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Sallam M, Khalil R. Contemporary Insights into Hepatitis C Virus: A Comprehensive Review. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1035. [PMID: 38930417 PMCID: PMC11205832 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12061035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) remains a significant global health challenge. Approximately 50 million people were living with chronic hepatitis C based on the World Health Organization as of 2024, contributing extensively to global morbidity and mortality. The advent and approval of several direct-acting antiviral (DAA) regimens significantly improved HCV treatment, offering potentially high rates of cure for chronic hepatitis C. However, the promising aim of eventual HCV eradication remains challenging. Key challenges include the variability in DAA access across different regions, slightly variable response rates to DAAs across diverse patient populations and HCV genotypes/subtypes, and the emergence of resistance-associated substitutions (RASs), potentially conferring resistance to DAAs. Therefore, periodic reassessment of current HCV knowledge is needed. An up-to-date review on HCV is also necessitated based on the observed shifts in HCV epidemiological trends, continuous development and approval of therapeutic strategies, and changes in public health policies. Thus, the current comprehensive review aimed to integrate the latest knowledge on the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic approaches, treatment options and preventive strategies for HCV, with a particular focus on the current challenges associated with RASs and ongoing efforts in vaccine development. This review sought to provide healthcare professionals, researchers, and policymakers with the necessary insights to address the HCV burden more effectively. We aimed to highlight the progress made in managing and preventing HCV infection and to highlight the persistent barriers challenging the prevention of HCV infection. The overarching goal was to align with global health objectives towards reducing the burden of chronic hepatitis, aiming for its eventual elimination as a public health threat by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malik Sallam
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
- Department of Clinical Laboratories and Forensic Medicine, Jordan University Hospital, Amman 11942, Jordan
| | - Roaa Khalil
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
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2
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Identification of human progenitors of exhausted CD8 + T cells associated with elevated IFN-γ response in early phase of viral infection. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7543. [PMID: 36477661 PMCID: PMC9729230 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35281-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell exhaustion is a hallmark of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and limits protective immunity in chronic viral infections and cancer. Limited knowledge exists of the initial viral and immune dynamics that characterise exhaustion in humans. We studied longitudinal blood samples from a unique cohort of individuals with primary infection using single-cell multi-omics to identify the functions and phenotypes of HCV-specific CD8+ T cells. Early elevated IFN-γ response against the transmitted virus is associated with the rate of immune escape, larger clonal expansion, and early onset of exhaustion. Irrespective of disease outcome, we find heterogeneous subsets of progenitors of exhaustion, based on the level of PD-1 expression and loss of AP-1 transcription factors. Intra-clonal analysis shows distinct trajectories with multiple fates and evolutionary plasticity of precursor cells. These findings challenge the current paradigm on the contribution of CD8+ T cells to HCV disease outcome and provide data for future studies on T cell differentiation in human infections.
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3
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Riaz N, Leung P, Bull RA, Lloyd AR, Rodrigo C. Evolution of within-host variants of the hepatitis C virus. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2022; 99:105242. [PMID: 35150893 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2022.105242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Comprehensive investigation of the within-host evolution of hepatitis C virus (HCV) variants has been difficult without high coverage deep sequencing data and bioinformatics tools to characterise these variants. With the advent of high throughput, long-read sequencing platforms such as Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT), capturing within-host evolution of HCV using full genome sequences has become feasible. This study aimed to provide the proof of concept that within-host evolutionary analysis of HCV using near-full-length genomes, is achievable. METHODS Five treatment naïve subjects with chronic HCV infection were sampled longitudinally from 6 months to 5 years post-infection, with 3-5 sampling timepoints per subject. Near full-length sequences generated using the ONT platform encompassing within-host HCV variants were analysed using an in-house bioinformatic tool. A 200-sequence proxy alignment of the viral variants was made for each subject and timepoint, proportionately representing the observed within-host variants. This alignment was then used in a Bayesian evolutionary analysis using BEAST software suite (v1.8). RESULTS The estimated within-host substitution rates ranged between 0.89 and 6.19 × 10-5 substitutions/site/day. At most timepoints, observed viral lineages were closely related to those from the immediately preceding timepoint, and genetic diversity bottlenecks were observed at intervals in both the acute and chronic phases of infection. The highest within-host mutation rates were observed in the Envelope-P7 and NS5 regions while the Core region was the most conserved. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates the feasibility of studying within-host evolution of near-full-length HCV genomes, using long-read sequencing platforms. When considered in conjunction with meta-data such as the host immune response, these methods may offer high resolution insights into immune escape (in vivo or in vitro) to inform vaccine design and to predict spontaneous clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasir Riaz
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Rowena A Bull
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, UNSW Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Chaturaka Rodrigo
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, UNSW Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia.
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Riaz N, Leung P, Barton K, Smith MA, Carswell S, Bull R, Lloyd AR, Rodrigo C. Adaptation of Oxford Nanopore technology for hepatitis C whole genome sequencing and identification of within-host viral variants. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:148. [PMID: 33653280 PMCID: PMC7923462 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07460-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatitis C (HCV) and many other RNA viruses exist as rapidly mutating quasi-species populations in a single infected host. High throughput characterization of full genome, within-host variants is still not possible despite advances in next generation sequencing. This limitation constrains viral genomic studies that depend on accurate identification of hemi-genome or whole genome, within-host variants, especially those occurring at low frequencies. With the advent of third generation long read sequencing technologies, including Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) and PacBio platforms, this problem is potentially surmountable. ONT is particularly attractive in this regard due to the portable nature of the MinION sequencer, which makes real-time sequencing in remote and resource-limited locations possible. However, this technology (termed here ‘nanopore sequencing’) has a comparatively high technical error rate. The present study aimed to assess the utility, accuracy and cost-effectiveness of nanopore sequencing for HCV genomes. We also introduce a new bioinformatics tool (Nano-Q) to differentiate within-host variants from nanopore sequencing. Results The Nanopore platform, when the coverage exceeded 300 reads, generated comparable consensus sequences to Illumina sequencing. Using HCV Envelope plasmids (~ 1800 nt) mixed in known proportions, the capacity of nanopore sequencing to reliably identify variants with an abundance as low as 0.1% was demonstrated, provided the autologous reference sequence was available to identify the matching reads. Successful pooling and nanopore sequencing of 52 samples from patients with HCV infection demonstrated its cost effectiveness (AUD$ 43 per sample with nanopore sequencing versus $100 with paired-end short read technology). The Nano-Q tool successfully separated between-host sequences, including those from the same subtype, by bulk sorting and phylogenetic clustering without an autologous reference sequence (using only a subtype-specific generic reference). The pipeline also identified within-host viral variants and their abundance when the parameters were appropriately adjusted. Conclusion Cost effective HCV whole genome sequencing and within-host variant identification without haplotype reconstruction are potential advantages of nanopore sequencing. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07460-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasir Riaz
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.,Department of Microbiology, Hazara University, KPK, Maneshra, 21120, Pakistan
| | - Preston Leung
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Kirston Barton
- Kinghorn Centre for Clinical Genomics, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - Martin A Smith
- Kinghorn Centre for Clinical Genomics, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - Shaun Carswell
- Kinghorn Centre for Clinical Genomics, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - Rowena Bull
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.,Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Chaturaka Rodrigo
- Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia. .,Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
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Smith S, Honegger JR, Walker C. T-Cell Immunity against the Hepatitis C Virus: A Persistent Research Priority in an Era of Highly Effective Therapy. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:cshperspect.a036954. [PMID: 32205413 PMCID: PMC7778213 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a036954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 70% of acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections become chronic, indicating that the virus is exceptionally well adapted to persist in humans with otherwise normal immune function. Robust, lifelong replication of this small RNA virus does not require a generalized failure of immunity. HCV effectively subverts innate and adaptive host defenses while leaving immunity against other viruses intact. Here, the role of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses in control of HCV infection and their failure to prevent virus persistence in most individuals are reviewed. Two issues of practical importance remain priorities in an era of highly effective antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis C. First, the characteristics of successful T-cell responses that promote resolution of HCV infection are considered, as they will underpin development of vaccines that prevent HCV persistence. Second, defects in T-cell immunity that facilitate HCV persistence and whether they are reversed after antiviral cure to provide protection from reinfection are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Smith
- The Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's, Columbus, Ohio 43205, USA,Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43004, USA
| | - Jonathan R. Honegger
- The Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's, Columbus, Ohio 43205, USA,Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43004, USA
| | - Christopher Walker
- The Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's, Columbus, Ohio 43205, USA,Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43004, USA
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Materne EC, Lilleri D, Garofoli F, Lombardi G, Furione M, Zavattoni M, Gibson L. Cytomegalovirus-Specific T Cell Epitope Recognition in Congenital Cytomegalovirus Mother-Infant Pairs. Front Immunol 2020; 11:568217. [PMID: 33329532 PMCID: PMC7732427 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.568217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) infection is the most common infection acquired before birth and from which about 20% of infants develop permanent neurodevelopmental effects regardless of presence or absence of symptoms at birth. Viral escape from host immune control may be a mechanism of CMV transmission and infant disease severity. We sought to identify and compare CMV epitopes recognized by mother-infant pairs. We also hypothesized that if immune escape were occurring, then one pattern of longitudinal CD8 T cell responses restricted by shared HLA alleles would be maternal loss (by viral escape) and infant gain (by viral reversion to wildtype) of CMV epitope recognition. Methods: The study population consisted of 6 women with primary CMV infection during pregnancy and their infants with cCMV infection. CMV UL83 and UL123 peptides with known or predicted restriction by maternal MHC class I alleles were identified, and a subset was selected for testing based on several criteria. Maternal or infant cells were stimulated with CMV peptides in the IFN-γ ELISpot assay. Results: Overall, 14 of 25 (56%; 8 UL83 and 6 UL123) peptides recognized by mother-infant pairs were not previously reported as CD8 T cell epitopes. Of three pairs with longitudinal samples, one showed maternal loss and infant gain of responses to a CMV epitope restricted by a shared HLA allele. Conclusions: CD8 T cell responses to multiple novel CMV epitopes were identified, particularly in infants. Moreover, the hypothesized pattern of CMV immune escape was observed in one mother-infant pair. These findings emphasize that knowledge of paired CMV epitope recognition allows exploration of viral immune escape that may operate within the maternal-fetal system. Our work provides rationale for future studies of this potential mechanism of CMV transmission during pregnancy or clinical outcomes of infants with cCMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma C Materne
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Daniele Lilleri
- Unità Operativa Complessa (UOC) Laboratorio Genetica - Trapiantologia e Malattie Cardiovascolari, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
| | - Francesca Garofoli
- Neonatal Unit and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Lombardi
- Neonatal Unit and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
| | - Milena Furione
- Molecular Virology Unit, Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
| | - Maurizio Zavattoni
- Molecular Virology Unit, Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia, Italy
| | - Laura Gibson
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States.,Department of Medicine, UMass Memorial Medical Center, Worcester, MA, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, UMass Memorial Medical Center, Worcester, MA, United States
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Conserved epitopes with high HLA-I population coverage are targets of CD8 + T cells associated with high IFN-γ responses against all dengue virus serotypes. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20497. [PMID: 33235334 PMCID: PMC7687909 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77565-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic CD8+ T cells are key for immune protection against viral infections. The breadth and cross-reactivity of these responses are important against rapidly mutating RNA viruses, such as dengue (DENV), yet how viral diversity affect T cell responses and their cross-reactivity against multiple variants of the virus remains poorly defined. In this study, an integrated analysis was performed to map experimentally validated CD8+ T cell epitopes onto the distribution of DENV genome sequences across the 4 serotypes worldwide. Despite the higher viral diversity observed within HLA-I restricted epitopes, mapping of 609 experimentally validated epitopes sequences on 3985 full-length viral genomes revealed 19 highly conserved epitopes across the four serotypes within the immunogenic regions of NS3, NS4B and NS5. These conserved epitopes were associated with a higher magnitude of IFN-γ response when compared to non-conserved epitopes and were restricted to 13 HLA class I genotypes, hence providing high coverage among human populations. Phylogeographic analyses showed that these epitopes are largely conserved in most of the endemic regions of the world, and with only some of these epitopes presenting distinct mutated variants circulating in South America and Asia.This study provides evidence for the existence of highly immunogenic and conserved epitopes across serotypes, which may impact design of new universal T-cell-inducing vaccine candidates that minimise detrimental effects of viral diversification and at the same time induce responses to a broad human population.
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8
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B cell immunodominance in primary hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 2020; 72:670-679. [PMID: 31785346 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2019.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Neutralising antibodies (NAbs) play a key role in clearance of HCV. NAbs have been isolated and mapped to several domains on the HCV envelope proteins. However, the immunodominance of these epitopes in HCV infection remains unknown, hindering efforts to elicit optimal epitope-specific responses. Furthermore, it remains unclear which epitope-specific responses are associated with broad NAb (bNAb) activity in primary HCV infection. The aim of this study was to define B cell immunodominance in primary HCV, and its implications on neutralisation breadth and clearance. METHODS Using samples from 168 patients with primary HCV infection, the antibody responses targeted 2 immunodominant domains, termed domains B and C. Genotype 1 and 3 infections were associated with responses targeted towards different bNAb domains. RESULTS No epitopes were uniquely targeted by clearers compared to those who developed chronic infection. Samples with bNAb activity were enriched for multi-specific responses directed towards the epitopes antigenic region 3, antigenic region 4, and domain D, and did not target non-neutralising domains. CONCLUSIONS This study outlines for the first time a clear NAb immunodominance profile in primary HCV infection, and indicates that it is influenced by the infecting virus. It also highlights the need for a vaccination strategy to induce multi-specific responses that do not target non-neutralising domains. LAY SUMMARY Neutralising antibodies will likely form a key component of a protective hepatitis C virus vaccine. In this work we characterise the predominant neutralising and non-neutralising antibody (epitope) targets in acute hepatitis C virus infection. We have defined the natural hierarchy of epitope immunodominance, and demonstrated that viral genotype can impact on this hierarchy. Our findings highlight key epitopes that are associated with broadly neutralising antibodies, and the deleterious impact of mounting a response towards some of these domains on neutralising breadth. These findings should guide future efforts to design immunogens aimed at generating neutralising antibodies with a vaccine candidate.
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Quasispecies dynamics in disease prevention and control. VIRUS AS POPULATIONS 2020. [PMCID: PMC7153035 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816331-3.00008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Medical interventions to prevent and treat viral disease constitute evolutionary forces that may modify the genetic composition of viral populations that replicate in an infected host and influence the genomic composition of those viruses that are transmitted and progress at the epidemiological level. Given the adaptive potential of viruses in general and the RNA viruses in particular, the selection of viral mutants that display some degree of resistance to inhibitors or vaccines is a tangible challenge. Mutant selection may jeopardize control of the viral disease. Strategies intended to minimize vaccination and treatment failures are proposed and justified based on fundamental features of viral dynamics explained in the preceding chapters. The recommended use of complex, multiepitopic vaccines, and combination therapies as early as possible after initiation of infection falls under the general concept that complexity cannot be combated with simplicity. It also follows that sociopolitical action to interrupt virus replication and spread as soon as possible is as important as scientifically sound treatment designs to control viral disease on a global scale.
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Walker MR, Leung P, Eltahla AA, Underwood A, Abayasingam A, Brasher NA, Li H, Wu BR, Maher L, Luciani F, Lloyd AR, Bull RA. Clearance of hepatitis C virus is associated with early and potent but narrowly-directed, Envelope-specific antibodies. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13300. [PMID: 31527718 PMCID: PMC6746763 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49454-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of very few viruses that are either naturally cleared, or alternatively persist to cause chronic disease. Viral diversity and escape, as well as host adaptive immune factors, are believed to control the outcome. To date, there is limited understanding of the critical, early host-pathogen interactions. The asymptomatic nature of early HCV infection generally prevents identification of the transmitted/founder (T/F) virus, and thus the study of host responses directed against the autologous T/F strain. In this study, 14 rare subjects identified from very early in infection (4–45 days) with varied disease outcomes (n = 7 clearers) were examined in regard to the timing, breadth, and magnitude of the neutralizing antibody (nAb) response, as well as evolution of the T/F strain. Clearance was associated with earlier onset and more potent nAb responses appearing at a mean of 71 days post-infection (DPI), but these responses were narrowly directed against the autologous T/F virus or closely related variants. In contrast, a delayed onset of nAbs (mean 425 DPI) was observed in chronic progressors that appear to have targeted longitudinal variants rather than the T/F strain. The nAb responses in the chronic progressors mapped to known CD81 binding epitopes, and were associated with rapid emergence of new viral variants with reduced CD81 binding. We propose that the prolonged period of viremia in the absence of nAbs in these subjects was associated with an increase in viral diversity, affording the virus greater options to escape nAb pressure once it emerged. These findings indicate that timing of the nAb response is essential for clearance. Further investigation of the specificities of the early nAbs and the factors regulating early induction of protective nAbs is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie R Walker
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Preston Leung
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Auda A Eltahla
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Alexander Underwood
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Arunasingam Abayasingam
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Nicholas A Brasher
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Hui Li
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Bing-Ru Wu
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Lisa Maher
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia
| | - Rowena A Bull
- Viral Immunology Systems Program, The Kirby Institute, Sydney, Australia. .,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Hepatitis C Virus Genetic Variability, Human Immune Response, and Genome Polymorphisms: Which Is the Interplay? Cells 2019; 8:cells8040305. [PMID: 30987134 PMCID: PMC6523096 DOI: 10.3390/cells8040305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the main cause of chronic hepatitis, affecting an estimated 150 million people worldwide. Initial exposure to HCV is most often followed by chronic hepatitis, with only a minority of individuals spontaneously clearing the virus. The induction of sustained and broadly directed HCV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, together with neutralizing antibodies (nAb), and specific genetic polymorphism have been associated with spontaneous resolution of the infection. However, due to its high variability, HCV is able to overwhelm the host immune response through the rapid acquisition of mutations in the epitopes targeted by T cells and neutralizing antibodies. In this context, immune-mediated pressure represents the main force in driving HCV evolution. This review summarizes the data on HCV diversity and the current state of knowledge about the contributions of antibodies, T cells, and host genetic polymorphism in driving HCV evolution in vivo.
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12
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Rodrigo C, Leung P, Lloyd AR, Bull RA, Luciani F, Grebely J, Dore GJ, Applegate T, Page K, Bruneau J, Cox AL, Osburn W, Kim AY, Shoukry NH, Lauer GM, Maher L, Schinkel J, Prins M, Hellard M, Eltahla AA. Genomic variability of within-host hepatitis C variants in acute infection. J Viral Hepat 2019; 26:476-484. [PMID: 30578702 PMCID: PMC6417964 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.13051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between the host immune system and the viral variants determine persistence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection after the acute phase of infection. This study describes the genetic variability of within-host HCV viral variants in acute infection and correlates it with host- and virus-related traits and infection outcome. Next generation sequence data (Illumina, MiSeq platform) of viral genomes from 116 incident acute infections (within 180 days of infection) were analysed to determine all the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) frequencies above a threshold of 0.1%. The variability of the SNPs for the full open reading frame of the genome as well as for each protein coding region were compared using mean standardized Shannon entropy (SE) values calculated separately for synonymous and nonsynonymous mutations. The envelope glycoproteins regions (E1 and E2) had the highest SE values (indicating greater variability) followed by the NS5B region. Nonsynonymous mutations rather than synonymous mutations were the main contributors to genomic variability in acute infection. The mean difference of Shannon entropy was also compared between subjects after categorizing the samples according to host and virus-related traits. Host IFNL3 allele CC polymorphism at rs12979860 (vs others) and viral genotype 1a (vs 3a) were associated with higher genomic variability across the viral open reading frame. Time since infection, host gender or continent of origin was not associated with the viral genomic variability. Viral genomic variability did not predict spontaneous clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Rowena A. Bull
- School of Medical Sciences, UNSW, NSW, Australia
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- School of Medical Sciences, UNSW, NSW, Australia
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Kimberly Page
- University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - Julie Bruneau
- Centre de Recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Andrea L. Cox
- Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Naglaa H. Shoukry
- Centre de Recherche du Centre hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Lisa Maher
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Janke Schinkel
- Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- GGD Public Health Service of Amsterdam
| | - Maria Prins
- Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- GGD Public Health Service of Amsterdam
| | - Margaret Hellard
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Monash University, Australia
- Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
- Doherty Institute and Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne
| | - Auda A. Eltahla
- School of Medical Sciences, UNSW, NSW, Australia
- University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
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Abayasingam A, Leung P, Eltahla A, Bull RA, Luciani F, Grebely J, Dore GJ, Applegate T, Page K, Bruneau J, Cox AL, Kim AY, Schinkel J, Shoukry NH, Lauer GM, Maher L, Hellard M, Prins M, Lloyd A, Rodrigo C. Genomic characterization of hepatitis C virus transmitted founder variants with deep sequencing. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 71:36-41. [PMID: 30853512 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Transfer of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection from a donor to a new recipient is associated with a bottleneck of genetic diversity in the transmitted viral variants. Existing data suggests that one, or very few, variants emerge from this bottleneck to establish the infection (transmitted founder [T/F] variants). In HCV, very few T/F variants have been characterized due to the challenges of obtaining early infection samples and of high throughput viral genome sequencing. This study used a large, acute HCV, deep-sequenced dataset from first viremia samples collected in nine prospective cohorts across four countries, to estimate the prevalence of single T/F viruses, and to identify host and virus-related factors associated with infections initiated by a single T/F variant. The short reads generated by Illumina sequencing were used to reconstruct viral haplotypes with two haplotype reconstruction algorithms. The haplotypes were examined for random mutations (Poisson distribution) and a star-like phylogeny to identify T/F viruses. The findings were cross-validated by haplotype reconstructions across three regions of the genome (Core-E2, NS3, NS5A) to minimize the possibility of spurious overestimation of single T/F variants. Of 190 acute infection samples examined, 54 were very early acute infections (HCV antibody negative, RNA positive), and single transmitted founders were identified in 14 (26%, 95% CI: 16-39%) after cross validation across multiple regions of the genome with two haplotype reconstruction algorithms. The presence of a single T/F virus was not associated with any host or virus-related factors, notably viral genotype or spontaneous clearance. In conclusion, approximately one in four new HCV infections originates from a single T/F virus. Resolution of genomic sequences of single T/F variants is the first step in exploring unique properties of these variants in the infection of host hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Auda Eltahla
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Rowena A Bull
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Kimberly Page
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Preventive Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Julie Bruneau
- CRCHUM, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Andrea L Cox
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Janke Schinkel
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Tropical Medicine and AIDS, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Lisa Maher
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Margaret Hellard
- Burnet Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Doherty Institute and Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - Maria Prins
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Tropical Medicine and AIDS, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; GGD Public Health Service of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew Lloyd
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Chaturaka Rodrigo
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Rodrigo C, Luciani F. Dynamic interactions between RNA viruses and human hosts unravelled by a decade of next generation sequencing. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1863:511-519. [PMID: 30528489 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Next generation sequencing (NGS) methods have significantly contributed to a paradigm shift in genomic research for nearly a decade now. These methods have been useful in studying the dynamic interactions between RNA viruses and human hosts. SCOPE OF THE REVIEW In this review, we summarise and discuss key applications of NGS in studying the host - pathogen interactions in RNA viral infections of humans with examples. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Use of NGS to study globally relevant RNA viral infections have revolutionized our understanding of the within host and between host evolution of these viruses. These methods have also been useful in clinical decision-making and in guiding biomedical research on vaccine design. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE NGS has been instrumental in viral genomic studies in resolving within-host viral genomic variants and the distribution of nucleotide polymorphisms along the full-length of viral genomes in a high throughput, cost effective manner. In the future, novel advances such as long read, single molecule sequencing of viral genomes and simultaneous sequencing of host and pathogens may become the standard of practice in research and clinical settings. This will also bring on new challenges in big data analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaturaka Rodrigo
- School of Medical Sciences and Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Australia, 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- School of Medical Sciences and Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, UNSW Australia, 2052, NSW, Australia.
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15
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Underwood AP, Walker MR, Brasher NA, Eltahla AA, Maher L, Luciani F, Lloyd AR, Bull RA. Understanding the Determinants of BnAb Induction in Acute HCV Infection. Viruses 2018; 10:E659. [PMID: 30469363 PMCID: PMC6266478 DOI: 10.3390/v10110659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite recent advances in curative therapy, hepatitis C virus (HCV) still remains a global threat. In order to achieve global elimination, a prophylactic vaccine should be considered high priority. Previous immunogens used to induce broad neutralising antibodies (BnAbs) have been met with limited success. To improve immunogen design, factors associated with the early development of BnAbs in natural infection must first be understood. In this study, 43 subjects identified with acute HCV were analysed longitudinally using a panel of heterogeneous HCV pseudoparticles (HCVpp), to understand the emergence of BnAbs. Compared to those infected with a single genotype, early BnAb development was associated with subjects co-infected with at least 2 HCV subtypes during acute infection. In those that were mono-infected, BnAbs were seen to emerge with increasing viral persistence. If subjects acquired a secondary infection, nAb breadth was seen to boost upon viral re-exposure. Importantly, this data highlights the potential for multivalent and prime-boost vaccine strategies to induce BnAbs against HCV in humans. However, the data also indicate that the infecting genotype may influence the development of BnAbs. Therefore, the choice of antigen will need to be carefully considered in future vaccine trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander P Underwood
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Melanie R Walker
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Nicholas A Brasher
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Auda A Eltahla
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Lisa Maher
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Fabio Luciani
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Rowena A Bull
- School of Medical Sciences and the Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
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16
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Li F, Ma L, Feng Y, Ruan Y, Hu J, Song H, Liu P, Ma J, Rui B, Kerpen K, Scheinfeld B, Srivastava T, Metzger D, Li H, Bar KJ, Shao Y. HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus selection bottleneck in Chinese people who inject drugs. AIDS 2018; 32:309-320. [PMID: 29194114 PMCID: PMC5765877 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000001702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES For both HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus (HCV), assessing the stringency of the transmission process is a scientific priority. Enumerations of transmitted/founder (TF) viruses have shown a strict transmission bottleneck in sexual transmission of HIV-1 and a wide range in the multiplicity of infection in HCV. Here, we aim to determine the stringency of parenteral transmission for HIV-1 and HCV in people who inject drugs (PWID). DESIGN We used molecular sequencing and several complementary analyses to enumerate the TF HIV-1 and HCV variants in a well described cohort of PWID in Xinjiang, China. METHODS We performed single genome sequencing of HIV-1 env and 5' half HCV genomes, then applied phylogenetic analysis and validated models of early virus diversification to enumerate TF viruses in 60 PWID. We used multivariate analysis to determine correlates of multivariant transmission (MVT). RESULTS We generated 1070 env region sequences from 33 HIV-1 early infected individuals and 773 5' half region sequences from 27 HCV early infected individuals. We found rates of MVT of 39 and 54%, respectively, for HIV-1 and HCV, with a limited range in the number of TF viruses in both infections. Behavioural characteristics suggested high-risk injection practices and lower risk sexual practices; we did not find an association between any specific behaviours and MVT. CONCLUSION MVT is frequent in parenteral transmission of both HIV-1 and HCV in Xinjiang PWID, indicating a less stringent transmission process than sexual transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Liying Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Yi Feng
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Yuhua Ruan
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Jing Hu
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Hongshuo Song
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Pengtao Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
| | - Jun Ma
- Xinjiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Urumqi, China
| | - Baolin Rui
- Urumqi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Urumqi, China
| | - Kate Kerpen
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Benjamin Scheinfeld
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Tuhina Srivastava
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - David Metzger
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- The Treatment Research Institute, Philadelphia PA 19104
| | - Hui Li
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Katharine J. Bar
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Yiming Shao
- State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Beijing
- Center of Infectious Diseases, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Hangzhou, China
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17
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Merani S, Lucas M, Deshpande P, Pfafferott K, Chopra A, Cooper D, Leary S, Luciani F, Gaudieri S. Influence of Transmitted Virus on the Host's Immune Response: A Case Study. Viral Immunol 2017; 30:533-541. [PMID: 28530508 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2017.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Host hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific T cell responses and the ability of the virus to escape this response are important correlates of infection outcome. Understanding this host-viral interplay has been difficult given the often asymptomatic nature of acute HCV infection. We studied a recent transmission case to determine whether adapted viral strains can be transmitted and influence the recipient's anti-HCV T cell response. The diversity of viral populations was examined using next-generation sequencing, and HCV-specific T cell interferon (IFN)-γ responses were assessed using a peptide panel representing the autologous viruses. HCV-specific T cell responses in the source were directed against peptides that did not match the dominant autologous virus but rather low-frequency variants, implying existing viral adaptation in the source strain. Most HCV T cell epitopes that elicited an IFN-γ response in the source did not in the recipient, despite the pair sharing human leukocyte antigen alleles that govern antigen presentation and similar autologous viruses. Intrahost HCV variation in the recipient fell within predicted T cell epitopes, suggesting alternative targets of the immune response. These data suggest that transmission of adapted viral species can direct the host's HCV-specific immune response profile during acute infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahzma Merani
- 1 School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia , Crawley, Australia
| | - Michaela Lucas
- 2 Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University , Murdoch, Australia .,3 School of Medicine and Pharmacology, Harry Perkins Institute, University of Western Australia , Crawley, Australia .,4 School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia , Crawley, Australia
| | - Pooja Deshpande
- 1 School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia , Crawley, Australia
| | - Katja Pfafferott
- 2 Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University , Murdoch, Australia
| | - Abha Chopra
- 2 Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University , Murdoch, Australia
| | - Don Cooper
- 2 Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University , Murdoch, Australia
| | - Shay Leary
- 2 Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University , Murdoch, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- 5 Systems Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales , Sydney, Australia
| | - Silvana Gaudieri
- 1 School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia , Crawley, Australia .,2 Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University , Murdoch, Australia .,6 Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Centre , Nashville, Tennessee
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18
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Lythgoe KA, Gardner A, Pybus OG, Grove J. Short-Sighted Virus Evolution and a Germline Hypothesis for Chronic Viral Infections. Trends Microbiol 2017; 25:336-348. [PMID: 28377208 PMCID: PMC5405858 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
With extremely short generation times and high mutability, many viruses can rapidly evolve and adapt to changing environments. This ability is generally beneficial to viruses as it allows them to evade host immune responses, evolve new behaviours, and exploit ecological niches. However, natural selection typically generates adaptation in response to the immediate selection pressures that a virus experiences in its current host. Consequently, we argue that some viruses, particularly those characterised by long durations of infection and ongoing replication, may be susceptible to short-sighted evolution, whereby a virus' adaptation to its current host will be detrimental to its onward transmission within the host population. Here we outline the concept of short-sighted viral evolution and provide examples of how it may negatively impact viral transmission among hosts. We also propose that viruses that are vulnerable to short-sighted evolution may exhibit strategies that minimise its effects. We speculate on the various mechanisms by which this may be achieved, including viral life history strategies that result in low rates of within-host evolution, or the establishment of a 'germline' lineage of viruses that avoids short-sighted evolution. These concepts provide a new perspective on the way in which some viruses have been able to establish and maintain global pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andy Gardner
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK
| | - Oliver G Pybus
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK
| | - Joe Grove
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Immunity and Transplantation, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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19
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Eltahla AA, Leung P, Pirozyan MR, Rodrigo C, Grebely J, Applegate T, Maher L, Luciani F, Lloyd AR, Bull RA. Dynamic evolution of hepatitis C virus resistance-associated substitutions in the absence of antiviral treatment. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41719. [PMID: 28139734 PMCID: PMC5282498 DOI: 10.1038/srep41719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance against new hepatitis C virus (HCV) antivirals is an area of increasing interest. Resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) have been identified in treatment-naïve individuals, but pressures driving treatment-independent RAS emergence are poorly understood. We analysed the longitudinal evolution of RASs in twelve participants with early acute HCV infections. Full-genome deep sequences were analysed for changes in RAS frequency within NS3, NS5A and NS5B-coding regions over the course of the infection. Emergence of RASs relevant only to the polymerase non-nucleoside inhibitors (NNI) was detected, and these lay within CD8+ T-cell epitopes. Conversely, the loss of NNI RASs over time appeared likely to be driven by viral fitness constraints. These results highlight the importance of monitoring CD8+ T cell epitope-associated RASs in populations with dominant HLA types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Auda A. Eltahla
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Preston Leung
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Mehdi R. Pirozyan
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Chaturaka Rodrigo
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Jason Grebely
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Tanya Applegate
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Lisa Maher
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Andrew R. Lloyd
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Rowena A. Bull
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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20
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Keoshkerian E, Hunter M, Cameron B, Nguyen N, Sugden P, Bull R, Zekry A, Maher L, Seddiki N, Zaunders J, Kelleher A, Lloyd AR. Hepatitis C-specific effector and regulatory CD4 T-cell responses are associated with the outcomes of primary infection. J Viral Hepat 2016; 23:985-993. [PMID: 27558465 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Clearance of primary hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been associated with strong and broadly targeted cellular immune responses. This study aimed to characterize HCV-specific CD4+ effector and regulatory T-cell numbers and cytokine production during primary infection. Antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell responses were investigated in a longitudinal cohort of subjects from pre-infection to postoutcome, including subjects who cleared [n=12] or became chronically infected [n=17]. A cross-sectional cohort with previously cleared, or chronic infection [n=15 for each], was also studied. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were incubated with HCV antigens and surface stained for T-effector (CD4+CD25high CD134+CD39-) and T-regulatory (CD4+CD25high CD134+CD39+) markers, and culture supernatants assayed for cytokine production. Contrary to expectations, the breadth and magnitude of the HCV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses were higher in subjects who became chronically infected. Subjects who cleared the virus had HCV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses dominated by effector T cells and produced higher levels of IFN-γ, in contrast to HCV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses dominated by regulatory T cells and more IL-10 production in those who became chronically infected. Better understanding of the role of antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell responses in primary HCV will further define pathogenesis and help guide development of a preventative vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Keoshkerian
- UNSW Australia, Kirby Institute (Viral Immunology Systems Program, VISP) and School of Medical Sciences (SOMS), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - M Hunter
- UNSW Australia, SOMS (Infection and Immunology Research Centre, IIRC), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - B Cameron
- UNSW Australia, SOMS (Infection and Immunology Research Centre, IIRC), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - N Nguyen
- UNSW Australia, SOMS (Infection and Immunology Research Centre, IIRC), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - P Sugden
- UNSW Australia, SOMS (Infection and Immunology Research Centre, IIRC), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - R Bull
- UNSW Australia, Kirby Institute (Viral Immunology Systems Program, VISP) and School of Medical Sciences (SOMS), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - A Zekry
- UNSW Australia, St George and Sutherland Clinical School, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - L Maher
- UNSW Australia, Kirby Institute (Viral Hepatitis Epidemiology and Prevention Program VHEPP), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - N Seddiki
- The Vaccine Research Institute (VRI), INSERM, Créteil, France
| | - J Zaunders
- UNSW Australia, Kirby Institute (Immunovirology and Pathogenesis Program, IVPP), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - A Kelleher
- UNSW Australia, Kirby Institute (Immunovirology and Pathogenesis Program, IVPP), Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - A R Lloyd
- UNSW Australia, Kirby Institute (Viral Immunology Systems Program, VISP) and School of Medical Sciences (SOMS), Kensington, NSW, Australia
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21
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Leung P, Eltahla AA, Lloyd AR, Bull RA, Luciani F. Understanding the complex evolution of rapidly mutating viruses with deep sequencing: Beyond the analysis of viral diversity. Virus Res 2016; 239:43-54. [PMID: 27888126 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
With the advent of affordable deep sequencing technologies, detection of low frequency variants within genetically diverse viral populations can now be achieved with unprecedented depth and efficiency. The high-resolution data provided by next generation sequencing technologies is currently recognised as the gold standard in estimation of viral diversity. In the analysis of rapidly mutating viruses, longitudinal deep sequencing datasets from viral genomes during individual infection episodes, as well as at the epidemiological level during outbreaks, now allow for more sophisticated analyses such as statistical estimates of the impact of complex mutation patterns on the evolution of the viral populations both within and between hosts. These analyses are revealing more accurate descriptions of the evolutionary dynamics that underpin the rapid adaptation of these viruses to the host response, and to drug therapies. This review assesses recent developments in methods and provide informative research examples using deep sequencing data generated from rapidly mutating viruses infecting humans, particularly hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Ebola virus and influenza virus, to understand the evolution of viral genomes and to explore the relationship between viral mutations and the host adaptive immune response. Finally, we discuss limitations in current technologies, and future directions that take advantage of publically available large deep sequencing datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preston Leung
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Auda A Eltahla
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Rowena A Bull
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; The Kirby Institute, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
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22
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Tian L, Fu Q, Huang F. Effect of adefovir dipivoxil on T cell immune function in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B and hepatocirrhosis. Exp Ther Med 2016; 12:2511-2514. [PMID: 27698751 PMCID: PMC5038382 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the T cell immune function in chronic hepatitis B hepatocirrhosis patients at the compensated and decompensated stage following treatment with adefovir dipivoxil. A total of 104 patients diagnosed with hepatitis B hepatocirrhosis during the period from October 2013 to October 2014 were enrolled in the study. Among the cases, there were 56 cases at compensated stage, and another 48 at decompensated stage. Adefovir dipivoxil was administered for antiviral therapy (10 mg/time, 1 time/day, for a total of 24 weeks), and we compared the virus disappearance rate, liver function improvement and T cell immune function between the two groups before and after treatment. The difference between the virus disappearance rate in the two groups was not statistically significant (P>0.05). The decreased level of ALT decrease in the compensated group was significantly higher than that in the decompensated group, while the increased level of albumin in the compensated group was significantly higher as well. The differences showed statistical significance (P<0.05). After treatment, the level of CD4+ and CD4+/CD8+ ratio were higher than before treatment, while the level of CD8+ was lower after treatment than before treatment in the two groups. The differences all showed statistical significance (P<0.05). The CD4+CXCR5+ T follicular helper (TFH) cell level in the two groups was higher after treatment, as was interleukin-2 and interferon-γ. The differences all showed statistical significance (P<0.05). As for comparison between groups, the difference had no statistical significance (P>0.05). Adefovir dipivoxil treatment can improve T cell immune function at the compensated and decompensated stages in chronic hepatitis B hepatocirrhosis patients. This may be associated with virus disappearance and liver function improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liting Tian
- Department of Liver Disease, Shaanxi Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710003, P.R. China
| | - Qilin Fu
- Department of Liver Disease, Shaanxi Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710003, P.R. China
| | - Fu Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shaanxi Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710003, P.R. China
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Eltahla AA, Rizzetto S, Pirozyan MR, Betz-Stablein BD, Venturi V, Kedzierska K, Lloyd AR, Bull RA, Luciani F. Linking the T cell receptor to the single cell transcriptome in antigen-specific human T cells. Immunol Cell Biol 2016; 94:604-11. [PMID: 26860370 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2016.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneity of T cells is a hallmark of a successful adaptive immune response, harnessing the vast diversity of antigen-specific T cells into a coordinated evolution of effector and memory outcomes. The T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire is highly diverse to account for the highly heterogeneous antigenic world. During the response to a virus multiple individual clones of antigen specific CD8+ (Ag-specific) T cells can be identified against a single epitope and multiple epitopes are recognised. Advances in single-cell technologies have provided the potential to study Ag-specific T cell heterogeneity at both surface phenotype and transcriptome levels, thereby allowing investigation of the diversity within the same apparent sub-population. We propose a new method (VDJPuzzle) to reconstruct the native TCRαβ from single cell RNA-seq data of Ag-specific T cells and then to link these with the gene expression profile of individual cells. We applied this method using rare Ag-specific T cells isolated from peripheral blood of a subject who cleared hepatitis C virus infection. We successfully reconstructed productive TCRαβ in 56 of a total of 63 cells (89%), with double α and double β in 18, and 7% respectively, and double TCRαβ in 2 cells. The method was validated via standard single cell PCR sequencing of the TCR. We demonstrate that single-cell transcriptome analysis can successfully distinguish Ag-specific T cell populations sorted directly from resting memory cells in peripheral blood and sorted after ex vivo stimulation. This approach allows a detailed analysis of the TCR diversity and its relationship with the transcriptional profile of different clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Auda A Eltahla
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Simone Rizzetto
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mehdi R Pirozyan
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Brigid D Betz-Stablein
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Vanessa Venturi
- Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Katherine Kedzierska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Rowena A Bull
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Fabio Luciani
- Systems Medicine in Infectious Diseases, Inflammation and Infection Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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24
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Li H, Stoddard MB, Wang S, Giorgi EE, Blair LM, Learn GH, Hahn BH, Alter HJ, Busch MP, Fierer DS, Ribeiro RM, Perelson AS, Bhattacharya T, Shaw GM. Single-Genome Sequencing of Hepatitis C Virus in Donor-Recipient Pairs Distinguishes Modes and Models of Virus Transmission and Early Diversification. J Virol 2016; 90:152-66. [PMID: 26468546 PMCID: PMC4702571 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02156-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Despite the recent development of highly effective anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) drugs, the global burden of this pathogen remains immense. Control or eradication of HCV will likely require the broad application of antiviral drugs and development of an effective vaccine. A precise molecular identification of transmitted/founder (T/F) HCV genomes that lead to productive clinical infection could play a critical role in vaccine research, as it has for HIV-1. However, the replication schema of these two RNA viruses differ substantially, as do viral responses to innate and adaptive host defenses. These differences raise questions as to the certainty of T/F HCV genome inferences, particularly in cases where multiple closely related sequence lineages have been observed. To clarify these issues and distinguish between competing models of early HCV diversification, we examined seven cases of acute HCV infection in humans and chimpanzees, including three examples of virus transmission between linked donors and recipients. Using single-genome sequencing (SGS) of plasma vRNA, we found that inferred T/F sequences in recipients were identical to viral sequences in their respective donors. Early in infection, HCV genomes generally evolved according to a simple model of random evolution where the coalescent corresponded to the T/F sequence. Closely related sequence lineages could be explained by high multiplicity infection from a donor whose viral sequences had undergone a pretransmission bottleneck due to treatment, immune selection, or recent infection. These findings validate SGS, together with mathematical modeling and phylogenetic analysis, as a novel strategy to infer T/F HCV genome sequences. IMPORTANCE Despite the recent development of highly effective, interferon-sparing anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) drugs, the global burden of this pathogen remains immense. Control or eradication of HCV will likely require the broad application of antiviral drugs and the development of an effective vaccine, which could be facilitated by a precise molecular identification of transmitted/founder (T/F) viral genomes and their progeny. We used single-genome sequencing to show that inferred HCV T/F sequences in recipients were identical to viral sequences in their respective donors and that viral genomes generally evolved early in infection according to a simple model of random sequence evolution. Altogether, the findings validate T/F genome inferences and illustrate how T/F sequence identification can illuminate studies of HCV transmission, immunopathogenesis, drug resistance development, and vaccine protection, including sieving effects on breakthrough virus strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mark B Stoddard
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Shuyi Wang
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Elena E Giorgi
- T-Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | - Lily M Blair
- T-Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Gerald H Learn
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Beatrice H Hahn
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Harvey J Alter
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael P Busch
- Blood Systems Research Institute, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Daniel S Fierer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ruy M Ribeiro
- T-Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | - Alan S Perelson
- Theoretical Biology and Biophysics Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA
| | - Tanmoy Bhattacharya
- T-Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA
| | - George M Shaw
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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25
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Abstract
Despite advances in therapy, hepatitis C virus infection remains a major global health issue with 3 to 4 million incident cases and 170 million prevalent chronic infections. Complex, partially understood, host-virus interactions determine whether an acute infection with hepatitis C resolves, as occurs in approximately 30% of cases, or generates a persistent hepatic infection, as occurs in the remainder. Once chronic infection is established, the velocity of hepatocyte injury and resultant fibrosis is significantly modulated by immunologic as well as environmental factors. Immunomodulation has been the backbone of antiviral therapy despite poor understanding of its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E. Kaplan
- Medicine and Research Services, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia PA,Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
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26
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Tarr AW, Khera T, Hueging K, Sheldon J, Steinmann E, Pietschmann T, Brown RJP. Genetic Diversity Underlying the Envelope Glycoproteins of Hepatitis C Virus: Structural and Functional Consequences and the Implications for Vaccine Design. Viruses 2015; 7:3995-4046. [PMID: 26193307 PMCID: PMC4517138 DOI: 10.3390/v7072809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the 26 years since the discovery of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) a major global research effort has illuminated many aspects of the viral life cycle, facilitating the development of targeted antivirals. Recently, effective direct-acting antiviral (DAA) regimens with >90% cure rates have become available for treatment of chronic HCV infection in developed nations, representing a significant advance towards global eradication. However, the high cost of these treatments results in highly restricted access in developing nations, where the disease burden is greatest. Additionally, the largely asymptomatic nature of infection facilitates continued transmission in at risk groups and resource constrained settings due to limited surveillance. Consequently a prophylactic vaccine is much needed. The HCV envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2 are located on the surface of viral lipid envelope, facilitate viral entry and are the targets for host immunity, in addition to other functions. Unfortunately, the extreme global genetic and antigenic diversity exhibited by the HCV glycoproteins represents a significant obstacle to vaccine development. Here we review current knowledge of HCV envelope protein structure, integrating knowledge of genetic, antigenic and functional diversity to inform rational immunogen design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander W Tarr
- School of Life Sciences, Nottingham Digestive Diseases Biomedical Research Unit, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Tanvi Khera
- Institute of Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, A Joint Venture between the Medical School Hannover (MHH) and the Helmholtz Centrefor Infection Research (HZI), Hannover D-30625, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Hueging
- Institute of Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, A Joint Venture between the Medical School Hannover (MHH) and the Helmholtz Centrefor Infection Research (HZI), Hannover D-30625, Germany.
| | - Julie Sheldon
- Institute of Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, A Joint Venture between the Medical School Hannover (MHH) and the Helmholtz Centrefor Infection Research (HZI), Hannover D-30625, Germany.
| | - Eike Steinmann
- Institute of Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, A Joint Venture between the Medical School Hannover (MHH) and the Helmholtz Centrefor Infection Research (HZI), Hannover D-30625, Germany.
| | - Thomas Pietschmann
- Institute of Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, A Joint Venture between the Medical School Hannover (MHH) and the Helmholtz Centrefor Infection Research (HZI), Hannover D-30625, Germany.
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, Braunschweig 38124, Germany.
| | - Richard J P Brown
- Institute of Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, A Joint Venture between the Medical School Hannover (MHH) and the Helmholtz Centrefor Infection Research (HZI), Hannover D-30625, Germany.
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