Canine Cancer Genomics: Lessons for Canine and Human Health

Dog10K: an integrated Dog10K database summarizing canine multi-omics

The diversity observed in canine breed phenotypes, together with their risk for heritabily disorders of relevance to dogs and humans, makes the species an ideal subject for studies aimed at understanding the genetic basis of complex traits and human biomedical models. Dog10K is an ongoing international collaboration that aims to uncover the genetic basis of phenotypic diversity, disease, behavior, and domestication history of dogs. To best present and make the extensive data accessible and user friendly, we have established the Dog10K (http://dog10k.kiz.ac.cn/) database, a comprehensive-omics resource summarizing multiple types of data. This database integrates single nucleotide variants (SNVs) from 1987 canine genomes, de-novo mutations (DNMs) from 43 dog breeds with >40× sequence, RNA-seq data of 105057 single nuclei from hippocampus, 74067 single cells from leukocytes and 30 blood samples from published canid studies. We provide clear visualization, statistics, browse, searching, and downloading functions for all data. We have integrated three analysis tools, Selscan, LiftOver and AgeConversion, to aid researchers in custom exploration of the comprehensive-omics data. The Dog10K database will serve as a foundational platform for analyzing, presenting and utilizing canine multi-omics data.

Genomic analyses identify 15 susceptibility loci and reveal HDAC2, SOX2-OT, and IGF2BP2 in a naturally-occurring canine model of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth most common human cancer worldwide, but the genetic etiology is largely unknown. We performed a Bayesian genome-wide association study and selection analyses in a naturally-occurring canine model of GC, the Belgian Tervuren and Sheepdog breeds, to elucidate underlying genetic risk factors. We identified 15 loci with over 90% predictive accuracy for the GC phenotype. Variant filtering revealed germline putative regulatory variants for the EPAS1 (HIF2A) and PTEN genes and a coding variant in CD101. Although closely related to Tervuren and Sheepdogs, Belgian Malinois rarely develop GC. Across-breed analyses uncovered protective haplotypes under selection in Malinois at SOX2-OT and IGF2BP2. Among Tervuren and Sheepdogs, HDAC2 putative regulatory variants were present at comparatively high frequency and were associated with GC. Here, we describe a complex genetic architecture governing GC in a dog model, including genes such as PDZRN3, that have not been associated with human GC.

Bringing the Genomic Revolution to Comparative Oncology: Human and Dog Cancers

Dogs are humanity's oldest friend, the first species we domesticated 20,000-40,000 years ago. In this unequaled collaboration, dogs have inadvertently but serendipitously been molded into a potent human cancer model. Unlike many common model species, dogs are raised in the same environment as humans and present with spontaneous tumors with human-like comorbidities, immunocompetency, and heterogeneity. In breast, bladder, blood, and several pediatric cancers, in-depth profiling of dog and human tumors has established the benefits of the dog model. In addition to this clinical and molecular similarity, veterinary studies indicate that domestic dogs have relatively high tumor incidence rates. As a result, there are a plethora of data for analysis, the statistical power of which is bolstered by substantial breed-specific variability. As such, dog tumors provide a unique opportunity to interrogate the molecular factors underpinning cancer and facilitate the modeling of new therapeutic targets. This review discusses the emerging field of comparative oncology, how it complements human and rodent cancer studies, and where challenges remain, given the rapid proliferation of genomic resources. Increasingly, it appears that human's best friend is becoming an irreplaceable component of oncology research.

Large-scale genomic analysis of the domestic dog informs biological discovery

Recent advances in genomics, coupled with a unique population structure and remarkable levels of variation, have propelled the domestic dog to new levels as a system for understanding fundamental principles in mammalian biology. Central to this advance are more than 350 recognized breeds, each a closed population that has undergone selection for unique features. Genetic variation in the domestic dog is particularly well characterized compared with other domestic mammals, with almost 3000 high-coverage genomes publicly available. Importantly, as the number of sequenced genomes increases, new avenues for analysis are becoming available. Herein, we discuss recent discoveries in canine genomics regarding behavior, morphology, and disease susceptibility. We explore the limitations of current data sets for variant interpretation, tradeoffs between sequencing strategies, and the burgeoning role of long-read genomes for capturing structural variants. In addition, we consider how large-scale collections of whole-genome sequence data drive rare variant discovery and assess the geographic distribution of canine diversity, which identifies Asia as a major source of missing variation. Finally, we review recent comparative genomic analyses that will facilitate annotation of the noncoding genome in dogs.

Divergent DNA methylation patterns and gene expression in MYC and CDKN2B in canine transmissible venereal tumors

Background and Aim

Canine transmissible venereal tumor (CTVT), a unique transmissible cancer in dogs, affects the external genitalia and potentially spreads to other parts of the body. While somatic mutations in oncogenic and tumor-suppressing genes are linked to CTVT development, the impact of DNA methylation, which affects gene expression, remains unclear. This study explored whether DNA methylation in the promoter regions of the MYC oncogene and CDKN2B tumor suppressor genes in CTVTs is associated with their expression, both at the gene and protein levels.

Materials and Methods

To investigate promoter DNA methylation of MYC and CDKN2B in CTVTs, we analyzed frozen tissue samples from genital CTVT (GTVTs) and extragenital CTVT (ETVTs). Genomic DNA was extracted, bisulfite-treated, and analyzed using bisulfite polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. The messenger RNA and protein of MYC and CDKN2B were also extracted and assessed by real-time PCR and Western blotting. Matching formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded blocks were used for immunohistochemical staining to visualize protein distribution in GTVT and ETVT tissues.

Results

Although both GTVT and ETVT samples showed MYC promoter methylation, the extent of methylation differed significantly. GTVTs displayed a much higher degree of methylation, potentially explaining the more pronounced downregulation of MYC gene expression and reduction in c-MYC protein levels observed in GTVTs compared with ETVTs. Our data revealed a prevalent hypermethylation pattern in the CDKN2B promoter across both sample types. However, DNA methylation, which was expected to have a suppressive effect, did not correlate with gene/protein expression. GTVTs displayed high protein levels despite significantly reduced CDKN2B expression. Conversely, ETVTs maintained regular CDKN2B expression but exhibited reduced protein production, suggesting a complex interplay between methylation and expression in these tumors.

Conclusion

MYC demonstrated a clear association between its promoter methylation status, gene expression, and protein levels; however, CDKN2B lacked this correlation, implying the involvement of methylation-independent regulatory mechanisms and highlighting the need for further investigation.

VDX-111 targets proliferative pathways in canine cancer cell lines

VDX-111 (also identified as AMPI-109) is a vitamin D derivative which has shown anticancer activity. To further assess the function of this compound against multiple cancer types, we examined the efficacy of VDX-111 against a panel of 30 well characterized canine cancer cell lines. Across a variety of cancer types, VDX-111 induced widely variable growth inhibition, cell death, and migration inhibition, at concentrations ranging from 10 nM to 1 μM. Growth inhibition sensitivity did not correlate strongly with tumor cell histotype; however, it was significantly correlated with the expression of genes in multiple cell signaling pathways, including the MAPK and PI3K-AKT pathways. We confirmed inhibition of these signaling pathways as likely participants in the effects of VDX-111. These results suggest that a subset of canine tumors may be sensitive to treatment with VDX-111, and suggests possible predictive markers of drug sensitivity and pharmacodynamic biomarkers of drug exposure that could be employed in future clinical trials.

Assessment of Y chromosome copy number alterations in non-neoplastic and neoplastic leukocytes of male dogs

The loss of the Y chromosome (ChrY), also known as LOY, is a common genetic alteration observed in men. It occurs in non-neoplastic cells as an age-related change as well as in neoplastic cells of various cancer types. While well-documented in humans, LOY has not been extensively studied in non-human mammals. In this study, we developed simple digital PCR-based assays to assess the copy number of ChrY relative to the X chromosome (ChrX) and chromosome 8 (Chr8) to evaluate ChrY numerical alterations in male canine DNA specimens. Using these assays, we analyzed non-neoplastic leukocytes from 162 male dogs without hematopoietic neoplasia to investigate the occurrence of age-related LOY in non-neoplastic leukocytes. Additionally, we examined 101 tumor DNA specimens obtained from male dogs diagnosed with various types of lymphoma and leukemia to determine whether copy number alterations of the ChrY occur in canine hematopoietic cancers. Analysis of the 162 non-neoplastic leukocyte DNA specimens from male dogs of varying ages revealed a consistent ∼1:1 ChrY:ChrX ratio. This suggests that age-related LOY in non-neoplastic leukocytes is rare or absent in dogs. Conversely, a decreased or increased ChrY:ChrX ratio was detected in canine neoplastic leukocytes at varying frequencies across different canine hematopoietic malignancies (P = 0.01, Fisher's exact test). Notably, a higher incidence of LOY was observed in more aggressive cancer types. To determine if this relative LOY to ChrX was caused by changes in ChrY or ChrX, we further analyzed their relative copy numbers using Chr8 as a reference. Loss of ChrX relative to Chr8 was found in 21% (9/41) of B-cell lymphomas and 6% (1/18) of non-T-zone/high-grade T-cell lymphomas. In contrast, a subset (29%, 4/14) of T-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia showed gain of ChrX relative to Chr8. Notably, no relative LOY to Chr8 was detected indolent hematopoietic cancers such as T-zone lymphoma (0/9) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia of B-cell (0/11) and T-cell origins (0/14). However, relative LOY to Chr8 was present in more aggressive canine hematopoietic cancers, with incidences of 24% (10/41) in B-cell lymphoma, 44% (8/18) in non-T-zone/high-grade T-cell lymphoma, and 75% (6/8) in acute leukemia. This study highlights both similarities and differences in LOY between human and canine non-neoplastic and neoplastic leukocytes. It underscores the need for further research into the role of ChrY in canine health and disease, as well as the significance of LOY across various species.

Protecting Human and Animal Health: The Road from Animal Models to New Approach Methods

Animals and animal models have been invaluable for our current understanding of human and animal biology, including physiology, pharmacology, biochemistry, and disease pathology. However, there are increasing concerns with continued use of animals in basic biomedical, pharmacological, and regulatory research to provide safety assessments for drugs and chemicals. There are concerns that animals do not provide sufficient information on toxicity and/or efficacy to protect the target population, so scientists are utilizing the principles of replacement, reduction, and refinement (the 3Rs) and increasing the development and application of new approach methods (NAMs). NAMs are any technology, methodology, approach, or assay used to understand the effects and mechanisms of drugs or chemicals, with specific focus on applying the 3Rs. Although progress has been made in several areas with NAMs, complete replacement of animal models with NAMs is not yet attainable. The road to NAMs requires additional development, increased use, and, for regulatory decision making, usually formal validation. Moreover, it is likely that replacement of animal models with NAMs will require multiple assays to ensure sufficient biologic coverage. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide a balanced view of the current state of the use of animal models and NAMs as approaches to development, safety, efficacy, and toxicity testing of drugs and chemicals. Animals do not provide all needed information nor do NAMs, but each can elucidate key pieces of the puzzle of human and animal biology and contribute to the goal of protecting human and animal health. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Data from traditional animal studies have predominantly been used to inform human health safety and efficacy. Although it is unlikely that all animal studies will be able to be replaced, with the continued advancement in new approach methods (NAMs), it is possible that sometime in the future, NAMs will likely be an important component by which the discovery, efficacy, and toxicity testing of drugs and chemicals is conducted and regulatory decisions are made.

Association between cigarette smoke exposure and urinary bladder cancer in Scottish terriers in a cohort study

Canine urothelial carcinoma (UC) initially responds favorably to treatment, but is ultimately lethal in most cases. Research to identify modifiable risk factors to prevent the cancer is essential. The high breed-associated risk for UC, e.g. 20-fold higher in Scottish terriers, can facilitate this research. The objective was to identify environmental and host factors associated with UC in a cohort of Scottish terriers. Information was obtained through dog owner questionnaires for 120 Scottish terriers ≥ 6 years old participating in a bladder cancer screening study, with comparisons made between dogs that did or did not develop UC during the 3 years of screening. Univariable models were constructed, and variables with P < 0.20 were included when building the multivariable model, and then removed using a backward stepwise procedure. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Urine cotinine concentrations were measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to further investigate potential cigarette smoke exposure. Biopsy-confirmed UC which was found in 32 of 120 dogs, was significantly associated with the dogs living in a household with cigarette smokers (odds ratio [OR], 6.34; 95 % confidence intervals [CI], 1.16-34.69; P = 0.033), living within a mile of a marsh or wetland (OR, 21.23; 95 % CI, 3.64-123.69; P = 0.001), and history of previous bladder infections (OR, 3.87; 95 % CI, 1.0-14.98; P = 0.050). UC was diagnosed in 18 of 51 dogs (35.3 %) with quantifiable cotinine concentrations, and six of 40 dogs (15.0 %) without quantifiable cotinine concentrations in their urine (P = 0.0165). In conclusion, the main modifiable risk factor for UC in this cohort of dogs was exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke.

Genome-wide methylation patterns from canine nanopore assemblies

Recent advances in long-read sequencing have enabled the creation of reference-quality genome assemblies for multiple individuals within a species. In particular, 8 long-read genome assemblies have recently been published for the canine model (dogs and wolves). These assemblies were created using a range of sequencing and computational approaches, with only limited comparisons described among subsets of the assemblies. Here we present 3 high-quality de novo reference assemblies based upon Oxford Nanopore long-read sequencing: 2 Bernese Mountain Dogs (BD & OD) and a Cairn terrier (CA611). These breeds are of particular interest due to the enrichment of unresolved genetic disorders. Leveraging advancement in software technologies, we utilized published data of Labrador Retriever (Yella) to generate a new assembly, resulting in a ∼280-fold increase in continuity (N50 size of 91 kbp vs 25.75 Mbp). In conjunction with these 4 new assemblies, we uniformly assessed 8 existing assemblies for generalized quality metrics, sequence divergence, and a detailed BUSCO assessment. We identified a set of ∼400 conserved genes during the BUSCO analysis missing in all assemblies. Genome-wide methylation profiles were generated from the nanopore sequencing, resulting in broad concordance with existing whole-genome and reduced-representation bisulfite sequencing, while highlighting superior overage of mobile elements. These analyses demonstrate the ability of Nanopore sequencing to resolve the sequence and epigenetic profile of canine genomes.

Identifying the Risk Factors for Malignant Mammary Tumors in Dogs: A Retrospective Study

Mammary cancer is one of the main causes of death in female dogs worldwide, considering that many risk factors are involved in its development. This study aimed to elucidate the relationship between epidemiological and clinical risk factors with the histopathological diagnosis of malignant mammary tumors in dogs treated at the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Uberlândia, which has one of the first veterinary oncology services in Brazil. A retrospective matched case-control study was conducted to identify risk factors for the development of malignant mammary tumors in dogs. The variables analyzed were size dog, breed, housing, type of diet, and body score. Potential risk factors were selected by univariate analysis (p < 0.25) before multivariate forward binary logistic regression. The most frequent benign tumor was the benign mixed tumor (35.2%), and the most frequent malignant tumor was the mixed carcinoma (27.4%). Size dog, breed, housing, and overweight are predictors of malignant mammary tumors in dogs. The highest risk of developing malignant mammary tumors is associated with large female dogs, Yorkshire or Poodle breeds, living outside the home, or being overweight.

The NIH Comparative Genomics Resource: addressing the promises and challenges of comparative genomics on human health

Comparative genomics is the comparison of genetic information within and across organisms to understand the evolution, structure, and function of genes, proteins, and non-coding regions (Sivashankari and Shanmughavel, Bioinformation 1:376-8, 2007). Advances in sequencing technology and assembly algorithms have resulted in the ability to sequence large genomes and provided a wealth of data that are being used in comparative genomic analyses. Comparative analysis can be leveraged to systematically explore and evaluate the biological relationships and evolution between species, aid in understanding the structure and function of genes, and gain a better understanding of disease and potential drug targets. As our knowledge of genetics expands, comparative genomics can help identify emerging model organisms among a broader span of the tree of life, positively impacting human health. This impact includes, but is not limited to, zoonotic disease research, therapeutics development, microbiome research, xenotransplantation, oncology, and toxicology. Despite advancements in comparative genomics, new challenges have arisen around the quantity, quality assurance, annotation, and interoperability of genomic data and metadata. New tools and approaches are required to meet these challenges and fulfill the needs of researchers. This paper focuses on how the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Comparative Genomics Resource (CGR) can address both the opportunities for comparative genomics to further impact human health and confront an increasingly complex set of challenges facing researchers.

GWAS using low-pass whole genome sequence reveals a novel locus in canine congenital idiopathic megaesophagus

Congenital idiopathic megaesophagus (CIM) is a gastrointestinal disorder of dogs wherein the esophagus is dilated and swallowing activity is reduced, causing regurgitation of ingesta. Affected individuals experience weight loss and malnourishment and are at risk for aspiration pneumonia, intussusception, and euthanasia. Great Danes have among the highest incidences of CIM across dog breeds, suggesting a genetic predisposition. We generated low-pass sequencing data for 83 Great Danes and used variant calls to impute missing whole genome single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) for each individual based on haplotypes phased from 624 high-coverage dog genomes, including 21 Great Danes. We validated the utility of our imputed data set for genome-wide association studies (GWASs) by mapping loci known to underlie coat phenotypes with simple and complex inheritance patterns. We conducted a GWAS for CIM with 2,010,300 SNVs, identifying a novel locus on canine chromosome 1 (P-val = 2.76 × 10-10). Associated SNVs are intergenic or intronic and are found in two clusters across a 1.7-Mb region. Inspection of coding regions in high-coverage genomes from affected Great Danes did not reveal candidate causal variants, suggesting that regulatory variants underlie CIM. Further studies are necessary to assess the role of these non-coding variants.

Toosendanin-induced apoptosis of CMT-U27 is mediated through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway

Toosendanin (TSN) is an active compound from the fruit of Melia toosendan Sieb et Zucc. TSN has been shown to have broad-spectrum anti-tumour activities in human cancers. However, there are still many gaps in the knowledge of TSN on canine mammary tumours (CMT). CMT-U27 cells were used to select the optimal acting time and best concentration of TSN to initiate apoptosis. Cell proliferation, cell colony formation, cell migration and cell invasion were analysed. The expression of apoptosis-related genes and proteins were also detected to explore the mechanism of action of TSN. A murine tumour model was established to detect the effect of TSN treatments. The results showed that TSN decreased cell viability of migration and invasion, altered CMT-U27 cell morphology, and inhibited DNA synthesis. TSN-induced cell apoptosis by upregulating BAX, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, p53 and cytochrome C (cytosolic) protein expression, and downregulating Bcl-2 and cytochrome C (mitochondrial) expression. In addition, TSN increased the mRNA transcription levels of cytochrome C, p53 and BAX, and decreased the mRNA expression of Bcl-2. Furthermore, TSN inhibited the growth of CMT xenografts by regulating the expression of genes and proteins activated by the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. In conclusion, TSN effectively inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion activity, as well as induced CMT-U27 cell apoptosis. The study provides a molecular basis for the development of clinical drugs and other therapeutic options.

How size and genetic diversity shape lifespan across breeds of purebred dogs

While the lifespan advantage of small body size and mixed breed status has been documented repeatedly, evidence for an effect of genetic diversity across dog breeds is equivocal. We hypothesized that this might be due to a strong right-censoring bias in available breed-specific lifespan estimates where early-dying dogs from birth cohorts that have not died off completely at the time of data collection are sampled disproportionately, especially in breeds with rapidly growing populations. We took advantage of data on owner reported lifespan and cause of death from a large public database to quantify the effect of size and genetic diversity (heterozygosity) on mortality patterns across 118 breeds based on more than 40,000 dogs. After documenting and removing the right-censoring bias from the breed-specific lifespan estimates by including only completed birth cohorts in our analyses, we show that small size and genetic diversity are both linked to a significant increase in mean lifespan across breeds. To better understand the proximate mechanisms underlying these patterns, we then investigated two major mortality causes in dogs - the cumulative pathophysiologies of old age and cancer. Old age lifespan, as well as the percentage of old age mortality, decreased with increasing body size and increased with increasing genetic diversity. The lifespan of dogs dying of cancer followed the same patterns, but while large size significantly increased proportional cancer mortality, we could not detect a significant signal for lowered cancer mortality with increasing diversity. Our findings suggest that outcross programs will be beneficial for breed health and longevity. They also emphasize the need for high-quality mortality data for veterinary epidemiology as well as for developing the dog as a translational model for human geroscience.

Nanocarriers in Veterinary Medicine: A Challenge for Improving Osteosarcoma Conventional Treatments

In recent years, several nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, such as polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, liposomes, and others, have been explored to target and treat a wide variety of diseases. Their employment has brought many benefits, not only to human medicine but also to veterinary medicine, albeit at a slower rate. Soon, the use of nanocarriers could revolutionize the animal health sector, and many veterinary therapies will be more effective as a result. The purpose of this review is to offer an overview of the main applications of nanocarriers in the veterinary field, from supplements for animal health and reproduction to nanovaccines and nanotherapies. Among the major pathologies that can affect animals, special attention is given to canine osteosarcoma (OSA): a comparison with human OSA is provided and the main treatment options are reviewed emphasizing the benefits that nanocarriers could bring in the treatment of this widespread disease.

Vet-OncoNet: Malignancy Analysis of Neoplasms in Dogs and Cats

Simple Summary

An overview analysis of tumors in dogs and cats, dividing them into malignant and benign, may provide previously unknown information about the biological behavior of tumors in these species and may serve many veterinarians as a support for clinical decision making. Based on a sample of 16,272 cancer records, including 3266 cats and 13,006 dogs, the analysis found that cats have a fourfold risk of malignant tumors, as in some topographies. Sex appears to play a role in the malignancy only in dogs. Some dog breeds (Pit bull and Boxer) have a higher risk of malignant tumors as opposed to Shih tzu and Yorkshire terrier. District of residence was not relevant in predicting malignancy risk. Most importantly, the risk of malignant tumors increases by 20% every three years.

Abstract

Analysis of canine and feline tumor malignancy data can help clinicians identify high-risk patients and make more accurate decisions. Based on a sample of 16,272 cancer records, including 3266 cats and 13,006 dogs, collected from January 2019 to December 2021 in the Vet-OncoNet Network database, this study aimed to compare the tumor malignancy profile between cats and dogs, considering animal-related factors (sex, age, and breed), topography, and geographic location using a mixed-effects logistic regression model. Cats had a higher proportion of malignant tumors (78.7%) than dogs (46.2%), and the malignancy profile was very different regarding tumors’ topographies. The mean age of malignant tumors occurred eight months later than benign ones (9.1, SD = 3.4; 9.8, SD = 3.2), in general. Species (OR = 3.96, 95%CI 3.57: 4.39) and topography (MOR = 4.10) were the two most important determinants of malignancy risk. Female dogs had a higher risk than male dogs (OR = 1.19, 95%CI 1.08: 1.31), which does not appear to be the case in cats (OR = 0.98, 95%CI 0.77: 1.23). Breed contributed significantly to differences in malignancy risk in dogs (MOR = 1.56), particularly in pit bulls and boxers. District of residence was not so relevant in predicting malignancy risk (MOR = 1.14). In both species, the risk of malignancy increased by approximately 20% every three years. It could be hypothesized that species differences in genetic structure may contribute to tumor malignancy.

Application of Biocompatible Drug Delivery Nanosystems for the Treatment of Naturally Occurring Cancer in Dogs

Background: Cancer is a common disease in dogs, with a growing incidence related to the age of the animal. Nanotechnology is being employed in the veterinary field in the same manner as in human therapy. Aim: This review focuses on the application of biocompatible nanocarriers for the treatment of canine cancer, paying attention to the experimental studies performed on dogs with spontaneously occurring cancer. Methods: The most important experimental investigations based on the use of lipid and non-lipid nanosystems proposed for the treatment of canine cancer, such as liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles containing doxorubicin, paclitaxel and cisplatin, are described and their in vivo fate and antitumor features discussed. Conclusions: Dogs affected by spontaneous cancers are useful models for evaluating the efficacy of drug delivery systems containing antitumor compounds.

Comparative analysis of the molecular subtype landscape in canine and human mammary gland tumors

Breast cancers in humans belong to one of several intrinsic molecular subtypes each with different tumor biology and different clinical impact. Mammary gland tumors in dogs are proposed as a relevant comparative model for human breast cancer; however, it is still unclear whether the intrinsic molecular subtypes have the same significance in dogs and humans. Using publicly available data, we analyzed gene expression and whole-exome sequencing data from 158 canine mammary gland tumors. We performed molecular subtyping using the PAM50 method followed by subtype-specific comparisons of gene expression characteristics, mutation patterns and copy number profiles between canine tumors and human breast tumors from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) breast cancer cohort (n = 1097). We found that luminal A canine tumors greatly resemble luminal A human tumors both in gene expression characteristics, mutations and copy number profiles. Also, the basal-like canine and human tumors were relatively similar, with low expression of luminal epithelial markers and high expression of genes involved in cell proliferation. There were, however, distinct differences in immune-related gene expression patterns in basal-like tumors between the two species. Characteristic HER2-enriched and luminal B subtypes were not present in the canine cohort, and we found no tumors with high-level ERBB2 amplifications. Benign and malignant canine tumors displayed similar PAM50 subtype characteristics. Our findings indicate that deeper understanding of the different molecular subtypes in canine mammary gland tumors will further improve the value of canines as comparative models for human breast cancer.

Canine models of human cancer: Bridging the gap to improve precision medicine

Dogs are remarkable, adaptable, and dependable creatures that have evolved alongside humans while contributing tremendously to our survival. Our canine companions share many similarities to human disease, particularly cancer. With the advancement of next-generation sequencing technology, we are beginning to unravel the complexity of cancer and the vast intra- and intertumoral heterogeneity that makes treatment difficult. Consequently, precision medicine has emerged as a therapeutic approach to improve patient survival by evaluating and classifying an individual tumor's molecular profile. Many canine and human cancers share striking similarities in terms of genotypic, phenotypic, clinical, and histological presentations. Dogs are superior to rodent models of cancer because they are a naturally heterogeneous population in which tumors occur spontaneously, are exposed to similar environmental conditions, and show more similarities in key modulators of tumorigenesis and clinical response, including the immune system, drug metabolism, and gut microbiome. In this chapter, we will explore various canine models of human cancers and emphasize the dog's critical role in advancing precision medicine and improving the survival of both man and man's best friend.

Mutations in melanocortin-4 receptor: From fish to men

Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), expressed abundantly in the hypothalamus, is a critical regulator of energy homeostasis, including both food intake and energy expenditure. Shortly after the publication in 1997 of the Mc4r knockout phenotypes in mice, including increased food intake and severe obesity, the first mutations in MC4R were reported in humans in 1998. Studies in the subsequent two decades have established MC4R mutation as the most common monogenic form of obesity, especially in early-onset severe obesity. Studies in animals, from fish to mammals, have established the conserved physiological roles of MC4R in all vertebrates in regulating energy balance. Drug targeting MC4R has been recently approved for treating morbid genetic obesity. How the MC4R can be exploited for animal production is highly worthy of active investigation.

Canine and murine models of osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common malignant bone tumor in children. Despite efforts to develop and implement new therapies, patient outcomes have not measurably improved since the 1980s. Metastasis continues to be the main source of patient mortality, with 30% of cases developing metastatic disease within 5 years of diagnosis. Research models are critical in the advancement of cancer research and include a variety of species. For example, xenograft and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) mouse models provide opportunities to study human tumor cells in vivo while transgenic models have offered significant insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying OS development. A growing recognition of naturally occurring cancers in companion species has led to new insights into how veterinary patients can contribute to studies of cancer biology and drug development. The study of canine cases, including the use of diagnostic tissue archives and clinical trials, offers a potential mechanism to further canine and human cancer research. Advancement in the field of OS research requires continued development and appropriate use of animal models. In this review, animal models of OS are described with a focus on the mouse and tumor-bearing pet dog as parallel and complementary models of human OS.

Increased risk of cancer in dogs and humans: a consequence of recent extension of lifespan beyond evolutionarily-determined limitations?

Cancer is among the most common causes of death for dogs (and cats) and humans in the developed world, even though it is uncommon in wildlife and other domestic animals. We provide a rationale for this observation based on recent advances in our understanding of the evolutionary basis of cancer. Over the course of evolutionary time, species have acquired and fine-tuned adaptive cancer protective mechanisms that are intrinsically related to their energy demands, reproductive strategies, and expected lifespan. These cancer protective mechanisms are general across species and/or specific to each species and their niche, and they do not seem to be limited in diversity. The evolutionarily acquired cancer-free longevity that defines a species' life history can explain why the relative cancer risk, rate, and incidence are largely similar across most species in the animal kingdom despite differences in body size and life expectancy. The molecular, cellular, and metabolic events that promote malignant transformation and cancerous growth can overcome these adaptive, species-specific protective mechanisms in a small proportion of individuals, while independently, some individuals in the population might achieve exceptional longevity. In dogs and humans, recent dramatic alterations in healthcare and social structures have allowed increasing numbers of individuals in both species to far exceed their species-adapted longevities (by 2-4 times) without allowing the time necessary for compensatory natural selection. In other words, the cancer protective mechanisms that restrain risk at comparable levels to other species for their adapted lifespan are incapable of providing cancer protection over this recent, drastic and widespread increase in longevity.

Dog Models of Aging

As the most phenotypically diverse mammalian species that shares human environments and access to sophisticated healthcare, domestic dogs have unique potential to inform our understanding of the determinants of aging. Here we outline key concepts in the study of aging and illustrate the value of research with dogs, which can improve dog health and support translational discoveries. We consider similarities and differences in aging and age-related diseases in dogs and humans and summarize key advances in our understanding of genetic and environmental risk factors for morbidity and mortality in dogs. We address health outcomes ranging from cancer to cognitive function and highlight emerging research opportunities from large-scale cohort studies in companion dogs. We conclude that studying aging in dogs could overcome many limitations of laboratory models, most notably, the ability to assess how aging-associated pathways influence aging in real-world environments similar to those experienced by humans.

Genome-Wide Analyses for Osteosarcoma in Leonberger Dogs Reveal the CDKN2A/B Gene Locus as a Major Risk Locus

Dogs represent a unique spontaneous cancer model. Osteosarcoma (OSA) is the most common primary bone tumor in dogs (OMIA 001441-9615), and strongly resembles human forms of OSA. Several large- to giant-sized dog breeds, including the Leonberger, have a greatly increased risk of developing OSA. We performed genome-wide association analysis with high-density imputed SNP genotype data from 273 Leonberger cases with a median age of 8.1 [3.1–13.5] years and 365 controls older than eight years. This analysis revealed significant associations at the CDKN2A/B gene locus on canine chromosome 11, mirroring previous findings in other dog breeds, such as the greyhound, that also show an elevated risk for OSA. Heritability (h²_SNP) was determined to be 20.6% (SE = 0.08; p-value = 5.7 × 10⁻⁴) based on a breed prevalence of 20%. The 2563 SNPs across the genome accounted for nearly all the h²_SNP of OSA, with 2183 SNPs of small effect, 316 SNPs of moderate effect, and 64 SNPs of large effect. As with many other cancers it is likely that regulatory, non-coding variants underlie the increased risk for cancer development. Our findings confirm a complex genetic basis of OSA, moderate heritability, and the crucial role of the CDKN2A/B locus leading to strong cancer predisposition in dogs. It will ultimately be interesting to study and compare the known genetic loci associated with canine OSA in human OSA.

Comparative transcriptional profiling of canine acanthomatous ameloblastoma and homology with human ameloblastoma

Ameloblastomas are odontogenic tumors that are rare in people but have a relatively high prevalence in dogs. Because canine acanthomatous ameloblastomas (CAA) have clinicopathologic and molecular features in common with human ameloblastomas (AM), spontaneous CAA can serve as a useful translational model of disease. However, the molecular basis of CAA and how it compares to AM are incompletely understood. In this study, we compared the global genomic expression profile of CAA with AM and evaluated its dental origin by using a bulk RNA-seq approach. For these studies, healthy gingiva and canine oral squamous cell carcinoma served as controls. We found that aberrant RAS signaling, and activation of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition cellular program are involved in the pathogenesis of CAA, and that CAA is enriched with genes known to be upregulated in AM including those expressed during the early stages of tooth development, suggesting a high level of molecular homology. These results support the model that domestic dogs with spontaneous CAA have potential for pre-clinical assessment of targeted therapeutic modalities against AM.

Basal and Luminal Molecular Subtypes in Naturally-Occurring Canine Urothelial Carcinoma are Associated with Tumor Immune Signatures and Dog Breed

BACKGROUND

Improved therapies are needed for patients with invasive urothelial carcinoma (InvUC). Tailoring treatment to molecular subtypes holds promise, but requires further study, including studies in pre-clinical animal models. Naturally-occurring canine InvUC harbors luminal and basal subtypes, mimicking those observed in humans, and could offer a relevant model for the disease in people.

OBJECTIVE

To further validate the canine InvUC model, clinical and tumor characteristics associated with luminal and basal subtypes in dogs were determined, with comparison to findings from humans.

METHODS

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses were performed on 56 canine InvUC tissues and bladder mucosa from four normal dogs. Data were aligned to CanFam 3.1, and differentially expressed genes identified. Data were interrogated with panels of genes defining luminal and basal subtypes, immune signatures, and other tumor features. Subject and tumor characteristics, and outcome data were obtained from medical records.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine tumors were classified as luminal and 27 tumors as basal subtype. Basal tumors were strongly associated with immune infiltration (OR 52.22, 95%CI 4.68-582.38, P = 0.001) and cancer progression signatures in RNA-seq analyses, more advanced clinical stage, and earlier onset of distant metastases in exploratory analyses (P = 0.0113). Luminal tumors were strongly associated with breeds at high risk for InvUC (OR 0.06, 95%CI 0.01 -0.37, P = 0.002), non-immune infiltrative signatures, and less advanced clinical stage.

CONCLUSIONS

Dogs with InvUC could provide a valuable model for testing new treatment strategies in the context of molecular subtype and immune status, and the search for germline variants impacting InvUC onset and subtype.

Cytotoxicity of a Lipid-Rich Extract from Native Mexican Avocado Seed (Persea americana var. drymifolia) on Canine Osteosarcoma D-17 Cells and Synergistic Activity with Cytostatic Drugs

Osteosarcoma is the most common malignant bone tumor in both children and dogs. It is an aggressive and metastatic cancer with a poor prognosis for long-term survival. The search for new anti-cancer drugs with fewer side effects has become an essential goal for cancer chemotherapy; in this sense, the bioactive compounds from avocado have proved their efficacy as cytotoxic molecules. The objective of this study was to determine the cytotoxic and antiproliferative effect of a lipid-rich extract (LEAS) from Mexican native avocado seed (Persea americana var. drymifolia) on canine osteosarcoma D-17 cell line. Also, the combined activity with cytostatic drugs was evaluated. LEAS was cytotoxic to D-17 cells in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ = 15.5 µg/mL. Besides, LEAS induced caspase-dependent cell apoptosis by the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. Moreover, LEAS induced a significant loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and increased superoxide anion production and mitochondrial ROS. Also, LEAS induced the arrest of the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase. Finally, LEAS improved the cytotoxic activity of cisplatin, carboplatin, and in less extension, doxorubicin against the canine osteosarcoma cell line through a synergistic effect. In conclusion, avocado could be a potential source of bioactive molecules in the searching treatments for osteosarcoma.

Intraoperative Label-Free Multimodal Nonlinear Optical Imaging for Point-of-Procedure Cancer Diagnostics

Intraoperative imaging in surgical oncology can provide information about the tumor microenvironment as well as information about the tumor margin. Visualizing microstructural features and molecular and functional dynamics may provide important diagnostic and prognostic information, especially when obtained in real-time at the point-of-procedure. A majority of current intraoperative optical techniques are based on the use of the labels, such as fluorescent dyes. However, these exogenous agents disrupt the natural microenvironment, perturb biological processes, and alter the endogenous optical signatures that cells and the microenvironment can provide. Portable nonlinear imaging systems have enabled intraoperative imaging for real-time detection and diagnosis of tissue. We review the development of a label-free multimodal nonlinear optical imaging technique that was adapted into a portable imaging system for intraoperative optical assessment of resected human breast tissue. New developments have applied this technology to assessing needle-biopsy specimens. Needle-biopsy procedures most always precede surgical resection and serve as the first sampling of suspicious masses for diagnosis. We demonstrate the diagnostic feasibility of imaging core needle-biopsy specimens during veterinary cancer surgeries. This intraoperative label-free multimodal nonlinear optical imaging technique can potentially provide a powerful tool to assist in cancer diagnosis at the point-of-procedure.

Translational oncotargets for immunotherapy: From pet dogs to humans

Preclinical studies in rodent models have been a pivotal role in human clinical research, but many of them fail in the translational process. Spontaneous tumors in pet dogs have the potential to bridge the gap between preclinical models and human clinical trials. Their natural occurrence in an immunocompetent system overcome the limitations of preclinical rodent models. Due to its reasonable cellular, molecular, and genetic homology to humans, the pet dog represents a valuable model to accelerate the translation of preclinical studies to clinical trials in humans, actually with benefits for both species. Moreover, their unique genetic features of breeding and breed-related mutations have contributed to assess and optimize therapeutics in individuals with different genetic backgrounds. This review aims to outline four main immunotherapy approaches - cancer vaccines, adaptive T-cell transfer, antibodies, and cytokines -, under research in veterinary medicine and how they can serve the clinical application crosstalk with humans.

Identification of common predisposing loci to hematopoietic cancers in four dog breeds

Histiocytic sarcoma (HS) is a rare but aggressive cancer in both humans and dogs. The spontaneous canine model, which has clinical, epidemiological, and histological similarities with human HS and specific breed predispositions, provides a unique opportunity to unravel the genetic basis of this cancer. In this study, we aimed to identify germline risk factors associated with the development of HS in canine-predisposed breeds. We used a methodology that combined several genome-wide association studies in a multi-breed and multi-cancer approach as well as targeted next-generation sequencing, and imputation We combined several dog breeds (Bernese mountain dogs, Rottweilers, flat-coated retrievers, and golden retrievers), and three hematopoietic cancers (HS, lymphoma, and mast cell tumor). Results showed that we not only refined the previously identified HS risk CDKN2A locus, but also identified new loci on canine chromosomes 2, 5, 14, and 20. Capture and targeted sequencing of specific loci suggested the existence of regulatory variants in non-coding regions and methylation mechanisms linked to risk haplotypes, which lead to strong cancer predisposition in specific dog breeds. We also showed that these canine cancer predisposing loci appeared to be due to the additive effect of several risk haplotypes involved in other hematopoietic cancers such as lymphoma or mast cell tumors as well. This illustrates the pleiotropic nature of these canine cancer loci as observed in human oncology, thereby reinforcing the interest of predisposed dog breeds to study cancer initiation and progression.

Because of specific breed structures and artificial selection, pet dogs suffer from numerous genetic diseases, including cancers and represent a unique spontaneous model of human cancers. Here, we focused on histiocytic sarcoma (HS), a rare and highly aggressive cancer in humans. In this study, we have used spontaneous affected and unaffected dogs from three predisposed dog breeds to identify loci involved in HS predisposition. Through genetic analyses, we showed that these canine cancer predispositions are due to the additive effect of several risk haplotypes also involved in the predisposition of other hematopoietic cancers. The corresponding chromosomal regions in humans are involved in the predisposition of several cancers and are also associated with immune traits. This study demonstrates the pleiotropic nature of these canine cancer loci as observed in human oncology, thereby reinforcing the interest of predisposed dog breeds to study mechanisms involved in cancer initiation.

Clinical Cytogenetics of the Dog: A Review

The dog is an important companion animal and has been recognized as a model in biomedical research. Its karyotype is characterized by a high chromosome number (2n = 78) and by the presence of one-arm autosomes, which are mostly small in size. This makes the dog a difficult subject for cytogenetic studies. However, there are some chromosome abnormalities that can be easily identified, such as sex chromosome aneuploidies, XX/XY leukocyte chimerism, and centric fusions (Robertsonian translocations). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with the use of whole-chromosome painting or locus-specific probes has improved our ability to identify and characterize chromosomal abnormalities, including reciprocal translocations. The evaluation of sex chromosome complement is an important diagnostic step in dogs with disorders of sex development (DSD). In such cases, FISH can detect the copy number variants (CNVs) associated with the DSD phenotype. Since cancers are frequently diagnosed in dogs, cytogenetic evaluation of tumors has also been undertaken and specific chromosome mutations for some cancers have been reported. However, the study of meiotic, gamete, and embryo chromosomes is not very advanced. Knowledge of canine genome organization and new molecular tools, such as aCGH (array comparative genome hybridization), SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) microarray, and ddPCR (droplet digital PCR) allow the identification of chromosomal rearrangements. It is anticipated that the comprehensive use of chromosome banding, FISH, and molecular techniques will substantially improve the diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities in dogs.

Genomics and transcriptomics in veterinary oncology

The sequencing of the canine genome, combined with additional genomic technologies, has created opportunities for research linking veterinary genomics with naturally occurring cancer in dogs. Also, as numerous canine cancers have features in common with human cancers, comparative studies can be performed to evaluate the use of cancers in dogs as models for human cancer. There have been several reviews of veterinary genomics but, to the best of our knowledge, there has been no comprehensive review of the literature of canine cancer genomics. PubMed and CAB Abstracts databases were searched to retrieve relevant literature using the search terms ‘veterinary’, ‘cancer’ or ‘oncology’, and ‘genomics’ or ‘transcriptomics’. Results were manually assessed and grouped based on the techniques used, the cancer type investigated and genomic lesions targeted. The search resulted in the retrieval of 44 genomic and transcriptomic studies, with the most common technique employed being comparative genomic hybridization. Across both fields, the most commonly studied cancer type was canine osteosarcoma. Genomic and transcriptomic aberrations in canine cancer often reflected those reported in the corresponding human cancers. Analysis of the literature indicated that employing genomic and transcriptomic technologies has been instrumental in developing the understanding of the origin, development and pathogenesis of several canine cancers. However, their use in canine oncology is at an early phase, and there appears to be comparatively little understanding of certain canine cancer types in contrast to their human forms. Aberrations detected in all tumors were tabulated, and the results for osteosarcoma, lymphoma and leukemia, mast cell tumor, transmissible venereal tumor and urothelial carcinoma discussed in detail.

Safety and interim survival data after intracranial administration of M032, a genetically engineered oncolytic HSV-1 expressing IL-12, in pet dogs with sporadic gliomas

OBJECTIVE

The diagnosis of glioma remains disheartening in the clinical realm. While a multitude of studies and trials have shown promise, improvements in overall survival have been disappointing. Modeling these tumors in the laboratory setting has become increasingly challenging, given their complex in situ behavior and interactions for therapeutic evasion. Dogs, particularly brachycephalic breeds, are known to spontaneously develop gliomas that resemble human gliomas both clinically and pathophysiologically, making canines with sporadic tumors promising candidates for study. Typically, survival among these dogs is approximately 2 months with palliation alone.

METHODS

The authors have completed the first stage of a unique phase I dose-escalating canine clinical trial in which the safety and tolerability of M032, a nonneurovirulent oncolytic herpes simplex virus-1 vector genetically engineered to express interleukin-12, are being studied in pet dogs with gliomas undergoing maximum safe tumor resection and inoculation of the cavity with the viral infusate.

RESULTS

Twenty-five canine patients were enrolled between January 2018 and August 2020. One patient was electively withdrawn from the trial by its owner, and 3 did not receive the virus. For the 21 dogs that remained, 13 had high-grade gliomas, 5 had low-grade gliomas, and 3 were undetermined. According to histopathological analysis, 62% of the tumors were oligodendrogliomas. At the time of this report, the median overall survival from the date of treatment was 151 days (± 78 days). No significant adverse events attributable to M032 or dose-limiting toxicities have been observed to date.

CONCLUSIONS

In this largest study of oncolytic viral therapy for canine brain tumors to date, treatment with M032 did not cause harm and the combination of surgery and oncolytic viral therapy may have contributed to prolonged survival in pet dogs with spontaneous gliomas. Forthcoming in-depth radiographic, immunohistochemical, and genetic analyses will afford a more advanced understanding of how this treatment impacts these tumors and the immune system. Our goal is to utilize these findings bitranslationally to inform human studies and refine therapies that will improve outcomes in both humans and pet dogs with gliomas.

Improving human cancer therapy through the evaluation of pet dogs

Comparative oncology clinical trials play an important and growing role in cancer research and drug development efforts. These trials, typically conducted in companion (pet) dogs, allow assessment of novel anticancer agents and combination therapies in a veterinary clinical setting that supports serial biologic sample collections and exploration of dose, schedule and corresponding pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships. Further, an intact immune system and natural co-evolution of tumour and microenvironment support exploration of novel immunotherapeutic strategies. Substantial improvements in our collective understanding of the molecular landscape of canine cancers have occurred in the past 10 years, facilitating translational research and supporting the inclusion of comparative studies in drug development. The value of the approach is demonstrated in various clinical trial settings, including single-agent or combination response rates, inhibition of metastatic progression and randomized comparison of multiple agents in a head-to-head fashion. Such comparative oncology studies have been purposefully included in the developmental plan for several US FDA-approved and up-and-coming anticancer drugs. Challenges for this field include keeping pace with technology and data dissemination/harmonization, improving annotation of the canine genome and immune system, and generation of canine-specific validated reagents to support integration of correlative biology within clinical trial efforts.

Beyond tradition and convention: benefits of non-traditional model organisms in cancer research

Traditional laboratory model organisms are indispensable for cancer research and have provided insight into numerous mechanisms that contribute to cancer development and progression in humans. However, these models do have some limitations, most notably related to successful drug translation, because traditional model organisms are often short-lived, small-bodied, genetically homogeneous, often immunocompromised, are not exposed to natural environments shared with humans, and usually do not develop cancer spontaneously. We propose that assimilating information from a variety of long-lived, large, genetically diverse, and immunocompetent species that live in natural environments and do develop cancer spontaneously (or do not develop cancer at all) will lead to a more comprehensive understanding of human cancers. These non-traditional model organisms can also serve as sentinels for environmental risk factors that contribute to human cancers. Ultimately, expanding the range of animal models that can be used to study cancer will lead to improved insights into cancer development, progression and metastasis, tumor microenvironment, as well as improved therapies and diagnostics, and will consequently reduce the negative impacts of the wide variety of cancers afflicting humans overall.

Genomic diversity and population structure of the Leonberger dog breed

BACKGROUND

Leonberger is a giant dog breed formed in the 1850s in Germany. Its post-World War II popularity has resulted in a current global population of ~ 30,000 dogs. The breed has predispositions to neurodegenerative disorders and cancer, which is likely due in large part to limited genetic diversity. However, to date there is no scientific literature on the overall demography and genomic architecture of this breed.

RESULTS

We assessed extensive pedigree records, SNP array genotype data, and whole-genome sequences (WGS) on 142,072, 1203 and 39 Leonberger dogs, respectively. Pedigree analyses identified 22 founder animals and revealed an apparent popular sire effect. The average pedigree-based inbreeding coefficient of 0.29 and average kinship of 0.31 show a dramatic loss of genetic diversity. The observed average life span decreased over time from 9.4 years in 1989 to 7.7 years in 2004. A global health survey confirmed a high prevalence of cancer and neurological disorders. Analysis of SNP-based runs of homozygosity (ROH) identified 125,653 ROH with an average length of 5.88 Mb, and confirmed an average inbreeding coefficient of 0.28. Genome-wide filtering of the WGS data revealed 28 non-protein-changing variants that were present in all Leonberger individuals and a list of 22 potentially pathogenic variants for neurological disorders of which 50% occurred only in Leonbergers and 50% occurred rarely in other breeds. Furthermore, one of the two mtDNA haplogroups detected was present in one dog only.

CONCLUSIONS

The increasing size of the Leonberger population has been accompanied by a considerable loss of genetic diversity after the bottleneck that occurred in the 1940s due to the intensive use of popular sires resulting in high levels of inbreeding. This might explain the high prevalence of certain disorders; however, genomic data provide no evidence for fixed coding variants that explain these predispositions. The list of candidate causative variants for polyneuropathy needs to be further evaluated. Preserving the current genetic diversity is possible by increasing the number of individuals for breeding while restricting the number of litters per sire/dam. In addition, outcrossing would help optimize long-term genetic diversity and contribute to the sustainability and health of the population.

A scan for genes associated with cancer mortality and longevity in pedigree dog breeds

Selective breeding of the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) rigidly retains desirable features, and could inadvertently fix disease-causing variants within a breed. We combine phenotypic data from > 72,000 dogs with a large genotypic dataset to search for genes associated with cancer mortality and longevity in pedigree dog breeds. We validated previous findings that breeds with higher average body weight have higher cancer mortality rates and lower life expectancy. We identified a significant positive correlation between life span and cancer mortality residuals corrected for body weight, implying that long-lived breeds die more frequently from cancer compared to short-lived breeds. We replicated a number of known genetic associations with body weight (IGF1, GHR, CD36, SMAD2 and IGF2BP2). Subsequently, we identified five genetic variants in known cancer-related genes (located within SIPA1, ADCY7 and ARNT2) that could be associated with cancer mortality residuals corrected for confounding factors. One putative genetic variant was marginally significantly associated with longevity residuals that had been corrected for the effects of body weight; this genetic variant is located within PRDX1, a peroxiredoxin that belongs to an emerging class of pro-longevity associated genes. This research should be considered as an exploratory analysis to uncover associations between genes and longevity/cancer mortality.

A Role for Dogs in Advancing Cancer Immunotherapy Research

While rodent cancer models are essential for early proof-of-concept and mechanistic studies for immune therapies, these models have limitations with regards to predicting the ultimate effectiveness of new immunotherapies in humans. As a unique spontaneous, large animal model of cancer, the value of conducting studies in pet dogs with cancer has been increasingly recognized by the research community. This review will therefore summarize key aspects of the dog cancer immunotherapy model and the role that these studies may play in the overall immunotherapy drug research effort. We will focus on cancer types and settings in which the dog model is most likely to impact clinical immuno-oncology research and drug development. Immunological reagent availability is discussed, along with some unique opportunities and challenges associated with the dog immunotherapy model. Overall it is hoped that this review will increase awareness of the dog cancer immunotherapy model and stimulate additional collaborative studies to benefit both man and man's best friend.

Canine Melanomas as Models for Human Melanomas: Clinical, Histological, and Genetic Comparison

Despite recent genetic advances and numerous ongoing therapeutic trials, malignant melanoma remains fatal, and prognostic factors as well as more efficient treatments are needed. The development of such research strongly depends on the availability of appropriate models recapitulating all the features of human melanoma. The concept of comparative oncology, with the use of spontaneous canine models has recently acquired a unique value as a translational model. Canine malignant melanomas are naturally occurring cancers presenting striking homologies with human melanomas. As for many other cancers, dogs present surprising breed predispositions and higher frequency of certain subtypes per breed. Oral melanomas, which are much more frequent and highly severe in dogs and cutaneous melanomas with severe digital forms or uveal subtypes are subtypes presenting relevant homologies with their human counterparts, thus constituting close models for these human melanoma subtypes. This review addresses how canine and human melanoma subtypes compare based on their epidemiological, clinical, histological, and genetic characteristics, and how comparative oncology approaches can provide insights into rare and poorly characterized melanoma subtypes in humans that are frequent and breed-specific in dogs. We propose canine malignant melanomas as models for rare non-UV-induced human melanomas, especially mucosal melanomas. Naturally affected dogs offer the opportunity to decipher the genetics at both germline and somatic levels and to explore therapeutic options, with the dog entering preclinical trials as human patients, benefiting both dogs and humans.

BarkBase: Epigenomic Annotation of Canine Genomes

Dogs are an unparalleled natural model for investigating the genetics of health and disease, particularly for complex diseases like cancer. Comprehensive genomic annotation of regulatory elements active in healthy canine tissues is crucial both for identifying candidate causal variants and for designing functional studies needed to translate genetic associations into disease insight. Currently, canine geneticists rely primarily on annotations of the human or mouse genome that have been remapped to dog, an approach that misses dog-specific features. Here, we describe BarkBase, a canine epigenomic resource available at barkbase.org. BarkBase hosts data for 27 adult tissue types, with biological replicates, and for one sample of up to five tissues sampled at each of four carefully staged embryonic time points. RNA sequencing is complemented with whole genome sequencing and with assay for transposase-accessible chromatin using sequencing (ATAC-seq), which identifies open chromatin regions. By including replicates, we can more confidently discern tissue-specific transcripts and assess differential gene expression between tissues and timepoints. By offering data in easy-to-use file formats, through a visual browser modeled on similar genomic resources for human, BarkBase introduces a powerful new resource to support comparative studies in dogs and humans.