H Seekings
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sahar Mahmood
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Saumya Thomas
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Anita Puranik
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Samantha Watson
- Animal Services Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander M P Byrne
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Hicks
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandro Nunez
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Ian H Brown
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Sharon M Brookes
- Avian Virology and Mammalian Influenza Research, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
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50
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Glycan Shield and Fusion Activation of a Deltacoronavirus Spike Glycoprotein Fine-Tuned for Enteric Infections. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01628-17. [PMID: 29093093 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01628-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses recently emerged as major human pathogens causing outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome. They utilize the spike (S) glycoprotein anchored in the viral envelope to mediate host attachment and fusion of the viral and cellular membranes to initiate infection. The S protein is a major determinant of the zoonotic potential of coronaviruses and is also the main target of the host humoral immune response. We report here the 3.5-Å-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of the S glycoprotein trimer from the pathogenic porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), which belongs to the recently identified Deltacoronavirus genus. Structural and glycoproteomics data indicate that the glycans of PDCoV S are topologically conserved compared with the human respiratory coronavirus NL63 S, resulting in similar surface areas being shielded from neutralizing antibodies and implying that both viruses are under comparable immune pressure in their respective hosts. The structure further reveals a shortened S2' activation loop, containing a reduced number of basic amino acids, which participates in rendering the spike largely protease resistant. This property distinguishes PDCoV S from recently characterized betacoronavirus S proteins and suggests that the S protein of enterotropic PDCoV has evolved to tolerate the protease-rich environment of the small intestine and to fine-tune its fusion activation to avoid premature triggering and reduction of infectivity.IMPORTANCE Coronaviruses use transmembrane S glycoprotein trimers to promote host attachment and fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. We determined a near-atomic-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of the S ectodomain trimer from the pathogenic PDCoV, which is responsible for diarrhea in piglets and has had devastating consequences for the swine industry worldwide. Structural and glycoproteomics data reveal that PDCoV S is decorated with 78 N-linked glycans obstructing the protein surface to limit accessibility to neutralizing antibodies in a way reminiscent of what has recently been described for a human respiratory coronavirus. PDCoV S is largely protease resistant, which distinguishes it from most other characterized coronavirus S glycoproteins and suggests that enteric coronaviruses have evolved to fine-tune fusion activation in the protease-rich environment of the small intestine of infected hosts.
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