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van Bree JW, Visser I, Duyvestyn JM, Aguilar-Bretones M, Marshall EM, van Hemert MJ, Pijlman GP, van Nierop GP, Kikkert M, Rockx BH, Miesen P, Fros JJ. Novel approaches for the rapid development of rationally designed arbovirus vaccines. One Health 2023; 16:100565. [PMID: 37363258 PMCID: PMC10288159 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases, including those transmitted by mosquitoes, account for more than 17% of infectious diseases worldwide. This number is expected to rise with an increased spread of vector mosquitoes and viruses due to climate change and man-made alterations to ecosystems. Among the most common, medically relevant mosquito-borne infections are those caused by arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), especially members of the genera Flavivirus and Alphavirus. Arbovirus infections can cause severe disease in humans, livestock and wildlife. Severe consequences from infections include congenital malformations as well as arthritogenic, haemorrhagic or neuroinvasive disease. Inactivated or live-attenuated vaccines (LAVs) are available for a small number of arboviruses; however there are no licensed vaccines for the majority of these infections. Here we discuss recent developments in pan-arbovirus LAV approaches, from site-directed attenuation strategies targeting conserved determinants of virulence to universal strategies that utilize genome-wide re-coding of viral genomes. In addition to these approaches, we discuss novel strategies targeting mosquito saliva proteins that play an important role in virus transmission and pathogenesis in vertebrate hosts. For rapid pre-clinical evaluations of novel arbovirus vaccine candidates, representative in vitro and in vivo experimental systems are required to assess the desired specific immune responses. Here we discuss promising models to study attenuation of neuroinvasion, neurovirulence and virus transmission, as well as antibody induction and potential for cross-reactivity. Investigating broadly applicable vaccination strategies to target the direct interface of the vertebrate host, the mosquito vector and the viral pathogen is a prime example of a One Health strategy to tackle human and animal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce W.M. van Bree
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Imke Visser
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jo M. Duyvestyn
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Eleanor M. Marshall
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Martijn J. van Hemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Gorben P. Pijlman
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - Marjolein Kikkert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Barry H.G. Rockx
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pascal Miesen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500, HB, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jelke J. Fros
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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2
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Visser I, Koenraadt CJ, Koopmans MP, Rockx B. The significance of mosquito saliva in arbovirus transmission and pathogenesis in the vertebrate host. One Health 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
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3
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Matsumiya T, Shiba Y, Ding J, Kawaguchi S, Seya K, Imaizumi T. The double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR negatively regulates the protein expression of IFN-β induced by RIG-I signaling. FASEB J 2023; 37:e22780. [PMID: 36651716 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202201520rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) is a cytoplasmic RNA sensor that plays an important role in innate immune responses to viral RNAs. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is a eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) kinase that is initially involved in the responses of the translational machinery to dsRNA. PKR is also thought to play an essential role in antiviral innate immunity. However, the coordinated mechanisms of RIG-I and PKR that induce the expression of type I interferons (IFNs), essential cytokines involved in antiviral defense, are not completely understood. In this study, we show that PKR negatively participates in the RIG-I-mediated induction of IFN-β expression. Stress granule (SG) formation is crucial to sequester mRNA to prevent aberrant protein synthesis by various stresses. SG formation in response to dsRNA was triggered by a PKR-mediated antiviral stress response. However, IFN-β mRNA was not sequestered in the SGs of dsRNA-treated cells. dsRNA-induced translational silencing was thought to be PKR dependent. However, our results indicated that some proteins, including IFN-β, were clearly translated despite PKR-mediated translational silencing. This study suggests that RIG-I responds mainly to IFN-β expression in cells to which non-self dsRNA is introduced. In addition, PKR negatively regulates IFN-β protein expression induced by RIG-I signaling. This may explain the essential role of PKR in fine-tuning the expression of IFN-β in RIG-I-mediated antiviral immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoh Matsumiya
- Department of Bioscience and Laboratory Medicine, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hirosaki, Japan.,Department of Vascular Biology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Yuko Shiba
- Department of Bioscience and Laboratory Medicine, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hirosaki, Japan.,Department of Vascular Biology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Jiangli Ding
- Department of Vascular Biology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Shogo Kawaguchi
- Department of Vascular Biology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Seya
- Department of Vascular Biology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
| | - Tadaatsu Imaizumi
- Department of Vascular Biology, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
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4
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Vrba SM, Kirk NM, Brisse ME, Liang Y, Ly H. Development and Applications of Viral Vectored Vaccines to Combat Zoonotic and Emerging Public Health Threats. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:E680. [PMID: 33202961 PMCID: PMC7712223 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8040680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination is arguably the most cost-effective preventative measure against infectious diseases. While vaccines have been successfully developed against certain viruses (e.g., yellow fever virus, polio virus, and human papilloma virus HPV), those against a number of other important public health threats, such as HIV-1, hepatitis C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), have so far had very limited success. The global pandemic of COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, highlights the urgency of vaccine development against this and other constant threats of zoonotic infection. While some traditional methods of producing vaccines have proven to be successful, new concepts have emerged in recent years to produce more cost-effective and less time-consuming vaccines that rely on viral vectors to deliver the desired immunogens. This review discusses the advantages and disadvantages of different viral vaccine vectors and their general strategies and applications in both human and veterinary medicines. A careful review of these issues is necessary as they can provide important insights into how some of these viral vaccine vectors can induce robust and long-lasting immune responses in order to provide protective efficacy against a variety of infectious disease threats to humans and animals, including those with zoonotic potential to cause global pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia M. Vrba
- Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; (S.M.V.); (Y.L.)
| | - Natalie M. Kirk
- Comparative Molecular Biosciences Graduate Program, Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA;
| | - Morgan E. Brisse
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics Graduate Program, Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA;
| | - Yuying Liang
- Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; (S.M.V.); (Y.L.)
| | - Hinh Ly
- Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; (S.M.V.); (Y.L.)
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5
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Chessa C, Bodet C, Jousselin C, Wehbe M, Lévêque N, Garcia M. Antiviral and Immunomodulatory Properties of Antimicrobial Peptides Produced by Human Keratinocytes. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1155. [PMID: 32582097 PMCID: PMC7283518 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratinocytes, the main cells of the epidermis, are the first site of replication as well as the first line of defense against many viruses such as arboviruses, enteroviruses, herpes viruses, human papillomaviruses, or vaccinia virus. During viral replication, these cells can sense virus associated molecular patterns leading to the initiation of an innate immune response composed of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and antimicrobial peptides. Human keratinocytes produce and secrete at least nine antimicrobial peptides: human cathelicidin LL-37, types 1–4 human β-defensins, S100 peptides such as psoriasin (S100A7), calprotectin (S100A8/9) and koebnerisin (S100A15), and RNase 7. These peptides can exert direct antiviral effects on the viral particle or its replication cycle, and indirect antiviral activity, by modulating the host immune response. The purpose of this review is to summarize current knowledge of antiviral and immunomodulatory properties of human keratinocyte antimicrobial peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Chessa
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Mycobactériologie, CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers, France.,Laboratoire Inflammation, Tissus Epithéliaux et Cytokines, LITEC EA 4331, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Charles Bodet
- Laboratoire Inflammation, Tissus Epithéliaux et Cytokines, LITEC EA 4331, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Clément Jousselin
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Mycobactériologie, CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers, France.,Laboratoire Inflammation, Tissus Epithéliaux et Cytokines, LITEC EA 4331, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Michel Wehbe
- Laboratoire Inflammation, Tissus Epithéliaux et Cytokines, LITEC EA 4331, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Nicolas Lévêque
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Mycobactériologie, CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers, France.,Laboratoire Inflammation, Tissus Epithéliaux et Cytokines, LITEC EA 4331, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Magali Garcia
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Mycobactériologie, CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers, France.,Laboratoire Inflammation, Tissus Epithéliaux et Cytokines, LITEC EA 4331, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
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6
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Benzarti E, Sarlet M, Franssen M, Desmecht D, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Garigliany MM. New Insights into the Susceptibility of Immunocompetent Mice to Usutu Virus. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020189. [PMID: 32046265 PMCID: PMC7077335 DOI: 10.3390/v12020189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Usutu virus (USUV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that shares many similarities with the closely related West Nile virus (WNV) in terms of ecology and clinical manifestations. Initially distributed in Africa, USUV emerged in Italy in 1996 and managed to co-circulate with WNV in many European countries in a similar mosquito-bird life cycle. The rapid geographic spread of USUV, the seasonal mass mortalities it causes in the European avifauna, and the increasing number of infections with neurological disease both in healthy and immunocompromised humans has stimulated interest in infection studies to delineate USUV pathogenesis. Here, we assessed the pathogenicity of two USUV isolates from a recent Belgian outbreak in immunocompetent mice. The intradermal injection of USUV gave rise to disorientation and paraplegia and was associated with neuronal death in the brain and spinal cord in a single mouse. Intranasal inoculation of USUV could also establish the infection; viral RNA was detected in the brain 15 days post-infection. Overall, this pilot study probes the suitability of this murine model for the study of USUV neuroinvasiveness and the possibility of direct transmission in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emna Benzarti
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman B43, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (E.B.); (M.S.); (M.F.); (D.D.)
| | - Michaël Sarlet
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman B43, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (E.B.); (M.S.); (M.F.); (D.D.)
| | - Mathieu Franssen
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman B43, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (E.B.); (M.S.); (M.F.); (D.D.)
| | - Daniel Desmecht
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman B43, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (E.B.); (M.S.); (M.F.); (D.D.)
| | - Jonas Schmidt-Chanasit
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany;
- Faculty of Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, University of Hamburg, 20354 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mutien-Marie Garigliany
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman B43, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (E.B.); (M.S.); (M.F.); (D.D.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Comparative Pathology of West Nile Virus in Humans and Non-Human Animals. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9010048. [PMID: 31935992 PMCID: PMC7168622 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9010048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) continues to be a major cause of human arboviral neuroinvasive disease. Susceptible non-human vertebrates are particularly diverse, ranging from commonly affected birds and horses to less commonly affected species such as alligators. This review summarizes the pathology caused by West Nile virus during natural infections of humans and non-human animals. While the most well-known findings in human infection involve the central nervous system, WNV can also cause significant lesions in the heart, kidneys and eyes. Time has also revealed chronic neurologic sequelae related to prior human WNV infection. Similarly, neurologic disease is a prominent manifestation of WNV infection in most non-human non-host animals. However, in some avian species, which serve as the vertebrate host for WNV maintenance in nature, severe systemic disease can occur, with neurologic, cardiac, intestinal and renal injury leading to death. The pathology seen in experimental animal models of West Nile virus infection and knowledge gains on viral pathogenesis derived from these animal models are also briefly discussed. A gap in the current literature exists regarding the relationship between the neurotropic nature of WNV in vertebrates, virus propagation and transmission in nature. This and other knowledge gaps, and future directions for research into WNV pathology, are addressed.
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8
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Hasan SS, Sevvana M, Kuhn RJ, Rossmann MG. Structural biology of Zika virus and other flaviviruses. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2018; 25:13-20. [PMID: 29323278 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-017-0010-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an enveloped, icosahedral flavivirus that has structural and functional similarities to other human flavivirus pathogens such as dengue (DENV), West Nile (WNV) and Japanese encephalitis (JEV) viruses. ZIKV infections have been linked to fetal microcephaly and the paralytic Guillain-Barré syndrome. This review provides a comparative structural analysis of the assembly, maturation and host-cell entry of ZIKV with other flaviviruses, especially DENV. We also discuss the mechanisms of neutralization by antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Saif Hasan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Madhumati Sevvana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Richard J Kuhn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Michael G Rossmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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9
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Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), a mosquito-borne, single positive-stranded RNA virus, has been the leading cause of arboviral encephalitis in the U.S. and other parts of the world over the past decade. Up to 50 % of WNV convalescent patients were reported to have long-term neurological sequelae or chronic kidney diseases. However, there are neither antiviral drugs nor vaccines available for humans. The underlying mechanism of the long-term sequelae is not clearly understood either. Animal models have been an effective tool to investigate viral pathogenesis and host immunity in humans. Here, we will review several commonly used murine models of WNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenna McGruder
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Keiller 3.118B, Galveston, TX, 77555-0609, USA
| | - Vandana Saxena
- Department of Immunology, National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, MH, 411026, India
| | - Tian Wang
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Keiller 3.118B, Galveston, TX, 77555-0609, USA. .,Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA. .,Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA.
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10
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Role of skin immune cells on the host susceptibility to mosquito-borne viruses. Virology 2014; 464-465:26-32. [PMID: 25043586 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Due to climate change and the propagation of competent arthropods worldwide, arboviruses have become pathogens of major medical importance. Early transmission to vertebrates is initiated by skin puncture and deposition of virus together with arthropod saliva in the epidermis and dermis. Saliva components have the capacity to modulate skin cell responses by enhancing and/or counteracting initial replication and establishment of systemic viral infection. Here, we review the nature of the cells targeted by arboviruses at the skin level and discuss the type of cellular responses elicited by these pathogens in light of the immunomodulatory properties of arthropod vector-derived salivary factors injected at the inoculation site. Understanding cutaneous arbovirus-host interactions may provide new clues for the design of future therapeutics.
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11
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IFN-dependent and -independent reduction in West Nile virus infectivity in human dermal fibroblasts. Viruses 2014; 6:1424-41. [PMID: 24662674 PMCID: PMC3970159 DOI: 10.3390/v6031424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although dermal fibroblasts are one of the first cell types exposed to West Nile virus (WNV) during a blood meal by an infected mosquito, little is known about WNV replication within this cell type. Here, we demonstrate that neuroinvasive, WNV-New York (WNV-NY), and nonneuroinvasive, WNV-Australia (WNV-AUS60) strains are able to infect and replicate in primary human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). However, WNV-AUS60 replication and spread within HDFs was reduced compared to that of WNV-NY due to an interferon (IFN)-independent reduction in viral infectivity early in infection. Additionally, replication of both strains was constrained late in infection by an IFN-β-dependent reduction in particle infectivity. Overall, our data indicates that human dermal fibroblasts are capable of supporting WNV replication; however, the low infectivity of particles produced from HDFs late in infection suggests that this cell type likely plays a limited role as a viral reservoir in vivo.
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12
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Ashhurst TM, van Vreden C, Munoz-Erazo L, Niewold P, Watabe K, Terry RL, Deffrasnes C, Getts DR, King NJC. Antiviral macrophage responses in flavivirus encephalitis. Indian J Med Res 2013; 138:632-47. [PMID: 24434318 PMCID: PMC3928696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne flaviviruses are a major current and emerging threat, affecting millions of people worldwide. Global climate change, combined with increasing proximity of humans to animals and mosquito vectors by expansion into natural habitats, coupled with the increase in international travel, have resulted in significant spread and concomitant increase in the incidence of infection and severe disease. Although neuroinvasive disease has been well described for some viral infections such as Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV) and West Nile virus (WNV), others such as dengue virus (DENV) have recently displayed an emerging pattern of neuroinvasive disease, distinct from the previously observed, systemically-induced encephalomyelopathy. In this setting, the immune response is a crucial component of host defence, in preventing viral dissemination and invasion of the central nervous system (CNS). However, subversion of the anti-viral activities of macrophages by flaviviruses can facilitate viral replication and spread, enhancing the intensity of immune responses, leading to severe immune-mediated disease which may be further exacerbated during the subsequent infection with some flaviviruses. Furthermore, in the CNS myeloid cells may be responsible for inducing specific inflammatory changes, which can lead to significant pathological damage during encephalitis. The interaction of virus and cells of the myeloid lineage is complex, and this interaction is likely responsible at least in part, for crucial differences between viral clearance and pathology. Recent studies on the role of myeloid cells in innate immunity and viral control, and the mechanisms of evasion and subversion used by flaviviruses are rapidly advancing our understanding of the immunopathological mechanisms involved in flavivirus encephalitis and will lead to the development of therapeutic strategies previously not considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Myles Ashhurst
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Caryn van Vreden
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Luis Munoz-Erazo
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Paula Niewold
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Kanami Watabe
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Rachael L. Terry
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia,Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60208, USA
| | - Celine Deffrasnes
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia,CSIRO, Animal, Food & Health Science, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
| | - Daniel R. Getts
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia,Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60208, USA
| | - Nicholas Jonathan Cole King
- Viral Immunopathology Unit, Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, Bosch Institute & The Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Disease & Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Abstract
As the threat of exposure to emerging and reemerging viruses within a naive population increases, it is vital that the basic mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune response be thoroughly investigated. By using animal models in this endeavor, the response to viruses can be studied in a more natural context to identify novel drug targets, and assess the efficacy and safety of new products. This is especially true in the advent of the Food and Drug Administration's animal rule. Although no one animal model is able to recapitulate all the aspects of human disease, understanding the current limitations allows for a more targeted experimental design. Important facets to be considered before an animal study are the route of challenge, species of animals, biomarkers of disease, and a humane endpoint. This chapter covers the current animal models for medically important human viruses, and demonstrates where the gaps in knowledge exist.
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Lim SM, Koraka P, Osterhaus AD, Martina BE. West Nile virus: immunity and pathogenesis. Viruses 2011; 3:811-28. [PMID: 21994755 PMCID: PMC3185772 DOI: 10.3390/v3060811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2011] [Revised: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic, arthropod-borne flavivirus that is maintained in an enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds, but can also infect and cause disease in horses and humans. WNV is endemic in parts of Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, and since 1999 has spread to North America, Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. WNV infects the central nervous system (CNS) and can cause severe disease in a small minority of infected humans, mostly immunocompromised or the elderly. This review discusses some of the mechanisms by which the immune system can limit dissemination of WNV infection and elaborates on the mechanisms involved in pathogenesis. Reasons for susceptibility to WNV-associated neuroinvasive disease in less than 1% of cases remain unexplained, but one favored hypothesis is that the involvement of the CNS is associated with a weak immune response allowing robust WNV replication in the periphery and spread of the virus to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Lim
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Penelope Koraka
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Byron E.E. Martina
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, P.O. Box 2040, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; E-Mails: (S.M.L.); (P.K.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
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15
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Davison AM, King NJC. Accelerated dendritic cell differentiation from migrating Ly6C(lo) bone marrow monocytes in early dermal West Nile virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:2382-96. [PMID: 21248254 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
No study has investigated the participation of Ly6C(+) monocytes in the earliest phase of skin infection with the mosquito-borne West Nile virus. In a novel murine model mimicking natural dermal infection, CCL2-dependent bone marrow (BM)-derived monocyte migration, differentiation into Ly6C(+) dendritic cells (DC), and accumulation around dermal deposits of infected fibroblasts by day 1 postinfection were associated with increasing numbers of monocyte-derived TNF/inducible NO synthase-producing DC by day 2 postinfection in draining auricular lymph nodes (ALN). Adoptive transfer demonstrated simultaneous migration of bone marrow-derived Ly6C(lo) monocytes to virus-infected dermis and ALN, where they first become Ly6C(hi) DC within 24 h and then Ly6C(lo) DC by 72 h. DC migration from the infected dermis to the ALN derived exclusively from Ly6C(lo) BM monocytes. This demonstrates that Ly6C(hi) and Ly6C(lo) BM-derived monocytes have different fates in vivo and suggests that BM may be a reservoir of preinflammatory monocytes for rapid deployment as inflammatory DC during virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariane M Davison
- Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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16
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Kaufmann B, Rossmann MG. Molecular mechanisms involved in the early steps of flavivirus cell entry. Microbes Infect 2010; 13:1-9. [PMID: 20869460 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Revised: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Flaviviruses enter their host cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis, a well-orchestrated process of receptor recognition, penetration and uncoating. Recent findings on these early steps in the life cycle of flaviviruses are the focus of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bärbel Kaufmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA
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17
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Kimura T, Sasaki M, Okumura M, Kim E, Sawa H. Flavivirus encephalitis: pathological aspects of mouse and other animal models. Vet Pathol 2010; 47:806-18. [PMID: 20551474 DOI: 10.1177/0300985810372507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Encephalitic flaviviruses are important arthropod-borne pathogens of humans and other animals. In particular, the recent emergence of the West Nile virus (WNV) and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in new geographic areas has caused a considerable public health alert and international concern. Among the experimental in vivo models of WNV and JEV infection, mice and other laboratory rodents are the most thoroughly studied and well-characterized systems, having provided data that are important for understanding the infectious process in humans. Macaca monkeys have also been used as a model for WNV and JEV infection, mainly for the evaluation of vaccine efficacy, although a limited number of published studies have addressed pathomorphology. These animal models demonstrate the development of encephalitis with many similarities to the human disease; however, the histological events that occur during infection, especially in peripheral tissues, have not been fully characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kimura
- Department of Molecular Pathobiology, Hokkaido University Research Center for Zoonosis Control, West 10 North 20, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020 Japan.
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18
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Welte T, Reagan K, Fang H, Machain-Williams C, Zheng X, Mendell N, Chang GJJ, Wu P, Blair CD, Wang T. Toll-like receptor 7-induced immune response to cutaneous West Nile virus infection. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2660-2668. [PMID: 19641044 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.011783-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 response represents a vital host-defence mechanism in a murine model of systemic West Nile virus (WNV) infection. Here, we investigated the role of the TLR7-induced immune response following cutaneous WNV infection. We found that there was no difference in susceptibility to WNV encephalitis between wild-type and TLR7(-/-) mice upon intradermal injection or infected mosquito feeding. Viral load analysis revealed similar levels of WNV RNA in the peripheral tissues and brains of these two groups of mice following intradermal infection. There was a higher level of cytokines in the blood of wild-type mice at early stages of infection; however, this difference was diminished in the blood and brains at later stages. Langerhans cells (LCs) are permissive to WNV infection and migrate from the skin to draining lymph nodes upon intradermal challenge. Our data showed that WNV infection of TLR7(-/-) keratinocytes was significantly higher than that of wild-type keratinocytes. Infection of wild-type keratinocytes induced higher levels of alpha interferon and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), IL-6 and IL-12, which might promote LC migration from the skin. Co-culture of naïve LCs of wild-type mice with WNV-infected wild-type keratinocytes resulted in the production of more IL-6 and IL-12 than with TLR7(-/-) keratinocytes or by cultured LCs alone. Moreover, LCs in the epidermis were reduced in wild-type mice, but not in TLR7(-/-) mice, following intradermal WNV infection. Overall, our results suggest that the TLR7 response following cutaneous infection promotes LC migration from the skin, which might compromise its protective effect in systemic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Welte
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Krystle Reagan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Hao Fang
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Carlos Machain-Williams
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Xin Zheng
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Nicole Mendell
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Gwong-Jen J Chang
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3150 Rampart Road, CDC-Foothills Campus, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0620, USA
| | - Carol D Blair
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Tian Wang
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
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19
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Diamond MS, Pierson TC, Fremont DH. The structural immunology of antibody protection against West Nile virus. Immunol Rev 2009; 225:212-25. [PMID: 18837784 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2008.00676.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY Recent investigations of the interaction between the West Nile virus (WNV) envelope protein (E) and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have elucidated fundamental insights into the molecular mechanisms of neutralization. Structural studies have defined an epitope on the lateral ridge of domain III (DIII-lr) of the WNV E protein that is recognized by antibodies with the strongest neutralizing activity in vitro and in vivo. Antibodies that bind this epitope are highly potent because they efficiently block at a post-entry step of viral infection with relatively low virion occupancy requirements. In this review, we discuss the structural, molecular, and immunologic basis for antibody-mediated protection against WNV, and its implications for novel therapeutic or vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Diamond
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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20
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Martina BEE, Koraka P, van den Doel P, Rimmelzwaan GF, Haagmans BL, Osterhaus ADME. DC-SIGN enhances infection of cells with glycosylated West Nile virus in vitro and virus replication in human dendritic cells induces production of IFN-alpha and TNF-alpha. Virus Res 2008; 135:64-71. [PMID: 18405996 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2007] [Revised: 02/08/2008] [Accepted: 02/15/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The recent introduction of West Nile virus (WNV) into the Western hemisphere resulted in significant human outbreaks causing disease of variable severity. Previous studies classified WNV into two major lineages (L1 and L2) that differ in their virulence. Since most L1 strains are glycosylated, we investigated the role of dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN) in infection efficiency of glycosylated WNV strains. We showed that glycosylated strains, in contrast to non-glycosylated strains, infected DC-SIGN expressing cells more efficiently than DC-SIGN negative cells. Furthermore, WNV can productively infect cultured human dendritic cells (DCs) and infection of dendritic cells with the glycosylated WNV-NY99 L1 strain induced production of significantly more TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha in cultured DC, than infection with the non-glycosylated B956 L2 strain. Together, these results indicate that DC-SIGN enhances infection of cells by WNV glycosylated strains, which may at least in part explain the higher pathogenicity of glycosylated L1 strains versus most non-glycosylated L2 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byron E E Martina
- Department of Virology, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Institute of Virology, PO Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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21
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Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) infection of mosquitoes, birds, and vertebrates continues to spread in the Western Hemisphere. In humans, WNV infects the central nervous system and causes severe disease, primarily in the immunocompromised and elderly. In this review we discuss the mechanisms by which antibody controls WNV infection. Recent virologic, immunologic, and structural experiments have enhanced our understanding on how antibodies neutralize WNV and protect against disease. These advances have significant implications for the development of novel antibody-based therapies and targeted vaccines.
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22
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Shrestha B, Diamond MS. Fas ligand interactions contribute to CD8+ T-cell-mediated control of West Nile virus infection in the central nervous system. J Virol 2007; 81:11749-57. [PMID: 17804505 PMCID: PMC2168805 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01136-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that causes encephalitis, most frequently in elderly and immunocompromised humans. Previous studies demonstrated that CD8+ T cells utilize perforin-dependent cytolytic mechanisms to limit WNV infection. Nonetheless, the phenotype of perforin-deficient CD8+ T cells was not as severe as that of an absence of CD8+ T cells, suggesting additional effector control mechanisms. In this study, we evaluated the contribution of Fas-Fas ligand (FasL) interactions to CD8+ T-cell-mediated control of WNV infection. Notably, the cell death receptor Fas was strongly upregulated on neurons in culture and in vivo after WNV infection. gld mice that were functionally deficient in FasL expression showed increased susceptibility to lethal WNV infection. Although antigen-specific priming of CD8+ T cells in peripheral lymphoid tissues was normal in gld mice, increased central nervous system (CNS) viral burdens and delayed clearance were observed. Moreover, the adoptive transfer of WNV-primed wild-type but not gld CD8+ T cells to recipient CD8(-/-) or gld mice efficiently limited infection in the CNS and enhanced survival rates. Overall, our data suggest that CD8+ T cells also utilize FasL effector mechanisms to contain WNV infection in Fas-expressing neurons in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bimmi Shrestha
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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23
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King NJC, Getts DR, Getts MT, Rana S, Shrestha B, Kesson AM. Immunopathology of flavivirus infections. Immunol Cell Biol 2006; 85:33-42. [PMID: 17146465 DOI: 10.1038/sj.icb.7100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
With the recent emergence of the flavivirus, West Nile virus (WNV), in particular, the New York strain of Lineage I WNV in North America in 1999, there has been a significant increase in activity in neurotropic flavivirus research. These viruses cause encephalitis that can result in permanent neurological sequelae or death. Attempts to develop vaccines have made progress, but have been variably successful, despite considerable commercial underwriting. Thus, the discovery of ways and means to combat disease is no less urgent. As such, most recent work has been directed towards dissecting and understanding the pathogenesis of disease, as a way of informing possible approaches to abrogation or amelioration of illness. Whether inherent to flaviviruses or because humans are incidental, dead-end hosts, it is clear that these viruses interact with their human hosts in extremely complex ways. This occurs from the cellular level, at which infection must be established to produce disease, to its interaction with the adaptive immune response, which may result in its eradication, with or without immunopathological and consequent neurological sequelae. As human proximity to and contact with flavivirus insect vectors and amplifying hosts cannot practically be eliminated, our understanding of the pathogenesis of flavivirus-induced diseases, especially with regard to possible targets for treatment, is imperative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J C King
- Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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24
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Shrestha B, Wang T, Samuel MA, Whitby K, Craft J, Fikrig E, Diamond MS. Gamma interferon plays a crucial early antiviral role in protection against West Nile virus infection. J Virol 2006; 80:5338-48. [PMID: 16699014 PMCID: PMC1472130 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00274-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2006] [Accepted: 03/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) causes a severe central nervous system (CNS) infection in humans, primarily in the elderly and immunocompromised. Prior studies have established an essential protective role of several innate immune response elements, including alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta), immunoglobulin M, gammadelta T cells, and complement against WNV infection. In this study, we demonstrate that a lack of IFN-gamma production or signaling results in increased vulnerability to lethal WNV infection by a subcutaneous route in mice, with a rise in mortality from 30% (wild-type mice) to 90% (IFN-gamma(-/-) or IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice) and a decrease in the average survival time. This survival pattern in IFN-gamma(-/-) and IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice correlated with higher viremia and greater viral replication in lymphoid tissues. The increase in peripheral infection led to early CNS seeding since infectious WNV was detected several days earlier in the brains and spinal cords of IFN-gamma(-/-) or IFN-gammaR(-/-) mice. Bone marrow reconstitution experiments showed that gammadelta T cells require IFN-gamma to limit dissemination by WNV. Moreover, treatment of primary dendritic cells with IFN-gamma reduced WNV production by 130-fold. Collectively, our experiments suggest that the dominant protective role of IFN-gamma against WNV is antiviral in nature, occurs in peripheral lymphoid tissues, and prevents viral dissemination to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bimmi Shrestha
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Ave., Box 8051, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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25
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Shrestha B, Samuel MA, Diamond MS. CD8+ T cells require perforin to clear West Nile virus from infected neurons. J Virol 2006; 80:119-29. [PMID: 16352536 PMCID: PMC1317548 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.1.119-129.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2005] [Accepted: 10/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Injury to neurons after West Nile virus (WNV) infection is believed to occur because of viral and host immune-mediated effects. Previously, we demonstrated that CD8+ T cells are required for the resolution of WNV infection in the central nervous system (CNS). CD8+ T cells can control infection by producing antiviral cytokines (e.g., gamma interferon or tumor necrosis factor alpha) or by triggering death of infected cells through perforin- or Fas ligand-dependent pathways. Here, we directly evaluated the role of perforin in controlling infection of a lineage I New York isolate of WNV in mice. A genetic deficiency of perforin molecules resulted in higher viral burden in the CNS and increased mortality after WNV infection. In the few perforin-deficient mice that survived initial challenge, viral persistence was observed in the CNS for several weeks. CD8+ T cells required perforin to control WNV infection as adoptive transfer of WNV-primed wild-type but not perforin-deficient CD8+ T cells greatly reduced infection in the brain and spinal cord and enhanced survival of CD8-deficient mice. Analogous results were obtained when wild-type or perforin-deficient CD8+ T cells were added to congenic primary cortical neuron cultures. Taken together, our data suggest that despite the risk of immunopathogenesis, CD8+ T cells use a perforin-dependent mechanism to clear WNV from infected neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bimmi Shrestha
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Ave., Box 8051, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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26
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Weber F, Byrne SN, Le S, Brown DA, Breit SN, Scolyer RA, Halliday GM. Transforming growth factor-beta1 immobilises dendritic cells within skin tumours and facilitates tumour escape from the immune system. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2005; 54:898-906. [PMID: 15776284 PMCID: PMC11033026 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-004-0652-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2004] [Accepted: 11/01/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Human skin tumours often regress spontaneously due to immune rejection. Murine skin tumours model this behaviour; some regress and others progress in syngeneic immunocompetent hosts. Previous studies have shown that progressor but not regressor skin tumours inhibit dendritic cell (DC) migration from the tumour to draining lymph nodes, and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) has been identified as a responsible factor. To determine whether increased production of TGF-beta1 in the absence of other differences inhibits DC migration from the tumour and enables it to evade immune destruction, a murine regressor squamous cell carcinoma clone was transfected with the gene for TGF-beta1. This enhanced growth in vitro and in vivo, causing it to become a progressor. TGF-beta1 transfection reduced the number of infiltrating DCs by about 25%. Quantitation of CD11c+ E-cadherin+ (epidermally derived) DCs in lymph nodes determined that TGF-beta1 reduced the number of DCs that migrated from the tumour to undetectable levels. This was supported by showing that TGF-beta1 reduced DC migration from cultured tumour explants by greater than tenfold. TGF-beta1 transfection also reduced the number of infiltrating CD4 and CD8 T cells. Thus, TGF-beta1 production by skin tumours is sufficient to immobilise DCs within the tumour, preventing their migration to lymph nodes. This reduces the number of T cells that infiltrate the tumour, preventing regression. Thus, TGF-beta1 is a key regulator of whether skin tumours regress or progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Weber
- Dermatology Research Unit, Melanoma and Skin Cancer Research Institute, Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital at University of Sydney, Blackburn Building, D06, Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Scott N. Byrne
- Dermatology Research Unit, Melanoma and Skin Cancer Research Institute, Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital at University of Sydney, Blackburn Building, D06, Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Shery Le
- Dermatology Research Unit, Melanoma and Skin Cancer Research Institute, Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital at University of Sydney, Blackburn Building, D06, Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia
| | - David A. Brown
- Centre for Immunology, St. Vincent’s Hospital and University of NSW, Sydney, Australia
| | - Samuel N. Breit
- Centre for Immunology, St. Vincent’s Hospital and University of NSW, Sydney, Australia
| | - Richard A. Scolyer
- Department of Anatomical Pathology, Melanoma and Skin Cancer Research Institute, Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital at University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gary M. Halliday
- Dermatology Research Unit, Melanoma and Skin Cancer Research Institute, Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital at University of Sydney, Blackburn Building, D06, Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia
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27
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Riezebos-Brilman A, Regts J, Freyschmidt EJ, Dontje B, Wilschut J, Daemen T. Induction of human papilloma virus E6/E7-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity in immune-tolerant, E6/E7-transgenic mice. Gene Ther 2005; 12:1410-4. [PMID: 15843807 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Despite promising preclinical results of various therapeutic anticancer immunization strategies, these approaches may not be effective enough to eradicate tumors in cancer patients. While most animal models are based on fast-growing transplantable tumors, malignancies in, for example, cervical cancer patients in general develop much more slowly, which may lead to immune suppression and/or immune tolerance. As a consequence, the immunomodulating signal of any therapeutic immunization regimen should be sufficiently potent to overcome this immunocompromised condition. In previous studies, we demonstrated that an experimental vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced cervical cancer, based on Semliki Forest virus (SFV), induces robust HPV-specific cellular immune responses in mice. Now we studied whether this strategy is potent enough to also prime a cellular immune response in immune-tolerant HPV transgenic mice, in which CTL activity cannot be induced using protein or DNA vaccines. We demonstrate that, depending on the route of immunization, SFV-expressing HPV16 E6 and E7 indeed has the capacity to induce HPV16 E7-specific cytotoxic T cells in HPV-transgenic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Riezebos-Brilman
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), Ant. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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28
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de Gruijl TD, Pinedo HM, Scheper RJ. Immunotherapy of Cancer by Dendritic Cell-Targeted Gene Transfer. Cancer Gene Ther 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59259-785-7_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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29
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Carrasco CP, Rigden RC, Vincent IE, Balmelli C, Ceppi M, Bauhofer O, Tâche V, Hjertner B, McNeilly F, van Gennip HG, McCullough KC, Summerfield A. Interaction of classical swine fever virus with dendritic cells. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:1633-1641. [PMID: 15166448 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19716-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional disruption of dendritic cells (DCs) is an important strategy for viral pathogens to evade host defences. Monocytotropic viruses such as classical swine fever virus (CSFV) could employ such a mechanism, since the virus can suppress immune responses and induce apoptosis without infecting lymphocytes. Here, CSFV was shown to infect and efficiently replicate in monocyte- and in bone marrow-derived DCs. Interestingly, the infected DCs displayed neither modulated MHC nor CD80/86 expression. Stimulation of DCs with IFN-α/TNF-α or polyinosinic–polycytidylic acid (pIC) induced phenotypic maturation with increased MHC and CD80/86 expression, both with mock-treated and infected DCs. In addition, the T cell stimulatory capacity of CSFV-infected DCs was maintained both in a polyclonal T cell stimulation and in specific antigen-presentation assays, requiring antigen uptake and processing. Interestingly, similar to macrophages, CSFV did not induce IFN-α responses in these DCs and even suppressed pIC-induced IFN-α induction. Other cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-12 and TNF-α were not modulated. Taken together, these results demonstrated that CSFV can replicate in DCs and control IFN type I responses, without interfering with the immune reactivity. These results are interesting considering that DC infection with RNA viruses usually results in DC activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C P Carrasco
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - R C Rigden
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - I E Vincent
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - C Balmelli
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - M Ceppi
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - O Bauhofer
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - V Tâche
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - B Hjertner
- Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, UK
| | - F McNeilly
- Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Veterinary Sciences Division, Belfast, UK
| | - H G van Gennip
- Animal Sciences Group, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - K C McCullough
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - A Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, CH-3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
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30
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Burke SA, Wen L, King NJC. Routes of inoculation and the immune response to a resolving genital flavivirus infection in a novel murine model. Immunol Cell Biol 2004; 82:174-83. [PMID: 15061771 DOI: 10.1046/j.0818-9641.2004.01239.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The prolonged, abnormal immune response patterns produced by many sexually transmitted viruses have been intensively studied. Because normal antiviral immune responses in the vagina are less well-defined, we developed a resolving murine model using vaginal inoculation with the flavivirus, West Nile virus. Infection resulted in 12% mortality, with sterile protective immunity to vaginal or systemic re-challenge. B-cell numbers increased in the vaginal mucosa from day 1-7 after primary infection, while similar increases in B220(+), CD4(+) and CD8(+) lymphocytes in the draining lymph node were delayed by 48 h. By day 4 postinfection, a MHC-II(+) dendritic cell population became depleted from the stroma and formed aggregates below the basement membrane at points of demonstrable epithelial infection. In contrast, primary systemic or intradermal inoculation resulted in 80-90% mortality, but also conferred protective sterile immunity to vaginal West Nile virus re-challenge. Intravaginal and intradermal immunization elicited comparable, accelerated accumulation of larger B-cell numbers in the mucosa and draining lymph node upon intravaginal re-challenge than systemic immunization. However, accumulation of CD4(+) T cells in both sites in the intradermally immunized group was significantly greater than in intravaginally or systemically immunized mice. Accelerated accumulation of dendritic cells occurred at periodic sub-basement membrane sites in the absence of detectable virus 1 day after vaginal re-challenge, irrespective of the route of immunization. These data illustrate the diversity of possible effective immune responses to West Nile virus in the vaginal mucosa. They show primary vaginal inoculation produces effective immunity to flavivirus infection with lower mortality than other routes and suggest a local role for vaginal mucosal dendritic cells in both primary and secondary responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon A Burke
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biomedical Research, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Abstract
Cell surface macromolecules play a crucial role in the biology and pathobiology of flaviviruses, both as receptors for virus entry and as signaling molecules for cell–cell interactions in the processes of vascular permeability and inflammation. This review examines the cell tropism and pathogenesis of flaviviruses from the standpoint of cell surface molecules, which have been implicated as receptors in both virus–cell as well as cell–cell interactions. The emerging picture is one that encompasses extensive regulation and interplay among the invading virus, viral immune complexes, Fc receptors, major histocompatibility complex antigens, and adhesion molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Anderson
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4H7 Canada
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Abstract
Flaviviruses cause pleomorphic disease with significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Interestingly, in contrast to most viruses, which subvert or avoid host immune systems, members of the neurotropic Japanese encephalitis serocomplex cause functional changes associated with increased efficacy of the immune response. These viruses induce increased cell surface expression of immune recognition molecules, including class I and II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and various adhesion molecules. Increases are functional: infected cells are significantly more susceptible to both virus- and MHC-specific cytotoxic T cell lysis. Induced changes are modulated positively or negatively by Th1 and Th2 cytokines, as well as by cell cycle position and adherence status at infection. Infection also increases costimulatory molecule expression on Langerhans cells in the skin. Local interleukin-1 beta production causes accelerated migration of phenotypically altered Langerhans cells to local draining lymph nodes, where initiation of antiviral immune responses occur. The exact mechanism(s) of upregulation is unclear, but changes are associated with NF-kappa B activation and increased MHC and ICAM-1 gene transcription, independently of interferon (IFN) or other proinflammatory cytokines. Increased MHC and adhesion molecule expression may contribute to the pathogenesis of flavivirus encephalitis. Results from a murine model of flavivirus encephalitis developed in this laboratory suggest that fatal disease is immunopathological in nature, with IFN-gamma playing a crucial role. We hypothesize that these viruses may decoy the adaptive immune system into generating low-affinity T cells, which clear virus poorly, as part of their survival strategy. This may enable viral growth and immune escape in cycling cells, which do not significantly upregulate cell surface molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J King
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biomedical Research, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
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Diamond MS, Shrestha B, Mehlhop E, Sitati E, Engle M. Innate and adaptive immune responses determine protection against disseminated infection by West Nile encephalitis virus. Viral Immunol 2004; 16:259-78. [PMID: 14583143 DOI: 10.1089/088282403322396082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
WNV continues to spread throughout the Western Hemisphere as virus activity in insects and animals has been reported in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean islands. West Nile virus (WNV) infects the central nervous system and causes severe disease primarily in humans who are immunocompromised or elderly. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms by which the immune system limits dissemination of WNV infection. Recent experimental studies in animals suggest important roles for both the innate and the adaptive immune responses in controlling WNV infection. Interferons, antibody, complement components and CD8+ T cells coordinate protection against severe infection and disease. These findings are analyzed in the context of recent approaches to vaccine development and immunotherapy against WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Diamond
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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King NJC, Kesson AM. Interaction of flaviviruses with cells of the vertebrate host and decoy of the immune response. Immunol Cell Biol 2003; 81:207-16. [PMID: 12752685 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.2003.01167.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Flaviviruses cause endemic and epidemic disease with significant morbidity and mortality throughout the world. In contrast to viruses that avoid the host immune response by down-regulating cell surface major histocompatibility complex expression, infection by members of the neurotropic Japanese encephalitis serogroup induce virus-directed functional increases in expression of class I and II major histocompatibility complex and various adhesion molecules, resulting in increased susceptibility to both virus- and major histocompatibility complex-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte lysis. These changes are comodulated by T1 and T2 cytokines, as well as by cell cycle position and adherence status at infection. Infected skin dendritic (Langerhans) cells also show increased costimulatory molecule expression and local interleukin-1beta production causes accelerated migration of Langerhans cells to local draining lymph nodes, where initiation of antiviral immune responses occur. The exact mechanism(s) of up-regulation is unclear, but changes are associated with NF-kappaB activation and increased MHC and ICAM-1 gene transcription, independently of interferon or other pro-inflammatory cytokines. We hypothesize that these viruses may decoy the adaptive immune system into generating low-affinity, self-reactive T cells which clear virus poorly, as part of their survival strategy. This may enable viral growth and immune escape in cycling cells, which do not significantly up-regulate cell surface molecules. A possible side-effect of this might be immunopathology, caused by 'autoimmune' cross-reactive damage of uninfected high major histocompatibility complex and adhesion molecule-expressing cells, with consequent exacerbation of encephalitic disease. Results from a murine model of flavivirus encephalitis developed in this laboratory further suggest that interferon-gamma plays a crucial role in fatal immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J C King
- Department of Pathology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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35
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Lobigs M, Müllbacher A, Regner M. MHC class I up-regulation by flaviviruses: Immune interaction with unknown advantage to host or pathogen. Immunol Cell Biol 2003; 81:217-23. [PMID: 12752686 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.2003.01161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to many other viruses that escape from cytotoxic T cell recognition by down-regulating major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted antigen presentation, flavivirus infection of mammalian cells up-regulates cell surface expression of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules. Two putative mechanisms for flavivirus-induced major histocompatibility complex class I up-regulation, one via activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, the second by augmentation of peptide import into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, are reviewed, and the biological effect of the flavivirus-mediated phenomenon on target cell recognition by natural killer and cytotoxic T cells is addressed. Finally, we speculate on the physiological role of flavivirus-mediated modulation of major histocompatibility complex class I antigen presentation in the context of the biology of flavivirus transmission between the vertebrate host and arthropod vector and suggest that it may represent a strategy for immune evasion from the natural killer cell response or, alternatively, that up-regulation of major histocompatibility complex class I is a by-product of flavivirus replication without significance for virus growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Lobigs
- Division of Immunology and Genetics, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
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36
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Lateef Z, Fleming S, Halliday G, Faulkner L, Mercer A, Baird M. Orf virus-encoded interleukin-10 inhibits maturation, antigen presentation and migration of murine dendritic cells. J Gen Virol 2003; 84:1101-1109. [PMID: 12692274 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.18978-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Orf virus (ORFV) belongs to the genus Parapoxvirus and induces cutaneous pustular lesions in sheep, goats and humans. ORFV is unusual in that it has the ability to reinfect its host and this suggests that the generation of immunological memory has been impaired, thus exposing the host to subsequent infection. The discovery that ORFV encodes an IL-10-like virokine raises the question of whether this factor adversely affects the cells that initiate the acquired immune response. We examined the effect of ORFV-IL-10 on immature murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC). Immature BMDC are activated on exposure to antigen and undergo maturation. This process is characterized by increased expression of CD80, CD86 and MHC class II and reduced antigen uptake. We found that the maturation of BMDC is impaired in cells treated with ORFV-IL-10 prior to antigen exposure and this was exemplified by the reduced expression of the cell-surface markers described above. We have also shown that the activation of a haemagglutinin peptide (HAT)-specific T cell hybridoma by dendritic cell-mediated presentation of HAT and heat-inactivated influenza virus AP8/34 was markedly reduced following exposure to ORFV-IL-10. Finally, we examined the effect of ORFV-IL-10 on Langerhans' cell (LC) migration using cultured murine skin explant tissue and showed that this virokine impaired the spontaneous migration of LC from the epidermis and induced changes in LC morphology. Our findings suggest that ORFV-IL-10 has the capacity to impair the initiation of an acquired immune response and hence inhibit the generation of immunological memory necessary for immunity on subsequent exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zabeen Lateef
- Department of Microbiology, Virus Research Unit, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Stephen Fleming
- Department of Microbiology, Virus Research Unit, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Gary Halliday
- Department of Medicine, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Lee Faulkner
- Department of Microbiology, Virus Research Unit, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Andrew Mercer
- Department of Microbiology, Virus Research Unit, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Margaret Baird
- Department of Microbiology, Virus Research Unit, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
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37
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Kesson AM, Cheng Y, King NJC. Regulation of immune recognition molecules by flavivirus, West Nile. Viral Immunol 2003; 15:273-83. [PMID: 12081012 DOI: 10.1089/08828240260066224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We have shown the flaviviruses can up-regulate the cell surface expression of the immune recognition molecules, major histocompatability complex class-I and class-II (MHC-I, MHC-II), ICAM-1, VCAM, and E-selectin, in an interferon-independent and tumor necrosis factor-independent manner. This up-regulation is associated with an increased transcription of the relevant genes and is due to activation of the transcription factor, nuclear factor-kappa B. The level of up-regulation is determined in part by the cell cycle position of the cell when infected with the flavivirus, as quiescent cells show a greater increase in the level of expression of the immune recognition molecules, MHC-I and ICAM-1, than cells in other phases of the cell cycle. The resultant increased cell surface expression is functional with the increased expression resulting in increased recognition by flavivirus-specific and allo-specific cytotoxic T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison M Kesson
- Department of Virology and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, NSW, Australia.
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38
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Abstract
Within the flavivirus family, viruses that cause natural infections of the central nervous system (CNS) principally include members of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) serogroup and the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) serocomplex. The pathogenesis of diseases involves complex interactions of viruses, which differ in neurovirulence potential, and a number of host factors, which govern susceptibility to infection and the capacity to mount effective antiviral immune responses both in the periphery and within the CNS. This chapter summarizes progress in the field of flavivirus neuropathogenesis. Mosquito-borne and tickborne viruses are considered together. Flavivirus neuropathogenesis involves both neuroinvasiveness (capacity to enter the CNS) and neurovirulence (replication within the CNS), both of which can be manipulated experimentally. Neuronal injury as a result of bystander effects may be a factor during flavivirus neuropathogenesis given that microglial activation and elaboration of inflammatory mediators, including IL-1β and TNF-α, occur in the CNS during these infections and may accompany the production of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite, which can cause neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Chambers
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, St. Louis University Health Sciences Center, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, USA
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39
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Way SJR, Lidbury BA, Banyer JL. Persistent Ross River virus infection of murine macrophages: an in vitro model for the study of viral relapse and immune modulation during long-term infection. Virology 2002; 301:281-92. [PMID: 12359430 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2002.1587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A clinical feature of Ross River virus disease (RRVD) is the periodic relapse of symptoms months after the initial onset of disease. The underlying mechanisms responsible for this relapse have not been determined. In a long-term (148 days) in vitro study of persistently infected murine macrophages we established that RRV infection periodically fell to undetectable biological levels that required genetic detection. However, the virus concentration spontaneously relapsed to biologically detectable levels that corresponded with enhanced viral mRNA expression, cellular detachment, and cytopathic effect. By altering the cell culture conditions we found that relapse could also be induced. We propose that the periodic relapse of symptoms in RRVD may be associated with spontaneous or stress-induced increases in RRV within persistently infected macrophages. This study also established that RRV enhanced macrophage phagocytic activity and dysregulated the immunoregulatory molecules CD80, IFN-gamma, and TNF-alpha that may facilitate persistence of RRV and avoidance of immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J R Way
- Division of Immunology and Cell Biology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, 2601, Australia
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40
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Anraku I, Harvey TJ, Linedale R, Gardner J, Harrich D, Suhrbier A, Khromykh AA. Kunjin virus replicon vaccine vectors induce protective CD8+ T-cell immunity. J Virol 2002; 76:3791-9. [PMID: 11907219 PMCID: PMC136104 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.8.3791-3799.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of self-replicating RNA (replicon) vaccine vectors derived from the Australian flavivirus Kunjin (KUN) to induce protective alphabeta CD8+ T-cell responses was examined. KUN replicons encoding a model immunogen were delivered by three different vaccine modalities: (i) as naked RNA transcribed in vitro, (ii) as plasmid DNA constructed to allow in vivo transcription of replicon RNA by cellular RNA polymerase II (DNA based), and (iii) as replicon RNA encapsidated into virus-like particles. A single immunization with any of these KUN replicon vaccines induced CD8+ T-cell responses at levels comparable to those induced by recombinant vaccinia virus encoding the same immunogen. Immunization with only 0.1 microg of DNA-based KUN replicons elicited CD8+ T-cell responses similar to those seen after immunization with 100 microg of a conventional DNA vaccine. Naked RNA immunization with KUN replicons also protected mice against challenges with recombinant vaccinia virus and B16 tumor cells. These results demonstrate the value of KUN replicon vectors for inducing protective antiviral and anticancer CD8+ T-cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itaru Anraku
- Sir Albert Sakzewski Virus Research Centre, Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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41
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Byrne SN, Halliday GM, Johnston LJ, King NJ. Interleukin-1beta but not tumor necrosis factor is involved in West Nile virus-induced Langerhans cell migration from the skin in C57BL/6 mice. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 117:702-9. [PMID: 11564180 DOI: 10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01454.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Langerhans cells are bone marrow-derived epidermal dendritic cells. They migrate out of the epidermis into the lymphatics and travel to the draining lymph nodes where they are responsible for the activation of T cells in the primary immune response. Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1beta, have previously been shown to be responsible for Langerhans cell migration in response to contact sensitizers in BALB/C mice; however, which cytokines are responsible for mediating Langerhans cell migration in response to a replicating cutaneously acquired virus such as the West Nile Virus, are not known. We have devised a method for identifying Langerhans cells in the draining lymph nodes using E-cadherin labeling and flow cytometry. We infected tumor necrosis factor-deficient gene knockout mice (tumor necrosis factor-/-) intradermally with West Nile Virus and found that levels of Langerhans cell emigration and accumulation in the draining lymph nodes were similar to wild-type C57BL/6 mice. This was borne out by the finding that high levels of systemic neutralizing anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody failed to inhibit the migration of Langerhans cells from the epidermis and their accumulation in the draining lymph nodes in wild-type C57BL/6 mice. In West Nile Virus-infected, tumor necrosis factor-/- mice treated with systemic neutralizing anti-interleukin-1beta antibodies, however, migration of Langerhans cells from the epidermis and their accumulation in the draining lymph nodes were significantly inhibited compared with control antibody-treated, infected animals. The results indicate that Langerhans cell migration, accumulation in the draining lymph nodes and the initiation of lymph node shut-down in response to a cutaneous West Nile Virus infection is dependent on interleukin-1beta and can occur in the absence of tumor necrosis factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Byrne
- Department of Pathology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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42
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Halliday GM, Le S. Transforming growth factor-beta produced by progressor tumors inhibits, while IL-10 produced by regressor tumors enhances, Langerhans cell migration from skin. Int Immunol 2001; 13:1147-54. [PMID: 11526095 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/13.9.1147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The induction of epidermal immunity depends on activation of local dendritic cells (DC), Langerhans cells (LC), to migrate from the skin to local lymph nodes and mature into potent immunostimulatory cells. We have previously shown that progressor skin tumors, which evade immunological destruction, prevent contact sensitizer-induced LC migration from the skin to draining lymph nodes. In contrast, regressor tumors, which evoke protective immunity, did not inhibit DC mobilization. In this study we utilized the skin explant model to determine the factors produced by skin tumors which regulate LC migration from the skin. Supernatants from two progressor squamous cell carcinoma lines both inhibited LC migration, whereas supernatants from two regressor squamous cell carcinoma lines both enhanced LC mobilization. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 inhibited, while IL-10 enhanced, LC migration from cultured skin. Both reduced the ability of LC to mature into potent allostimulators. Antibody neutralization identified that TGF-beta1 produced by the progressor tumor was responsible for inhibition of LC migration, while IL-10 produced by the regressor tumor enhanced LC mobilization. Thus these studies show that skin tumors influence DC mobilization from tumors by production of cytokines, and that TGF-beta1 is one factor produced by tumors which can immobilize LC and keep them in an immature form. This is likely to be an important mechanism of tumor escape from the immune system as progressor tumors inhibited, while regressor tumors enhanced DC mobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M Halliday
- Department of Medicine (Dermatology), Melanoma and Skin Cancer Research, Institute of the University of Sydney at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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43
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De Groot AS, Saint-Aubin C, Bosma A, Sbai H, Rayner J, Martin W. Rapid Determination of HLA B*07 Ligands from the West Nile Virus NY99 Genome. Emerg Infect Dis 2001. [DOI: 10.3201/eid0704.017419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anne S. De Groot
- Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA;EpiVax, Inc., Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | | | | | - Hakima Sbai
- Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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44
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Libraty DH, Pichyangkul S, Ajariyakhajorn C, Endy TP, Ennis FA. Human dendritic cells are activated by dengue virus infection: enhancement by gamma interferon and implications for disease pathogenesis. J Virol 2001; 75:3501-8. [PMID: 11264339 PMCID: PMC114841 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.8.3501-3508.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of dendritic cells (DCs) to shape the adaptive immune response to viral infection is mediated largely by their maturation and activation state as determined by the surface expression of HLA molecules, costimulatory molecules, and cytokine production. Dengue is an emerging arboviral disease where the severity of illness is influenced by the adaptive immune response to the virus. In this report, we have demonstrated that dengue virus infects and replicates in immature human myeloid DCs. Exposure to live dengue virus led to maturation and activation of both the infected and surrounding, uninfected DCs and stimulated production of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and alpha interferon (IFN-alpha). Activation of the dengue virus-infected DCs was blunted compared to the surrounding, uninfected DCs, and dengue virus infection induced low-level release of interleukin-12 p70 (IL-12 p70), a key cytokine in the development of cell-mediated immunity (CMI). Upon the addition of IFN-gamma, there was enhanced activation of dengue virus-infected DCs and enhanced dengue virus-induced IL-12 p70 release. The data suggest a model whereby DCs are the early, primary target of dengue virus in natural infection and the vigor of CMI is modulated by the relative presence or absence of IFN-gamma in the microenvironment surrounding the virus-infected DCs. These findings are relevant to understanding the pathogenesis of dengue hemorrhagic fever and the design of new vaccination and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Libraty
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.
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45
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De Groot AS, Saint-Aubin C, Bosma A, Sbai H, Rayner J, Martin W. Rapid determination of HLA B*07 ligands from the West Nile virus NY99 genome. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7:706-13. [PMID: 11585536 PMCID: PMC2631750 DOI: 10.3201/eid0704.010419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Defined T cell epitopes for West Nile (WN) virus may be useful for developing subunit vaccines against WN virus infection and diagnostic reagents to detect WN virus-specific immune response. We applied a bioinformatics (EpiMatrix) approach to search the WN virus NY99 genome for HLA B*07 restricted cytotoxic T cell (CTL) epitopes. Ninety-five of 3,433 WN virus peptides scored above a predetermined cutoff, suggesting that these would be likely to bind to HLA B*07 and would also be likely candidate CTL epitopes. Compared with other methods for genome mapping, derivation of these ligands was rapid and inexpensive. Major histocompatibility complex ligands identified by this method may be used to screen T cells from WN virus-exposed persons for cell-mediated response to WN virus or to develop diagnostic reagents for immunopathogenesis studies and epidemiologic surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S De Groot
- TB/HIV Research Laboratory, Brown University, Providence, RI 02906, USA.
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46
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Johnston LJ, Halliday GM, King NJ. Langerhans cells migrate to local lymph nodes following cutaneous infection with an arbovirus. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 114:560-8. [PMID: 10692118 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00904.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Whereas there has been recent interest in interactions between dendritic cells and pathogenic viruses, the role of dendritic cells in the initiation of protective immunity to such organisms has not been elucidated. The aim of this study was to examine whether a resident dendritic cell population in the skin, Langerhans cells, respond to cutaneous viral infections which are effectively cleared by the immune system. We therefore characterized the ability of Langerhans cells to migrate to local draining lymph nodes following infection with the arthropod-borne viruses, West Nile virus or Semliki Forest virus. The data show that major histocompatibility complex class II+/NLDC145+/E-cadherin+ Langerhans cell numbers are increased in the draining lymph nodes of infected mice and this increase is accompanied by a concomitant decrease in the Langerhans cell density in the epidermis. Langerhans cell migration is associated with an accumulation of leukocytes in the lymph node, which is one of the earliest events in the initiation of an immune response. Both the migratory response and the draining lymph node leukocyte accumulation were abrogated if ultraviolet-inactivated instead of live viruses were used, suggesting the activation and subsequent migration of Langerhans cells requires a live, replicating antigen. Our findings are likely to have wider implications for the development of epidermally delivered vaccines and suggest that mobilization of dendritic cells may be involved in the development of immune responses to arthropod-borne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Johnston
- Departments of Pathology and Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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47
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Mota F, Rayment N, Chong S, Singer A, Chain B. The antigen-presenting environment in normal and human papillomavirus (HPV)-related premalignant cervical epithelium. Clin Exp Immunol 1999; 116:33-40. [PMID: 10209502 PMCID: PMC1905217 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1999.00826.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/17/1998] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The activation of HPV-specific T cells within the cervical microenvironment is likely to play an important part in the natural history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). The extent and the type of T cell activation will depend critically on the expression of MHC, costimulatory cell surface molecules and cytokines by keratinocytes and Langerhans cells within the cervical lesion. Expression of MHC class II (HLA-A-DR and -DQ), costimulatory/adhesion molecules (CD11a/18, CD50, CD54, CD58 and CD86) and cytokines (tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and IL-10) was therefore investigated by immunohistochemistry in normal squamous epithelium (n = 12), low-grade (n = 23) and high-grade (n = 18) squamous intraepithelial lesions of the cervix. CIN progression was associated with de novo expression of HLA-DR and CD54, and increased expression of CD58 by keratinocytes. However, significantly, there was no expression of any adhesion/costimulation molecule by epithelial Langerhans cells in any cervical biopsy studied. Furthermore, TNF-alpha, a potent activator of Langerhans cells, was expressed constitutively by basal keratinocytes in normal cervix (12+/12). but expression of this cytokine was absent in a number of CIN samples (20+/23 for low-grade, 12+/18 for high-grade CIN). Conversely, the suppressive cytokine IL-10 was absent in normal epithelium (0+/12), but was up-regulated in a number of CIN lesions (12+/23 for low-grade; 8+/18 for high-grade CIN). The restricted expression of costimulation/adhesion molecules and the nature of the cytokine microenvironment within the epithelium may act to limit effective immune responses in some CIN lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Mota
- Department of Immunology, University College London, UK
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Shen J, T-To SS, Schrieber L, King NJ. Early E-selectin, VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and late major histocompatibility complex antigen induction on human endothelial cells by flavivirus and comodulation of adhesion molecule expression by immune cytokines. J Virol 1997; 71:9323-32. [PMID: 9371591 PMCID: PMC230235 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.71.12.9323-9332.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Expression of E-selectin (ELAM-1, CD62E) on human umbilical vein endothelial cells significantly increased 30 min postinfection with the flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV), was maximal by 2 h postinfection, and declined to baseline levels within 24 h. Expression of ICAM-1 (CD54) and VCAM-1 (CD106) was significantly increased by 2 h and maximal at 4 h after infection. P-selectin (CD62P) expression was unaffected by WNV. Upregulation occurred earlier than that caused by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) or interleukin 1 (IL-1) and could not be inhibited by neutralizing TNF-alpha, IL-1alpha, or alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta) antibodies, suggesting a direct, virus-mediated phenomenon. TNF-alpha significantly enhanced WNV-induced increases in E-selectin, P-selectin, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1 expression, while IFN-gamma enhanced WNV-induced ICAM-1 expression. In contrast, IL-4 abrogated WNV-induced E-selectin expression increases but acted in synergy with WNV to increase P-selectin and VCAM-1 expression. WNV increased the expression of class I and II major histocompatibility complex antigens (MHC-I and MHC-II, respectively) at 24 and 72 h, respectively. IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, or IL-1 acted in synergy with WNV to produce greater increases in MHC-I expression than WNV or cytokines alone, while IFN-alpha/beta or IL-4 had no effect. MHC-II induction in cytokine-treated, WNV-infected cells was similar to that caused by cytokines alone. Neutralizing IFN-alpha/beta antibody inhibited WNV-induced MHC-I expression by 30% at 24 h and by 100% by 72 h. The differential kinetics of modulation suggest sequential adhesion of leukocyte subpopulations to infected endothelial cells, which may be important in initial viral spread in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Shen
- Department of Pathology, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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