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Leitzen E, Raddatz BB, Jin W, Goebbels S, Nave KA, Baumgärtner W, Hansmann F. Virus-triggered spinal cord demyelination is followed by a peripheral neuropathy resembling features of Guillain-Barré Syndrome. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4588. [PMID: 30872675 PMCID: PMC6418285 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40964-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induces a demyelinating disease in the spinal cord (SC) of susceptible but not in resistant (B6) mouse strains. The aim of the present study was to induce SC demyelination and a peripheral neuropathy in resistant mice by switching the infection site from cerebrum to SC. B6 mice were intraspinally inoculated with TMEV. Infected mice showed clinical signs starting at 7 days post infection (dpi). Histopathology revealed a mononuclear myelitis, centred on the injection site at 3 dpi with subsequent antero- and retrograde spread, accompanied by demyelination and axonal damage within the SC. Virus protein was detected in the SC at all time points. SC inflammation decreased until the end of the investigation period (28 dpi). Concurrent with the amelioration of SC inflammation, the emergence of a peripheral neuropathy, characterized by axonal damage, demyelination and macrophage infiltration, contributing to persistent clinical sings, was observed. Intraspinal TMEV infection of resistant mice induced inflammation, demyelination and delayed viral clearance in the spinal cord and more interestingly, subsequent, virus-triggered inflammation and degeneration within the PN associated with dramatic and progressive clinical signs. The lesions observed in the PN resemble important features of Guillain-Barré syndrome, especially of acute motor/motor-sensory axonal forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Leitzen
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Barbara B Raddatz
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany
| | - Wen Jin
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sandra Goebbels
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max-Planck-Institute for Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Klaus-Armin Nave
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Neurogenetics, Max-Planck-Institute for Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-Straße 3, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany. .,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Florian Hansmann
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
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2
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Pittaluga A. CCL5-Glutamate Cross-Talk in Astrocyte-Neuron Communication in Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1079. [PMID: 28928746 PMCID: PMC5591427 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system (IS) and the central nervous system (CNS) are functionally coupled, and a large number of endogenous molecules (i.e., the chemokines for the IS and the classic neurotransmitters for the CNS) are shared in common between the two systems. These interactions are key elements for the elucidation of the pathogenesis of central inflammatory diseases. In recent years, evidence has been provided supporting the role of chemokines as modulators of central neurotransmission. It is the case of the chemokines CCL2 and CXCL12 that control pre- and/or post-synaptically the chemical transmission. This article aims to review the functional cross-talk linking another endogenous pro-inflammatory factor released by glial cells, i.e., the chemokine Regulated upon Activation Normal T-cell Expressed and Secreted (CCL5) and the principal neurotransmitter in CNS (i.e., glutamate) in physiological and pathological conditions. In particular, the review discusses preclinical data concerning the role of CCL5 as a modulator of central glutamatergic transmission in healthy and demyelinating disorders. The CCL5-mediated control of glutamate release at chemical synapses could be relevant either to the onset of psychiatric symptoms that often accompany the development of multiple sclerosis (MS), but also it might indirectly give a rationale for the progression of inflammation and demyelination. The impact of disease-modifying therapies for the cure of MS on the endogenous availability of CCL5 in CNS will be also summarized. We apologize in advance for omission in our coverage of the existing literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Pittaluga
- Department of Pharmacy, DIFAR, Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
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3
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Hu G, Gong AY, Wang Y, Ma S, Chen X, Chen J, Su CJ, Shibata A, Strauss-Soukup JK, Drescher KM, Chen XM. LincRNA-Cox2 Promotes Late Inflammatory Gene Transcription in Macrophages through Modulating SWI/SNF-Mediated Chromatin Remodeling. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:2799-2808. [PMID: 26880762 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1502146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Long intergenic noncoding RNAs (lincRNAs) are long noncoding transcripts (>200 nt) from the intergenic regions of annotated protein-coding genes. One of the most highly induced lincRNAs in macrophages upon TLR ligation is lincRNA-Cox2, which was recently shown to mediate the activation and repression of distinct classes of immune genes in innate immune cells. We report that lincRNA-Cox2, located at chromosome 1 proximal to the PG-endoperoxide synthase 2 (Ptgs2/Cox2) gene, is an early-primary inflammatory gene controlled by NF-κB signaling in murine macrophages. Functionally, lincRNA-Cox2 is required for the transcription of NF-κB-regulated late-primary inflammatory response genes stimulated by bacterial LPS. Specifically, lincRNA-Cox2 is assembled into the switch/sucrose nonfermentable (SWI/SNF) complex in cells after LPS stimulation. This resulting lincRNA-Cox2/SWI/SNF complex can modulate the assembly of NF-κB subunits to the SWI/SNF complex, and ultimately, SWI/SNF-associated chromatin remodeling and transactivation of the late-primary inflammatory-response genes in macrophages in response to microbial challenge. Therefore, our data indicate a new regulatory role for NF-κB-induced lincRNA-Cox2 as a coactivator of NF-κB for the transcription of late-primary response genes in innate immune cells through modulation of epigenetic chromatin remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoku Hu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA.,School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610054, China
| | - Ai-Yu Gong
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Shibin Ma
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Xiqiang Chen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Chun-Jen Su
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Annemarie Shibata
- Department of Biology, Creighton University College of Arts and Sciences, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Juliane K Strauss-Soukup
- Department of Chemistry, Creighton University College of Arts and Sciences, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Kristen M Drescher
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Xian-Ming Chen
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
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4
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Herder V, Iskandar CD, Kegler K, Hansmann F, Elmarabet SA, Khan MA, Kalkuhl A, Deschl U, Baumgärtner W, Ulrich R, Beineke A. Dynamic Changes of Microglia/Macrophage M1 and M2 Polarization in Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis. Brain Pathol 2015; 25:712-23. [PMID: 25495532 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia and macrophages play a central role for demyelination in Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis (TME) virus infection, a commonly used infectious model for chronic-progressive multiple sclerosis. In order to determine the dynamic changes of microglia/macrophage polarization in TME, the spinal cord of Swiss Jim Lambert (SJL) mice was investigated by gene expression profiling and immunofluorescence. Virus persistence and demyelinating leukomyelitis were confirmed by immunohistochemistry and histology. Electron microscopy revealed continuous myelin loss together with abortive myelin repair during the late chronic infection phase indicative of incomplete remyelination. A total of 59 genes out of 151 M1- and M2-related genes were differentially expressed in TME virus-infected mice over the study period. The onset of virus-induced demyelination was associated with a dominating M1 polarization, while mounting M2 polarization of macrophages/microglia together with sustained prominent M1-related gene expression was present during the chronic-progressive phase. Molecular results were confirmed by immunofluorescence, showing an increased spinal cord accumulation of CD16/32(+) M1-, arginase-1(+) M2- and Ym1(+) M2-type cells associated with progressive demyelination. The present study provides a comprehensive database of M1-/M2-related gene expression involved in the initiation and progression of demyelination supporting the hypothesis that perpetuating interaction between virus and macrophages/microglia induces a vicious circle with persistent inflammation and impaired myelin repair in TME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Herder
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Cut Dahlia Iskandar
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Kristel Kegler
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Florian Hansmann
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Muhammad Akram Khan
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Arno Kalkuhl
- Department of Non-Clinical Drug Safety, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach (Riss), Germany
| | - Ulrich Deschl
- Department of Non-Clinical Drug Safety, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach (Riss), Germany
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andreas Beineke
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
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5
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Himeda T, Okuwa T, Muraki Y, Ohara Y. Cytokine/chemokine profile in J774 macrophage cells persistently infected with DA strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV). J Neurovirol 2010; 16:219-29. [PMID: 20515433 DOI: 10.3109/13550284.2010.484040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) is a picornavirus and persists in the spinal cords of mice, followed by inflammatory demyelinating disease. Viral persistence is a key determinant for the TMEV-induced demyelination. Macrophages are thought to serve as the site of TMEV persistence during the chronic demyelinating phase. We previously demonstrated that two nonstructural proteins of TMEV, L and L(*), were important for virus growth in J774.1 macrophage cells. However, the key factors of macrophage cells related to virus persistence and demyelination remain poorly understood. The inflammatory response is heavily dependent on cytokine and chemokine production by cell of both the immune system and the central nervous system (CNS). In this study, we established the macrophage cells persistently infected with DA strain, and then analyzed the cytokine expression pattern in those cells. The present results are the first to demonstrate the up-regulation of B-lymphocyte chemoattractant (BLC) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in the macrophage cells persistently infected with DA strain. Furthermore, up-regulation of interleukin (IL)-10 and down-regulation of interferon (IFN)-alpha 4, IFN-beta, and IFN-gamma were shown in those cells. The data suggest that these cytokines/chemokines may contribute to the virus persistence and the acceleration of TMEV-induced demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiki Himeda
- Department of Microbiology, Kanazawa Medical University School of Medicine, Uchinada, Ishikawa, Japan
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6
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Different strains of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus antagonize different sites in the type I interferon pathway. J Virol 2010; 84:9181-9. [PMID: 20610716 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00603-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The DA strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), a member of the Cardiovirus genus of the family Picornaviridae, causes persistent infection in susceptible mice, associated with restricted expression of viral proteins, and induces a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. DA-induced demyelinating disease serves as a model of human multiple sclerosis because of similarities in pathology and because host immune responses contribute to pathogenesis in both disorders. In contrast, the GDVII strain of TMEV causes acute lethal encephalitis with no virus persistence. Cardiovirus L is a multifunctional protein that blocks beta interferon (IFN-beta) gene transcription. We show that both DA L and GDVII L disrupt IFN-beta gene transcription induction by IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) but do so at different points in the signaling pathway. DA L blocks IFN-beta gene transcription downstream of mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS) but upstream of IRF-3 activation, while GDVII L acts downstream of IRF-3 activation. Both DA L and GDVII L block IFN-beta gene transcription in infected mice; however, IFN-beta mRNA is expressed at low levels in the central nervous systems of mice persistently infected with DA. The particular level of IFN-beta mRNA expression set by DA L as well as other factors in the IRF-3 pathway may play a role in virus persistence, inflammation, and the restricted expression of viral proteins during the late stage of demyelinating disease.
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7
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Müller M, Carter S, Hofer MJ, Campbell IL. Review: The chemokine receptor CXCR3 and its ligands CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 in neuroimmunity - a tale of conflict and conundrum. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2010; 36:368-87. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2010.01089.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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8
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Füchtbauer L, Toft-Hansen H, Khorooshi R, Owens T. Expression of Astrocytic Type 2 Angiotensin Receptor in Central Nervous System Inflammation Correlates With Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown. J Mol Neurosci 2010; 42:89-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-010-9371-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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9
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10
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Scott EP, Branigan PJ, Del Vecchio AM, Weiss SR. Chemokine expression during mouse-hepatitis-virus-induced encephalitis: contributions of the spike and background genes. J Neurovirol 2008; 14:5-16. [PMID: 18300071 PMCID: PMC7094924 DOI: 10.1080/13550280701750635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/30/2022]
Abstract
Infection of mice with mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) strain JHM (RJHM) induces lethal encephalitis, with high macrophage and neutrophil, but minimal T-cell, infiltration into the brain when compared to the neuroattenuated strain RA59. To determine if chemokine expression corresponds with the cellular infiltrate, chemokine protein and RNA levels from the brains of infected mice were quantified. RJHM-infected mice had lower T-cell (CXCL9, CXCL10), but higher macrophage-attracting (CCL2), chemokine proteins compared to RA59. RJHM also induced significantly higher CXCL2 (a neutrophil chemoattractant) mRNA compared to RA59. The neurovirulent spike gene chimera SJHM/RA59 induces high levels of T cells and macrophages in the brain compared to the attenuated SA59/RJHM chimera. Accordingly, SJHM/RA59 induced higher levels of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CCL2 protein compared to SA59/RJHM. Chemokine mRNA patterns were in general agreement. Thus, chemokine patterns correspond with the cellular infiltrate, and the spike protein influences levels of macrophage, but not T-cell, chemokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin P Scott
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6076, USA
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11
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Laing JM, Aurelian L. DeltaRR vaccination protects from KA-induced seizures and neuronal loss through ICP10PK-mediated modulation of the neuronal-microglial axis. GENETIC VACCINES AND THERAPY 2008; 6:1. [PMID: 18179717 PMCID: PMC2268933 DOI: 10.1186/1479-0556-6-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2007] [Accepted: 01/07/2008] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic brain injury and epilepsy are common neurodegenerative diseases caused by excitotoxicity. Their pathogenesis includes microglial production of inflammatory cytokines. Our studies were designed to examine whether a growth compromised HSV-2 mutant (Delta RR) prevents excitotoxic injury through modulation of microglial responses by the anti-apoptotic HSV-2 protein ICP10PK. EOC2 and EOC20 microglial cells, which are differentially activated, were infected with Delta RR or the ICP10PK deleted virus (Delta PK) and examined for virus-induced neuroprotective activity. Both cell lines were non-permissive for virus growth, but expressed ICP10PK (Delta RR) or the PK deleted ICP10 protein p95 (Delta PK). Conditioned medium (CM) from Delta RR-, but not Delta PK-infected cells prevented N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced apoptosis of primary hippocampal cultures, as determined by TUNEL and caspase-3 activation (76.9 +/- 5.3% neuroprotection). Neuroprotection was associated with inhibition of TNF-alpha and RANTES and production of IL-10. The CM from Delta PK-infected EOC2 and EOC20 cells did not contain IL-10, but it contained TNF-alpha and RANTES. IL-10 neutralization significantly (p < 0.01) decreased, but did not abrogate, the neuroprotective activity of the CM from Delta RR-infected microglial cultures indicating that ICP10PK modulates the neuronal-microglial axis, also through induction of various microglial neuroprotective factors. Rats given Delta RR (but not Delta PK) by intranasal inoculation were protected from kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures and neuronal loss in the CA1 hippocampal fields. Protection was associated with a significant (p < 0.001) increase in the numbers of IL-10+ microglia (CD11b+) as compared to Delta PK-treated animals. Delta RR is a promising vaccination/therapy platform for neurodegeneration through its pro-survival functions in neurons as well as microglia modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Laing
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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12
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Zirger JM, Barcia C, Liu C, Puntel M, Mitchell N, Campbell I, Castro M, Lowenstein PR. Rapid upregulation of interferon-regulated and chemokine mRNAs upon injection of 108 international units, but not lower doses, of adenoviral vectors into the brain. J Virol 2007; 80:5655-9. [PMID: 16699048 PMCID: PMC1472125 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00166-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune response, characterized by the rapid induction of proinflammatory genes, plays an important role in immune responses to viral vectors utilized in gene therapy. We demonstrate that several innate proinflammatory mRNAs, i.e., those coding for the interferon (IFN)-regulated proteins interferon regulatory factor 1, 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase, and double-stranded-RNA-dependent protein kinase as well as those coding for the chemokines RANTES, IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, were all increased in a statistically significant manner in response to 1 x 10(8) IU, but not lower doses, of a first-generation adenovirus injected into the naïve brain. This indicates the presence of a threshold dosage of adenovirus needed to elicit an acute innate inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Zirger
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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13
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Bourne N, Scholle F, Silva MC, Rossi SL, Dewsbury N, Judy B, De Aguiar JB, Leon MA, Estes DM, Fayzulin R, Mason PW. Early production of type I interferon during West Nile virus infection: role for lymphoid tissues in IRF3-independent interferon production. J Virol 2007; 81:9100-8. [PMID: 17567689 PMCID: PMC1951458 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00316-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of cells with flaviviruses in vitro is reduced by pretreatment with small amounts of type I interferon (IFN-alpha/beta). Similarly, pretreatment of animals with IFN and experiments using mice defective in IFN signaling have indicated a role for IFN in controlling flavivirus disease in vivo. These data, along with findings that flavivirus-infected cells block IFN signaling, suggest that flavivirus infection can trigger an IFN response. To investigate IFN gene induction by the very first cells infected during in vivo infection with the flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV), we infected mice with high-titer preparations of WNV virus-like particles (VLPs), which initiate viral genome replication in cells but fail to spread. These studies demonstrated a brisk production of IFN in vivo, with peak levels of over 1,000 units/ml detected in sera between 8 and 24 h after inoculation by either the intraperitoneal or footpad route. The IFN response was dependent on genome replication, and WNV genomes and WNV antigen-positive cells were readily detected in the popliteal lymph nodes (pLN) of VLP-inoculated mice. High levels of IFN mRNA transcripts and functional IFN were also produced in VLP-inoculated IFN regulatory factor 3 null (IRF3(-/-)) mice, indicating that IFN production was independent of the IRF3 pathways to IFN gene transcription, consistent with the IFN type produced (predominantly alpha).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Bourne
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0436, USA
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14
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Samuel MA, Diamond MS. Pathogenesis of West Nile Virus infection: a balance between virulence, innate and adaptive immunity, and viral evasion. J Virol 2006; 80:9349-60. [PMID: 16973541 PMCID: PMC1617273 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01122-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie A Samuel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, Campus Box 8051, 660 S. Euclid Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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15
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Carmen J, Gowing G, Julien JP, Kerr D. Altered immune response to CNS viral infection in mice with a conditional knock-down of macrophage-lineage cells. Glia 2006; 54:71-80. [PMID: 16691560 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neuroadapted Sindbis Virus (NSV) is a neuronotropic virus that causes hindlimb paralysis in susceptible mice and rats. The authors and others have demonstrated that though death of infected motor neurons occurs, bystander death of uninfected neurons also occurs and both contribute to the paralysis that ensues following infection. The authors have previously shown that the treatment of NSV-infected mice with minocycline, an inhibitor that has many functions within the central nervous system (CNS), including inhibiting microglial activation, protects mice from paralysis and death. The authors, therefore, proposed that microglial activation may contribute to bystander death of motor neurons following NSV infection. Here, the authors tested the hypothesis using a conditional knock-out of activated macrophage-lineage cells, including endogenous CNS macrophage cells. Surprisingly, ablation of these cells resulted in more rapid death and similar weakness in the hind limbs of NSV-infected animals compared with that of control animals. Several key chemokines including IL-12 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) did not become elevated in these animals, resulting in decreased infiltration of T lymphocytes into the CNS of the knock-down animals. Either because of the decreased macrophage activation directly or because of the reduced immune cell influx, viral replication persisted longer within the nervous system in knock-down mice than in wild type mice. The authors, therefore, conclude that although macrophage-lineage cells in the CNS may contribute to neurodegeneration in certain situations, they also serve a protective role, such as control of viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Carmen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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16
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Weinberg JB, Jensen DR, Gralinski LE, Lake AR, Stempfle GS, Spindler KR. Contributions of E1A to mouse adenovirus type 1 pathogenesis following intranasal inoculation. Virology 2006; 357:54-67. [PMID: 16962154 PMCID: PMC1764815 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2006] [Revised: 05/18/2006] [Accepted: 08/07/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the role of mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) early region 1A (E1A) protein in adenovirus respiratory infection. Intranasal (i.n.) inoculation of mice with wild type (wt) virus induced chemokine and cellular inflammatory responses in the lung. We observed similar responses in mice infected with an E1A-null mutant virus at the same dose, although the magnitude of these responses was lower. Levels of viral hexon gene expression were lower in the lung following infection with E1A-null virus than with wt virus. When input doses were adjusted so that equivalent viral loads were present following infection with varying doses of wt and E1A-null virus, we observed equivalent chemokine upregulation in the lung. Dissemination to the brain occurred following i.n. inoculation with equal doses of wt or E1A-null virus, but viral gene expression and viral loads were lower and the magnitude of chemokine responses was lower in brains of E1A-null virus-infected mice. CD4 and CD8 T cells and neutrophils were recruited to the brains of mice infected with either wt or E1A-null virus. Together, these data suggest that MAV-1 E1A makes important contributions to viral replication in the lung and the brain following i.n. inoculation. However, E1A is not essential for the induction of inflammatory responses in the lung or for viral dissemination out of the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason B. Weinberg
- University of Michigan, Department of Pediatrics, 7510A Medical Science Research Building I, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; , , and
- *Corresponding Author: Jason B. Weinberg, University of Michigan Health System, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, L2225 Women’s/0244, 1500 East Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0244; Phone: (734) 763-2440; Fax: (734) 936-7635; E-mail:
| | - Daniel R. Jensen
- University of Michigan, Department of Pediatrics, 7510A Medical Science Research Building I, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; , , and
| | - Lisa E. Gralinski
- University of Michigan, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 6724 Medical Sciences Building II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; and
| | - Amy R. Lake
- University of Michigan, Department of Pediatrics, 7510A Medical Science Research Building I, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; , , and
| | - Gregory S. Stempfle
- University of Michigan, Department of Pediatrics, 7510A Medical Science Research Building I, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; , , and
| | - Katherine R. Spindler
- University of Michigan, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 6724 Medical Sciences Building II, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; and
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17
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Hsieh MF, Lai SL, Chen JP, Sung JM, Lin YL, Wu-Hsieh BA, Gerard C, Luster A, Liao F. Both CXCR3 and CXCL10/IFN-inducible protein 10 are required for resistance to primary infection by dengue virus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:1855-63. [PMID: 16849497 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.3.1855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We examined the extent to which CXCR3 mediates resistance to dengue infection. Following intracerebral infection with dengue virus, CXCR3-deficient (CXCR3(-/-)) mice showed significantly higher mortality rates than wild-type (WT) mice; moreover, surviving CXCR3(-/-) mice, but not WT mice, often developed severe hind-limb paralysis. The brains of CXCR3(-/-) mice showed higher viral loads than those of WT mice, and quantitative analysis using real-time PCR, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry revealed fewer T cells, CD8(+) T cells in particular, in the brains of CXCR3(-/-) mice. This suggests that recruitment of effector T cells to sites of dengue infection was diminished in CXCR3(-/-) mice, which impaired elimination of the virus from the brain and thus increased the likelihood of paralysis and/or death. These results indicate that CXCR3 plays a protective rather than an immunopathological role in dengue virus infection. In studies to identify critical CXCR3 ligands, CXCL10/IFN-inducible protein 10-deficient (CXCL10/IP-10(-/-)) mice infected with dengue virus showed a higher mortality rate than that of the CXCR3(-/-) mice. Although CXCL10/IP-10, CXCL9/monokine induced by IFN-gamma, and CXCL11/IFN-inducible T cell alpha chemoattractant share a single receptor and all three of these chemokines are induced by dengue virus infection, the latter two could not compensate for the absence of CXCL10/IP-10 in this in vivo model. Our results suggest that both CXCR3 and CXCL10/IP-10 contribute to resistance against primary dengue virus infection and that chemokines that are indistinguishable in in vitro assays differ in their activities in vivo.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/metabolism
- Brain/virology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology
- Cell Migration Inhibition
- Cell Movement/genetics
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Chemokine CXCL10
- Chemokines, CXC/deficiency
- Chemokines, CXC/genetics
- Chemokines, CXC/physiology
- Dengue/genetics
- Dengue/immunology
- Dengue/virology
- Dengue Virus/immunology
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Inflammation Mediators/metabolism
- Injections, Intraventricular
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Receptors, CXCR3
- Receptors, Chemokine/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Chemokine/deficiency
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/physiology
- Up-Regulation/immunology
- Viral Load
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Fang Hsieh
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
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18
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El-Hage N, Wu G, Wang J, Ambati J, Knapp PE, Reed JL, Bruce-Keller AJ, Hauser KF. HIV-1 Tat and opiate-induced changes in astrocytes promote chemotaxis of microglia through the expression of MCP-1 and alternative chemokines. Glia 2006; 53:132-46. [PMID: 16206161 PMCID: PMC3077280 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Opiates exacerbate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Tat(1-72)-induced release of key proinflammatory cytokines by astrocytes, which may accelerate HIV neuropathogenesis in opiate abusers. The release of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1, also known as CCL2), in particular, is potentiated by opiate-HIV Tat interactions in vitro. Although MCP-1 draws monocytes/macrophages to sites of CNS infection, and activated monocytes/microglia release factors that can damage bystander neurons, the role of MCP-1 in neuro-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (neuroAIDS) progression in opiate abusers, or nonabusers, is uncertain. Using a chemotaxis assay, N9 microglial cell migration was found to be significantly greater in conditioned medium from mouse striatal astrocytes exposed to morphine and/or Tat(1-72) than in vehicle-, mu-opioid receptor (MOR) antagonist-, or inactive, mutant Tat(delta31-61)-treated controls. Conditioned medium from astrocytes treated with morphine and Tat caused the greatest increase in motility. The response was attenuated using conditioned medium immunoneutralized with MCP-1 antibodies, or medium from MCP-1(-/-) astrocytes. In the presence of morphine (time-release, subcutaneous implant), intrastriatal Tat increased the proportion of neural cells that were astroglia and F4/80+ macrophages at 7 days post-injection. This was not seen after treatment with Tat alone, or with morphine plus inactive Tat(delta31-61) or naltrexone. Glia displayed increased MOR and MCP-1 immunoreactivity after morphine and/or Tat exposure. The findings indicate that MCP-1 underlies most of the response of microglia, suggesting that one way in which opiates exacerbate neuroAIDS is by increasing astroglial-derived proinflammatory chemokines at focal sites of CNS infection and promoting macrophage entry and local microglial activation. Importantly, increased glial expression of MOR can trigger an opiate-driven amplification/positive feedback of MCP-1 production and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazira El-Hage
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Guanghan Wu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Juan Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Jayakrishna Ambati
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Pamela E. Knapp
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Janelle L. Reed
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Annadora J. Bruce-Keller
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Kurt F. Hauser
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), University of Kentucky Chandler Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536
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19
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Liu L, Callahan MK, Huang D, Ransohoff RM. Chemokine receptor CXCR3: an unexpected enigma. Curr Top Dev Biol 2005; 68:149-81. [PMID: 16124999 DOI: 10.1016/s0070-2153(05)68006-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
CXCR3, the receptor for CXCL9/MIG, CXCL10/IP-10, and CXCL11/I-TAC, is preferentially expressed on activated Th1 T cells and has been predicted to play an important role in their trafficking. However, this simplistic view of the function of CXCR3 and its ligands has not been borne out by studies of disease models, including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), using varied methods of receptor blockade, as well as knockout or transgenic mice. This review focuses on the current understanding of the enigmatic role of CXCR3 and its ligands in CNS inflammatory/autoimmune disorders. The conflicting results among varied models of CNS inflammation suggest complex and multiple roles for CXCR3 and its ligands in the pathogenesis of CNS inflammatory/autoimmune diseases. Thus, further study is needed to determine how CXCL10 neutralizing agents or CXCR3 receptor antagonists might be applied to treating human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Liu
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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20
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Klein RS, Lin E, Zhang B, Luster AD, Tollett J, Samuel MA, Engle M, Diamond MS. Neuronal CXCL10 directs CD8+ T-cell recruitment and control of West Nile virus encephalitis. J Virol 2005; 79:11457-66. [PMID: 16103196 PMCID: PMC1193600 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.17.11457-11466.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The activation and entry of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells into the central nervous system is an essential step towards clearance of West Nile virus (WNV) from infected neurons. The molecular signals responsible for the directed migration of virus-specific T cells and their cellular sources are presently unknown. Here we demonstrate that in response to WNV infection, neurons secrete the chemokine CXCL10, which recruits effector T cells via the chemokine receptor CXCR3. Neutralization or a genetic deficiency of CXCL10 leads to a decrease in CXCR3(+) CD8(+) T-cell trafficking, an increase in viral burden in the brain, and enhanced morbidity and mortality. These data support a new paradigm in chemokine neurobiology, as neurons are not generally considered to generate antiviral immune responses, and CXCL10 may represent a novel neuroprotective agent in response to WNV infection in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn S Klein
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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21
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Kim BS, Palma JP, Kwon D, Fuller AC. Innate immune response induced by Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection. Immunol Res 2005; 31:1-12. [PMID: 15591618 PMCID: PMC7090574 DOI: 10.1385/ir:31:1:01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Although the causative agents of human multiple sclerosis (MS) are not known, it is suspected that a viral infection may be associated with the initiation of the disease. Several viral disease models in mice have been studied to understand the pathogenesis of demeylination. In particular, Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) has been extensively studied as a relevant model. Various cytokines and chemokines are produced upon viral infection by different cell types, including antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as macrophages; dendritic cells (DCs); and glial cells, such as astrocytes, microglia, and oligoden-drocytes. The upregulation of the corresponding molecules are also found in MS and are likely to play an important role in the protection and/or pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease. In this review, the type of cells and molecules, gene-activation mechanisms as well as their potential roles in protection and pathogenesis will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung S Kim
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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22
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Ure DR, Lane TE, Liu MT, Rodriguez M. Neutralization of chemokines RANTES and MIG increases virus antigen expression and spinal cord pathology during Theiler's virus infection. Int Immunol 2005; 17:569-79. [PMID: 15824069 PMCID: PMC7108597 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxh236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of chemokines during some viral infections is unpredictable because the inflammatory response regulated by these molecules can have two, contrasting effects—viral immunity and immunopathologic injury to host tissues. Using Theiler's virus infection of SJL mice as a model of this type of disease, we have investigated the roles of two chemokines—regulated on activation, normal T cell-expressed and secreted (RANTES) chemokine and monokine induced by IFN-γ (MIG)—by treating mice with antisera that block lymphocyte migration. Control, infected mice showed virus persistence, mild inflammation and a small degree of demyelination in the white matter of the spinal cord at 6 weeks post-infection. Treatment of mice with RANTES antiserum starting at 2 weeks post-infection increased both viral antigen expression and the severity of inflammatory demyelination at 6 weeks post-infection. MIG antiserum increased the spread of virus and the proportion of spinal cord white matter with demyelination. Overall, viral antigen levels correlated strongly with the extent of pathology. At the RNA level, high virus expression was associated with low IL-2 and high IL-10 levels, and RANTES antiserum decreased the IL-2/IL-10 ratio. Our results suggest that RANTES and MIG participate in an immune response that attempts to restrict viral expression while limiting immunopathology and that anti-chemokine treatment poses the risk of exacerbating both conditions in the long term.
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23
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Sellner J, Dvorak F, Zhou Y, Haas J, Kehm R, Wildemann B, Meyding-Lamadè U. Acute and long-term alteration of chemokine mRNA expression after anti-viral and anti-inflammatory treatment in herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Neurosci Lett 2005; 374:197-202. [PMID: 15663962 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2004] [Revised: 10/12/2004] [Accepted: 10/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mortality and morbidity rates remain high among patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSVE). Chemokine-mediated recruitment and activation of leukocytes to focal areas of viral CNS infection are crucial steps in antiviral response and clearance. However, the inflammatory reaction and cellular antiviral response may enhance collateral damage to neurons and account for chronic progressive brain damage. We identified a specific mRNA expression of the interferon-gamma-inducible chemokines (CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11), and RANTES (CCL5) in the acute course and long-term of experimental HSVE. This pattern was substantially altered by anti-viral and anti-inflammatory treatment. Our findings indicate a pivotal role of these chemokines in the immunopathogenesis of HSVE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Sellner
- Department of Neurology, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, Ruprecht-Karls-University Heidelberg, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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24
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Uicker WC, Doyle HA, McCracken JP, Langlois M, Buchanan KL. Cytokine and chemokine expression in the central nervous system associated with protective cell-mediated immunity againstCryptococcus neoformans. Med Mycol 2005; 43:27-38. [PMID: 15712606 DOI: 10.1080/13693780410001731510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast that causes cryptococcosis, a life-threatening disease that develops following inhalation and dissemination of the organisms. C. neoformans has a predilection for the central nervous system (CNS) and mortality is most frequently associated with meningoencephalitis. Susceptibility to cryptococcosis is increased in patients with deficiencies in cell-mediated immunity (CMI). Because cryptococcal CNS infections are associated with mortality and diagnosis of cryptococcosis is often not made until after dissemination to the CNS, a better understanding of host defense mechanisms against C. neoformans in the CNS is needed to design improved therapies for immunocompromised individuals suffering from cryptococcosis. Using a mouse model, we previously described a protective cell-mediated immune response induced in the periphery that limited the growth of C. neoformans in the CNS. In the current investigation, we examined cytokine and chemokine expression in the CNS to identify factors important in achieving protective immunity. We observed increased expression of IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, MCP-1, RANTES, and IP-10 in C. neoformans-infected brains of immune mice compared to control mice suggesting that these cytokines and chemokines are associated with the protective immune response. Furthermore, the Th1-type cytokines TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma, but not the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-5, were secreted at significantly higher levels in C. neoformans-infected brains of immune mice compared to control mice. Our results demonstrate that cytokines and chemokines associated with CMI are produced following infection in the CNS of immunized mice, and the expression of these factors correlates with protection against C. neoformans in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- William C Uicker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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25
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Trifilo MJ, Liu MT, Glass WG, Lane TE. Chemokines in Coronavirus-Induced Demyelination. EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS 2005. [PMCID: PMC7122598 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-25518-4_45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation within the central nervous system (CNS) is critical in the development of the neuropathology associated with the human demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent studies have identified a family of soluble proinflammatory molecules called chemokines that are able to direct leukocyte infiltration into the CNS in response to infection or injury. Identification of chemokines within and around demyelinating lesions in MS patients indicate a potential role for these molecules in contributing to the pathogenesis of MS. To address this issue, we have used mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) infection of the CNS to understand the dynamic interaction of chemokine expression as it relates to inflammation and neuropathology. Our results indicate that chemokine expression within the CNS results in persistent recruitment of both T lymphocytes and macrophages and results in subsequent myelin destruction. Herein, we demonstrate the complexity of the chemokine response to MHV infection of the CNS and the delicate balance that exists between host defense and development of disease.
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26
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Trottier M, Schlitt BP, Kung AY, Lipton HL. Transition from acute to persistent Theiler's virus infection requires active viral replication that drives proinflammatory cytokine expression and chronic demyelinating disease. J Virol 2004; 78:12480-8. [PMID: 15507635 PMCID: PMC525090 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.22.12480-12488.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2004] [Accepted: 06/25/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The dynamics of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) RNA replication in the central nervous systems of susceptible and resistant strains of mice were examined by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR and were found to correlate with host immune responses. During the acute phase of infection in both susceptible and resistant mice, levels of viral replication were high in the brain and brain stem, while levels of viral genome equivalents were 10- to 100-fold lower in the spinal cord. In the brain, viral RNA replication decreased after a peak at 5 days postinfection (p.i.), in parallel with the appearance of virus-specific antibody responses; however, by 15 days p.i., viral RNA levels began to increase in the spinal cords of susceptible mice. During the transition to and the persistent phase of infection, the numbers of viral genome equivalents in the spinal cord varied substantially for individual mice, but high levels were consistently associated with high levels of proinflammatory Th1 cytokine and chemokine mRNAs. Moreover, a large number of viral genome equivalents and high proinflammatory cytokine mRNA levels in spinal cords were only observed for susceptible SJL/J mice who developed demyelinating disease. These results suggest that TMEV persistence requires active viral replication beginning about day 11 p.i. and that active viral replication with high viral genome loads leads to increased levels of Th1 cytokines that drive disease progression in infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Trottier
- Evanston Northwestern Healthcare Research Institute, 2650 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
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27
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Tsunoda I, Lane TE, Blackett J, Fujinami RS. Distinct roles for IP-10/CXCL10 in three animal models, Theiler's virus infection, EAE, and MHV infection, for multiple sclerosis: implication of differing roles for IP-10. Mult Scler 2004; 10:26-34. [PMID: 14760949 DOI: 10.1191/1352458504ms982oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) causes demyelination with inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) in mice and is used as an animal model for multiple sclerosis (MS). Interferon-gamma inducible protein-10 kDa (IP-10) is a CXC chemokine and a chemoattractant for CXCR3+ T cells. IP-10 mRNA is expressed in the CNS during TMEV infection. However, administration of anti-IP-10 serum caused no difference in clinical signs, inflammation, demyelination, virus persistence or anti-virus antibody response in TMEV infection, while levels of virus specific and autoreactive lymphoproliferation increased. This likely reflects a difference in the pathogenesis of TMEV infection from that of two other animal models for MS, mouse hepatitis virus infection and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), where blocking of IP-10 resulted in clinical and histological improvement with suppression of antigen specific lymphoproliferation. In this review, we compare and contrast the roles of IP-10 between the three animal models for MS, and discuss the relevance to MS patients with different clinical courses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo Tsunoda
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 30 North 1900 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84132-2305, USA
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28
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Oleszak EL, Chang JR, Friedman H, Katsetos CD, Platsoucas CD. Theiler's virus infection: a model for multiple sclerosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17:174-207. [PMID: 14726460 PMCID: PMC321460 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.17.1.174-207.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Both genetic background and environmental factors, very probably viruses, appear to play a role in the etiology of multiple sclerosis (MS). Lessons from viral experimental models suggest that many different viruses may trigger inflammatory demyelinating diseases resembling MS. Theiler's virus, a picornavirus, induces in susceptible strains of mice early acute disease resembling encephalomyelitis followed by late chronic demyelinating disease, which is one of the best, if not the best, animal model for MS. During early acute disease the virus replicates in gray matter of the central nervous system but is eliminated to very low titers 2 weeks postinfection. Late chronic demyelinating disease becomes clinically apparent approximately 2 weeks later and is characterized by extensive demyelinating lesions and mononuclear cell infiltrates, progressive spinal cord atrophy, and axonal loss. Myelin damage is immunologically mediated, but it is not clear whether it is due to molecular mimicry or epitope spreading. Cytokines, nitric oxide/reactive nitrogen species, and costimulatory molecules are involved in the pathogenesis of both diseases. Close similarities between Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans, include the following: major histocompatibility complex-dependent susceptibility; substantial similarities in neuropathology, including axonal damage and remyelination; and paucity of T-cell apoptosis in demyelinating disease. Both diseases are immunologically mediated. These common features emphasize the close similarities of Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia L Oleszak
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106, USA.
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29
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Harkness KA, Sussman JD, Davies-Jones GAB, Greenwood J, Woodroofe MN. Cytokine regulation of MCP-1 expression in brain and retinal microvascular endothelial cells. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 142:1-9. [PMID: 14512159 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(03)00251-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Chemokines have a pivotal role in the selective mediation and amplification of inflammation. The CNS vascular endothelial cells, which form part of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-retinal barrier (BRB), are ideally situated to present chemokines to circulating lymphocytes leading to their recruitment. Monocyte-chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), also known as CCL2, a potent chemoattractant of T cells and monocytes, has been implicated in inflammatory and angio-proliferative brain and retinal disease. In this study, MCP-1 expression by CNS endothelial cells was investigated in vitro. Rat brain (GP8/3.9) and retinal (JG2/1) vascular endothelial cell lines expressed MCP-1 constitutively in vitro as assessed by immunocytochemistry and enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA). Upregulation of secreted MCP-1 was observed following activation with the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta and IFN-gamma, and was reduced following dexamethasone treatment. Functional chemotactic activity of brain and retinal endothelial cell supernatants was demonstrated in an in vitro chemotaxis assay, which was inhibited by anti-MCP-1 antibodies. These findings suggest that endothelial cell-derived MCP-1 plays a key role in leukocyte recruitment across the blood-brain and blood-retinal barriers in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Harkness
- Department of Neurology, Addenbrooke's NHS Trust, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
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30
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Cheeran MCJ, Hu S, Sheng WS, Peterson PK, Lokensgard JR. CXCL10 production from cytomegalovirus-stimulated microglia is regulated by both human and viral interleukin-10. J Virol 2003; 77:4502-15. [PMID: 12663757 PMCID: PMC152158 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.8.4502-4515.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cells orchestrate immunocyte recruitment to focal areas of viral infection within the brain and synchronize immune cell functions through a regulated network of cytokines and chemokines. Since recruitment of T lymphocytes plays a critical role in resolving cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, we investigated the production of a T-cell chemoattractant, CXCL10 (gamma interferon-inducible protein 10) in response to viral infection of human glial cells. Infection with CMV was found to elicit the production of CXCL10 from primary microglial cells but not from astrocytes. This CXCL10 expression was not dependent on secondary protein synthesis but did require the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase. In addition, migration of activated lymphocytes toward supernatants from CMV-stimulated microglial cells was partially suppressed by anti-CXCL10 antibodies. Since regulation of central nervous system inflammation is essential to allow viral clearance without immunopathology, microglial cells were then treated with anti-inflammatory cytokines. CMV-induced CXCL10 production from microglial cells was suppressed following treatment with interleukin-10 (IL-10) and IL-4 but not following treatment with transforming growth factor beta. The IL-10-mediated inhibition of CXCL10 production was associated with decreased CMV-induced NF-kappa B activation but not decreased p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation. Finally, CMV infection of fully permissive astrocytes resulted in mRNA expression for the viral homologue to human IL-10 (i.e., cmvIL-10 [UL111a]) in its spliced form and conditioned medium from CMV-infected astrocytes inhibited virus-induced CXCL10 production from microglial cells through the IL-10 receptor. These findings present yet another mechanism through which CMV may subvert host immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim C-J Cheeran
- Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation and University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55404, USA
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31
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Lundberg P, Cantin E. A potential role for CXCR3 chemokines in the response to ocular HSV infection. Curr Eye Res 2003; 26:137-50. [PMID: 12815542 DOI: 10.1076/ceyr.26.3.137.14898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Corneal infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) leads to the recruitment of immune cells to the eye itself, the trigeminal ganglion and the brainstem. In addition, some resident cells in these target tissues are infected by HSV, activated during the inflammatory response or both. Chemokine signaling is an important component of the regulatory circuit governing the host immune response to virus infection. This review discusses chemokine responses in relation to HSV infection of the cornea emphasizing the role of CXCR3 chemokine signaling by the IFN-gamma inducible ligands MIG, IP10 and I-TAC and includes discussion of their potential role in immunopathology in the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patric Lundberg
- Department of Virology, City of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research Institute, Duarte, California, USA.
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32
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Mahad DJ, Ransohoff RM. The role of MCP-1 (CCL2) and CCR2 in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Semin Immunol 2003; 15:23-32. [PMID: 12495638 DOI: 10.1016/s1044-5323(02)00125-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the commonest inflammatory demyelinating disease of the human central nervous system (CNS). In MS, CNS inflammation is associated with demyelination and axonal degeneration, which leads to clinical presentation. Expression and cellular localization of CCL2/MCP-1 and CCR2 in MS have been described in the three compartments: brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood. Evidence from descriptive, transgenic, knockout and neutralizing studies of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) points towards a nonredundant role of CCL2 and CCR2 in the recruitment of inflammatory infiltrate into the CNS. Hence, CCL2 and CCR2 may be targets for specific and effective treatment in MS.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Brain/metabolism
- Cerebrospinal Fluid/metabolism
- Chemokine CCL2/cerebrospinal fluid
- Chemokine CCL2/immunology
- Chemokine CCL2/metabolism
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/blood
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/cerebrospinal fluid
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular/immunology
- Multiple Sclerosis/blood
- Multiple Sclerosis/cerebrospinal fluid
- Multiple Sclerosis/immunology
- Receptors, CCR2
- Receptors, Chemokine/blood
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Don J Mahad
- Department of Neurosciences, Mail Code NC30, The Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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Abstract
We evaluated the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in neuronal injury after CNS infection. IL-6-/- and IL-6+/+ mice of resistant major histocompatibility complex (MHC) H-2b haplotype intracerebrally infected with Theiler's virus cleared the infection normally without development of viral persistence, lethal neuronal infection, or late phase demyelination. In contrast, infection of IL-6-/- mice on a susceptible H-2q haplotype resulted in frequent deaths and severe neurologic deficits within 2 weeks of infection as compared with infected IL-6+/+ H-2q littermate controls. Morphologic analysis demonstrated dramatic injury to anterior horn neurons of IL-6-/- H-2q mice at 12 d after infection. Infectious viral titers in the CNS (brain and spinal cord combined) were equivalent between IL-6-/- H-2q and IL-6+/+ H-2q mice. In contrast, more viral RNA was detected in the spinal cord of IL-6-/- mice compared with IL-6+/+ H-2q mice. Virus antigen was localized predominantly to anterior horn cells in infected IL-6-/- H-2q mice. IL-6 deletion did not affect the humoral response directed against virus, nor did it affect the expression of CD4, CD8, MHC class I, or MHC class II in the CNS. Importantly, IL-6 was expressed by astrocytes of infected IL-6+/+ mice but not in astrocytes of IL-6-/- mice or uninfected IL-6+/+ mice. Furthermore, expression of various chemokines was robust at 12 d after infection in both H-2b and H-2q IL-6-/- mice, indicating that intrinsic CNS inflammatory responses did not depend on the presence of IL-6. Finally, in vitro analysis of virus-induced death in neuroblastoma-spinal cord-34 motor neurons and primary anterior horn cell neurons showed that IL-6 exerted a neuroprotective effect. These data support the hypothesis that IL-6 plays a critical role in protecting specific populations of neurons from irreversible injury.
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34
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Pertussis toxin-induced reversible encephalopathy dependent on monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 overexpression in mice. J Neurosci 2003. [PMID: 12486156 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.22-24-10633.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this report we describe pertussis toxin-induced reversible encephalopathy dependent on monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) overexpression (PREMO), a novel animal model that exhibits features of human encephalopathic complications of inflammatory disorders such as viral meningoencephalitis and Lyme neuroborreliosis as well as the mild toxic encephalopathy that commonly precedes relapses of multiple sclerosis (MS). Overexpression of the mouse MCP-1 gene product (classically termed JE) in astrocytes, the major physiological CNS cellular source of MCP-1, failed to induce neurological impairment. Unexpectedly, transgenic (tg) mice overexpressing MCP-1 at a high level (MCP-1(hi)) manifested transient, severe encephalopathy with high mortality after injections of pertussis toxin (PTx) plus complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Surviving mice showed markedly improved function and did not relapse during a prolonged period of observation. Tg mice that expressed lower levels of MCP-1 were affected minimally after CFA/PTx injections, and tg expression of other chemokines failed to elicit this disorder. The disorder was significantly milder in mice lacking T-cells, which therefore play a deleterious role in this encephalopathic process. Disruption of CC chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) abolished both CNS inflammation and encephalopathy, identifying CCR2 as a relevant receptor for this disorder. Proinflammatory and type 1 cytokines including TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IFN-gamma, IL-2, RANTES, and IP-10 were elevated in CNS tissues from mice with PREMO. These studies characterize a novel model of reversible inflammatory encephalopathy that is dependent on both genetic and environmental factors.
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35
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Pavelko KD, Howe CL, Drescher KM, Gamez JD, Johnson AJ, Wei T, Ransohoff RM, Rodriguez M. Interleukin-6 protects anterior horn neurons from lethal virus-induced injury. J Neurosci 2003; 23:481-92. [PMID: 12533608 PMCID: PMC6741877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) in neuronal injury after CNS infection. IL-6-/- and IL-6+/+ mice of resistant major histocompatibility complex (MHC) H-2b haplotype intracerebrally infected with Theiler's virus cleared the infection normally without development of viral persistence, lethal neuronal infection, or late phase demyelination. In contrast, infection of IL-6-/- mice on a susceptible H-2q haplotype resulted in frequent deaths and severe neurologic deficits within 2 weeks of infection as compared with infected IL-6+/+ H-2q littermate controls. Morphologic analysis demonstrated dramatic injury to anterior horn neurons of IL-6-/- H-2q mice at 12 d after infection. Infectious viral titers in the CNS (brain and spinal cord combined) were equivalent between IL-6-/- H-2q and IL-6+/+ H-2q mice. In contrast, more viral RNA was detected in the spinal cord of IL-6-/- mice compared with IL-6+/+ H-2q mice. Virus antigen was localized predominantly to anterior horn cells in infected IL-6-/- H-2q mice. IL-6 deletion did not affect the humoral response directed against virus, nor did it affect the expression of CD4, CD8, MHC class I, or MHC class II in the CNS. Importantly, IL-6 was expressed by astrocytes of infected IL-6+/+ mice but not in astrocytes of IL-6-/- mice or uninfected IL-6+/+ mice. Furthermore, expression of various chemokines was robust at 12 d after infection in both H-2b and H-2q IL-6-/- mice, indicating that intrinsic CNS inflammatory responses did not depend on the presence of IL-6. Finally, in vitro analysis of virus-induced death in neuroblastoma-spinal cord-34 motor neurons and primary anterior horn cell neurons showed that IL-6 exerted a neuroprotective effect. These data support the hypothesis that IL-6 plays a critical role in protecting specific populations of neurons from irreversible injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Pavelko
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA
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36
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Glass WG, Lane TE. Functional expression of chemokine receptor CCR5 on CD4(+) T cells during virus-induced central nervous system disease. J Virol 2003; 77:191-8. [PMID: 12477824 PMCID: PMC140629 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.1.191-198.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracranial infection of C57BL/6 mice with mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) results in an acute encephalomyelitis followed by a demyelinating disease similar in pathology to the human disease multiple sclerosis (MS). CD4(+) T cells are important in amplifying demyelination by attracting macrophages into the central nervous system (CNS) following viral infection; however, the mechanisms governing the entry of these cells into the CNS are poorly understood. The role of chemokine receptor CCR5 in trafficking of virus-specific CD4(+) T cells into the CNS of MHV-infected mice was investigated. CD4(+) T cells from immunized CCR5(+/+) and CCR5(-/-) mice were expanded in the presence of the immunodominant epitope present in the MHV transmembrane (M) protein encompassing amino acids 133 to 147 (M133-147). Adoptive transfer of CCR5(+/+)-derived CD4(+) T cells to MHV-infected RAG1(-/-) mice resulted in CD4(+)-T-cell entry into the CNS and clearance of virus from the brain. These mice also displayed robust demyelination correlating with macrophage accumulation within the CNS. Conversely, CD4(+) T cells from CCR5(-/-) mice displayed an impaired ability to traffic into the CNS of MHV-infected RAG1(-/-) recipients, which correlated with increased viral titers, diminished macrophage accumulation, and limited demyelination. Analysis of chemokine receptor mRNA expression by M133-147-expanded CCR5(-/-)-derived CD4(+) T cells revealed reduced expression of CCR1, CCR2, and CXCR3, indicating that CCR5 signaling is important in increased expression of these receptors, which aid in trafficking of CD4(+) T cells into the CNS. Collectively these results demonstrate that CCR5 signaling is important to migration of CD4(+) T cells to the CNS following MHV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- William G Glass
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine 92697-3900, USA
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Huang D, Tani M, Wang J, Han Y, He TT, Weaver J, Charo IF, Tuohy VK, Rollins BJ, Ransohoff RM. Pertussis toxin-induced reversible encephalopathy dependent on monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 overexpression in mice. J Neurosci 2002; 22:10633-42. [PMID: 12486156 PMCID: PMC6758405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In this report we describe pertussis toxin-induced reversible encephalopathy dependent on monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) overexpression (PREMO), a novel animal model that exhibits features of human encephalopathic complications of inflammatory disorders such as viral meningoencephalitis and Lyme neuroborreliosis as well as the mild toxic encephalopathy that commonly precedes relapses of multiple sclerosis (MS). Overexpression of the mouse MCP-1 gene product (classically termed JE) in astrocytes, the major physiological CNS cellular source of MCP-1, failed to induce neurological impairment. Unexpectedly, transgenic (tg) mice overexpressing MCP-1 at a high level (MCP-1(hi)) manifested transient, severe encephalopathy with high mortality after injections of pertussis toxin (PTx) plus complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Surviving mice showed markedly improved function and did not relapse during a prolonged period of observation. Tg mice that expressed lower levels of MCP-1 were affected minimally after CFA/PTx injections, and tg expression of other chemokines failed to elicit this disorder. The disorder was significantly milder in mice lacking T-cells, which therefore play a deleterious role in this encephalopathic process. Disruption of CC chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) abolished both CNS inflammation and encephalopathy, identifying CCR2 as a relevant receptor for this disorder. Proinflammatory and type 1 cytokines including TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IFN-gamma, IL-2, RANTES, and IP-10 were elevated in CNS tissues from mice with PREMO. These studies characterize a novel model of reversible inflammatory encephalopathy that is dependent on both genetic and environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- DeRen Huang
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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38
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Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors govern physiologic and pathologic leukocyte trafficking. The function of the chemokine system may be of particular interest for hematogenous leukocyte infiltration of the central nervous system (CNS) because of the distinct character of CNS inflammation and the exquisite specificity with which the chemokine system regulates cellular migration events. This review summarizes recent information about the expression and function of elements of the chemokine system in CNS inflammatory processes. Animal models of CNS demyelinating disease and the corresponding human disorder, multiple sclerosis are both considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Ransohoff
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA.
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