Cytokines and cytokine profiles in human autoimmune diseases and animal models of autoimmunity. Mediators Inflamm. 2009;2009:979258. [PMID: 19884985 PMCID: PMC2768824 DOI: 10.1155/2009/979258]

An overview of multi-omics technologies in rheumatoid arthritis: applications in biomarker and pathway discovery

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease with a complex pathological mechanism involving autoimmune response, local inflammation and bone destruction. Metabolic pathways play an important role in immune-related diseases and their immune responses. The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis may be related to its metabolic dysregulation. Moreover, histological techniques, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics, provide powerful tools for comprehensive analysis of molecular changes in biological systems. The present study explores the molecular and metabolic mechanisms of RA, emphasizing the central role of metabolic dysregulation in the RA disease process and highlighting the complexity of metabolic pathways, particularly metabolic remodeling in synovial tissues and its association with cytokine-mediated inflammation. This paper reveals the potential of histological techniques in identifying metabolically relevant therapeutic targets in RA; specifically, we summarize the genetic basis of RA and the dysregulated metabolic pathways, and explore their functional significance in the context of immune cell activation and differentiation. This study demonstrates the critical role of histological techniques in decoding the complex metabolic network of RA and discusses the integration of histological data with other types of biological data.

Case report: Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease: unveiling a case of recurrent fever and enlarged cervical lymph nodes in a young female patient with a literature review of the immune mechanism

The inflammatory response to viral infection is an important component of the antiviral response, a process that involves the activation and proliferation of CD8+ T, CD4+ T, and dendritic cells; thus, viral infection disrupts the immune homeostasis of the organism, leading to an increased release of inflammatory factors. Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease (KFD) is an inflammatory self-limited disorder of unknown etiology, and it is generally believed that the pathogenesis of this disease includes two aspects: viral infection and autoimmune response. Various immune cells, such as CD8+ T lymphocytes, CD4+ T lymphocytes, and CD123+ plasmacytoid dendritic cells, as well as the cytokines they induce and secrete, such as interferons, interleukins, and tumor necrosis factors, play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of KFD. In this article, we present a case study of a young female patient from China who exhibited typical symptoms of lymph node inflammation and fever. The diagnosis of KFD was confirmed through a lymph node biopsy. She presented with elevated ESR, IL-6, and IFN-γ. Viral markers showed elevated IgG and IgM of cytomegalovirus (CMV) and elevated IgG of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), while changes occurred in the CD4+ T and CD8+ T cell counts. Eventually, the patient achieved disease relief through steroid treatment. Based on these findings, we conducted a comprehensive review of the involvement of viral infection-induced inflammatory response processes and autoimmunity in the pathogenesis of Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease.

Encapsulation of HaCaT Secretome for Enhanced Wound Healing Capacity on Human Dermal Fibroblasts

In the epidermal and dermal layers of the skin, diverse cell types are reconstituted during the wound healing process. Delays or failures in wound healing are a major issue in skin therapy because they prevent the normal structure and function of wounded tissue from being restored, resulting in ulceration or other skin abnormalities. Human immortalized keratinocytes (HaCAT) cells are a spontaneously immortalized human keratinocyte cell line capable of secreting many bioactive chemicals (a secretome) that stimulate skin cell proliferation, rejuvenation, and regeneration. In this study, the HaCaT secretome was encapsulated with polyesters such as poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and cassava starch in an effort to maximize its potential. According to the estimated mechanism of the HaCaT secretome, all treatments were conducted on immortalized dermal fibroblast cell lines, a model of wound healing. Encapsulation of HaCaT secretome and cassava starch enhanced the effectiveness of cell proliferation, migration, and anti-aging. On the other hand, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were lowered, activating antioxidants in immortalized dermal fibroblast cells. The HaCaT secretome induced in a dose-dependent manner the expression of antioxidant-associated genes, including SOD, CAT, and GPX. Six cytokines, including CCL2 and MCP-1, influenced immunoregulatory and inflammatory processes in cultured HaCAT cells. HaCaT secretome encapsulated in cassava starch can reduce ROS buildup by boosting antioxidant to stimulate wound healing. Hence, the HaCaT secretome may have a new chance in the cosmetics business to develop components for wound prevention and healing.

Current Advances in Regenerative Strategies for Dry Eye Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

Dry eye disease (DED) is an emerging health issue affecting millions of individuals annually. Ocular surface disorders, such as DED, are characterized by inflammation triggered by various factors. This condition can lead to tear deficiencies, resulting in the desiccation of the ocular surface, corneal ulceration/perforation, increased susceptibility to infections, and a higher risk of severe visual impairment and blindness. Currently, the clinical management of DED primarily relies on supportive and palliative measures, including the frequent and lifelong use of different lubricating agents. While some advancements like punctal plugs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and salivary gland autografts have been attempted, they have shown limited effectiveness. Recently, there have been promising developments in the treatment of DED, including biomaterials such as nano-systems, hydrogels, and contact lenses for drug delivery, cell-based therapies, biological approaches, and tissue-based regenerative therapy. This article specifically explores the different strategies reported so far for treating DED. The aim is to discuss their potential as long-term cures for DED while also considering the factors that limit their feasibility and effectiveness. These advancements offer hope for more effective and sustainable treatment options in the future.

Nervonic acid and its sphingolipids: Biological functions and potential food applications

Nervonic acid, a 24-carbon fatty acid with only one double bond at the 9th carbon (C24:1n-9), is abundant in the human brain, liver, and kidney. It not only functions in free form but also serves as a critical component of sphingolipids which participate in many biological processes such as cell membrane formation, apoptosis, and neurotransmission. Recent studies show that nervonic acid supplementation is not only beneficial to human health but also can improve the many medical conditions such as neurological diseases, cancers, diabetes, obesity, and their complications. Nervonic acid and its sphingomyelins serve as a special material for myelination in infants and remyelination patients with multiple sclerosis. Besides, the administration of nervonic acid is reported to reduce motor disorder in mice with Parkinson's disease and limit weight gain. Perturbations of nervonic acid and its sphingolipids might lead to the pathogenesis of many diseases and understanding these mechanisms is critical for investigating potential therapeutic approaches for such diseases. However, available studies about this aspect are limited. In this review, relevant findings about functional mechanisms of nervonic acid have been comprehensively and systematically described, focusing on four interconnected functions: cellular structure, signaling, anti-inflammation, lipid mobilization, and their related diseases.

Interleukins 20 and 8 - less widely known cytokines in psoriasis

Psoriasis is a common immune-mediated inflammatory dermatosis affecting 2-3% of the northern European population. Although its aetiology is not completely elucidated, it is widely accepted that activated immune cells and keratinocytes stimulate keratinocyte hyperproliferation by production of cytokines; indeed, elevated amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines have been observed in skin lesions and patient serum. By identifying those playing a central role in the disease pathogenesis, it will be possible to indicate a potential therapeutic target. Drugs targeting tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-12/23, IL-17, IL-22 and IL-23 and Janus kinase inhibitors have been found to successfully alleviate resistant skin lesions. However, psoriasis is a complex disease with varied cellular interactions and cytokines, and a complex receptor network. Therefore, this review paper examines the less widely known cytokines IL-20 and IL-8, their therapeutic potential and their role in skin lesion development. Although promising results have been obtained for IL-20 and IL-8 treatment, and their role in the psoriasis skin lesion development is well documented, the role of these two cytokines remains overshadowed by that of the wider systemic cytokine storm.

Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases and leukocyte telomere length: A Mendelian randomization study

Objective: To elucidate the potential causality of leukocyte telomere length (LTL) with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs), we conducted a Mendelian randomization (MR) study. Methods: The genetically predicted causation between LTL and IMIDs was evaluated using a two-sample MR method. We analyzed 16 major IMIDs, which included systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), ulcerative colitis (UC), Crohn's disease (CD), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), sicca syndrome (SS), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), type 1 diabetes (T1D), primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), atopic dermatitis (AD), sarcoidosis, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, psoriasis, and childhood asthma. The random-effects inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method was performed as the main analytical approach in MR. Various sensitivity analyses, including MR-Egger, MR robust adjusted profile score (MR-RAPS), weighted median, MR pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO) methods, weighted mode, radial plot, and radial regression, were used to guarantee the robustness of the results and detect horizontal pleiotropy. Cochran's Q value was calculated to check for heterogeneity, and the MR Steiger approach was used to test the causal direction. Results: The MR results indicated significant inverse associations of LTL with risks of psoriasis (OR: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.66-0.89, and p = 3.66 × 10^-4), SS (OR: 0.75, CI: 0.58-0.98, and p = 0.03), RA (OR: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.68-0.88, and p = 9.85 × 10^-5), hypothyroidism (OR: 0.84, 95% CI: 0.78-0.91, and p = 7,08 × 10^-6), hyperthyroidism (OR: 0.60, 95% CI: 0.44-0.83, and p = 1.90 × 10^-3), sarcoidosis (OR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.54-0.83, and p = 2.60 × 10^-4), and IPF (OR: 0.41, 95% CI: 0.29-0.58, and p = 4.11 × 10^-7) in the FinnGen study. We observed that longer LTL was associated with an increased risk of AS susceptibility (OR: 1.51, 95% CI: 1.18-1.94, and p = 9.66 × 10^-4). The results of the IVW method showed no causal relationship between TL and SLE (OR: 0.92, 95% CI: 0.62-1.38, and p = 0.69) in the FinnGen study; however, a significantly positive correlation was shown between LTL and SLE in another larger GWAS (OR: 1.87, 95% CI: 1.37-2.54, and p = 8.01 × 10^-5). Conclusion: Our findings reveal that abnormal LTL has the potential to increase the risk of IMIDs. Therefore, it could be treated as a predictor and may provide new potential treatment targets for IMIDs. However, the change of LTL may not be the direct cause of IMIDs. Further studies should aim at the pathogenic mechanism or potential protective effects of LTL in IMIDs.

Cytokine Expression in Staphylococcal and Streptococcal Endophthalmitis

<b><i>Background:</i></b> Endophthalmitis is an infection of ocular tissues, often with devastating outcomes for vision. Immunomodulation is an emerging avenue for therapeutic intervention in endophthalmitis, with the expression of cytokines central to potential mechanisms. This literature review with a systematic approach characterizes the cytokine expression in both animal and human staphylococcal and streptococcal endophthalmitis. <b><i>Method and Results:</i></b> Four online databases were searched for studies profiling cytokine levels in animal models or human populations with staphylococcal and/or streptococcal endophthalmitis. Of the 1,060 articles identified, 14 studies were included in this review comprising eight animal models and six human populations. Mouse, rat, and rabbit models of <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i>, and <i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i> endophthalmitis had elevated levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-8, with earlier peaks observed in <i>S</i>. <i>epidermidis</i> infection. Human endophthalmitis demonstrated significantly increased mediator levels compared to controls for a range of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. Several associations were established between cytokine concentrations and both initial visual acuity and visual prognosis, with no consistent correlations across trials. <b><i>Conclusions:</i></b> It may be that virulence factors and the combinations of toll-like receptors activated influence the pathogen-specific visual outcomes observed in endophthalmitis. Furthermore, disease severity and potential therapeutic targets may be dependent on synergistic and compensatory cytokine pathways and the expression of anti-inflammatory mediators. Future research should aim to better characterize the roles of inflammatory mediators and solidify associations between pathogens, inflammation, and endophthalmitis outcomes. This has exciting implications for the prevention and treatment of endophthalmitis in clinical settings.

The NOD Mouse Beyond Autoimmune Diabetes

Autoimmune diabetes arises spontaneously in Non-Obese Diabetic (NOD) mice, and the pathophysiology of this disease shares many similarities with human type 1 diabetes. Since its generation in 1980, the NOD mouse, derived from the Cataract Shinogi strain, has represented the gold standard of spontaneous disease models, allowing to investigate autoimmune diabetes disease progression and susceptibility traits, as well as to test a wide array of potential treatments and therapies. Beyond autoimmune diabetes, NOD mice also exhibit polyautoimmunity, presenting with a low incidence of autoimmune thyroiditis and Sjögren's syndrome. Genetic manipulation of the NOD strain has led to the generation of new mouse models facilitating the study of these and other autoimmune pathologies. For instance, following deletion of specific genes or via insertion of resistance alleles at genetic loci, NOD mice can become fully resistant to autoimmune diabetes; yet the newly generated diabetes-resistant NOD strains often show a high incidence of other autoimmune diseases. This suggests that the NOD genetic background is highly autoimmune-prone and that genetic manipulations can shift the autoimmune response from the pancreas to other organs. Overall, multiple NOD variant strains have become invaluable tools for understanding the pathophysiology of and for dissecting the genetic susceptibility of organ-specific autoimmune diseases. An interesting commonality to all autoimmune diseases developing in variant strains of the NOD mice is the presence of autoantibodies. This review will present the NOD mouse as a model for studying autoimmune diseases beyond autoimmune diabetes.

Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease is mediated by an aberrant type I interferon response

Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease (KFD) is a reactive lymphadenitis of unclear etiology. To understand the pathogenesis of KFD, we performed targeted RNA sequencing of a well-characterized cohort of 15 KFD specimens with 9 non-KFD lymphadenitis controls. Two thousand and three autoimmunity-related genes were evaluated from archived formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded lymph node tissue and analyzed by a bioinformatics approach. Differential expression analysis of KFD cases compared to controls revealed 44 significantly upregulated genes in KFD. Sixty-eight percent of these genes were associated with the type I interferon (IFN) response pathway. Key component of the pathway including nucleic acid sensors, IFN regulatory factors, IFN-induced antiviral proteins, IFN transcription factors, IFN-stimulated genes, and IFN-induced cytokines were significantly upregulated. Unbiased gene expression pathway analysis revealed enrichment of IFN signaling and antiviral pathways in KFD. Protein-protein interaction analysis and a molecular complex detection algorithm identified a densely interacting 15-gene module of type I IFN pathway genes. Apoptosis regulator IFI6 was identified as a key seed gene. Transcription factor target analysis identified enrichment of IFN-response elements and IFN-response factors. T-cell-associated genes were upregulated while myeloid and B-cell-associated genes were downregulated in KFD. CD123+ plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) and activated T cells were noted in KFD. In conclusion, KFD is mediated by an aberrant type I interferon response that is likely driven by PDCs and T cells.

Dry eye in Sjögren's syndrome - characteristics and therapy

BACKGROUND

Sjögren's syndrome is an autoimmune disease, and its important feature is the lymphocyte infiltration of exocrine glands, including lacrimal glands. It contributes to defects of their activity and causes that one of the main manifestation of Sjögren's syndrome is dry eye. Unfortunately, the discrimination between dry eye related and non-related to Sjögren's syndrome is difficult at the initial stages of diseases. In addition, the available agents for the treatment of Sjögren's syndrome-related dry eye have limited efficacy.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to describe and emphasize differences between Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye and non-Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye together with the determination of novel therapeutic options for Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye.

METHOD

A review of the relevant papers describing characteristics of Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye and its therapy was conducted. This article is based on both pre-clinical and clinical evidences.

RESULTS

On the basis of our analysis, we indicated differences between Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye and non-Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye. Moreover, there are some novel markers that could be used in the diagnosis of Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye. In addition, expect artificial tear, other agents e.g. hydroxychloroquine can be effective in therapy of disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye is a disorder, whose diagnosis may be difficult and mistaken for non-Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye. However, Sjögren's Syndrome-related dry eye has some specific features. In addition, the development of newer and safer therapeutic agents for Sjögren's syndrome-related dry eye is needed, and therefore further clinical, randomized studies are necessary.

Platelet Storage Pool Deficiency and Elevated Inflammatory Biomarkers Are Prevalent in Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome

A significant number of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) patients have platelet delta granule storage pool deficiency (δ-SPD). The etiology of POTS is unknown but a number of laboratories, including ours, have reported elevations of G-protein-coupled adrenergic receptor and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor autoantibodies in POTS patients, detected by a variety of techniques, suggesting that the disorder is an autoimmune condition. Thus, it could also be considered an inflammatory disease. In a pilot study, we investigated a limited number of platelet-related cytokines and chemokines and discovered many that were elevated. This case−control study validates our pilot study results that POTS patients have an activated innate immune system. Plasma of 35 POTS patients and 35 patients with unexplained bleeding symptoms and categorized as “non-POTS” subjects was analyzed by multiplex flow cytometry to quantify 16 different innate immune system cytokines and chemokines. Electron microscopy was used to quantify platelet dense granules. Ten of 16 biomarkers of inflammation were elevated in plasma from POTS patients compared to non-POTS subjects, with most of the differences extremely significant, with p values < 0.0001. Of particular interest were elevations of IL-1β and IL-18 and decreased or normal levels of type 1 interferons in POTS patients, suggesting that the etiology of POTS might be autoinflammatory. All POTS patients had δ-SPD. With a growing body of evidence that POTS is an autoimmune disease and having elevations of the innate immune system, our results suggest a potential T-cell-mediated autoimmunity in POTS characteristic of a mixed-pattern inflammatory disease similar to rheumatoid arthritis.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder and the associated risk of autoimmune skin diseases: a nationwide population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

The concurrent incidence of autoimmune comorbidities in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is known. However, the association between OCD and related autoimmune skin diseases (ASDs) has not been well studied.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the association between OCD and the risk of ASDs.

METHODS

To assess the risk of developing ASDs, we recruited 44 324 patients with OCD and 177 296 matched controls from the National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan. A Cox regression model was used for the analyses.

RESULTS

After adjusting for confounders, an increased risk of ASDs among the patients with OCD (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]: 6.36; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.43-7.45) was found when compared to the controls. Statistically significant associations were found between OCD and seven individual ASDs, including psoriasis (aHR: 12.52; 95% CI: 8.78-17.85), lichen planus (aHR: 27.22; 95% CI: 13.09-56.60), alopecia areata (aHR: 13.69; 95% CI: 9.38-19.98), autoimmune bullous diseases (aHR: 4.30; 95% CI: 2.03-9.11), hidradenitis suppurativa (aHR: 29.95; 95% CI: 3.35-267.62), vitiligo (aHR: 9.35; 95% CI: 5.35-16.32), and lupus erythematosus (aHR: 2.10; 95% CI: 1.52-2.91).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with OCD had an increased risk of developing ASDs compared to matched controls. Further studies are required to clarify the underlying mechanisms.

An Analysis of IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17RA, IL-23A and IL-23R Expression and Their Correlation with Clinical Course in Patients with Psoriasis

Being one of the most common dermatological inflammatory disorders, psoriasis is a frequent subject of research. It is considered to be a T cell-dependent immune disease whose pathogenesis is influenced by cytokines, such as IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17RA, IL-23A and IL-23R. The present study examines whether the expression of selected genes is correlated with the clinical course of psoriasis, assessed by the PASI, BSA and DLQI scales. Skin biopsies and blood from 60 patients with psoriasis and 24 healthy controls were obtained for RNA isolation. These were subjected to RT-PCR for IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17RA, IL-23A and IL-23R genes. The results were presented as an RQ value. IL-17A and IL-23R expression levels were higher in psoriatic skin compared to controls, while IL-10 expression was lower. A positive correlation was also found between RQ for IL-23A and PASI index. Psoriatic skin is characterised by elevated expression of IL-17A and IL-23R and decreased expression of IL-10. This indicates that the selected cytokines may be one of the factors involved in the pathogenesis and pathomechanism of psoriasis, but more studies need to be made before we can elucidate the exact reason for the unbalance in cytokine expression levels.

Cosmc deficiency causes spontaneous autoimmunity by breaking B cell tolerance

Factors regulating the induction and development of B cell–mediated autoimmunity are not well understood. Here, we report that targeted deletion in murine B cells of X-linked Cosmc, encoding the chaperone required for expression of core 1 O-glycans, causes the spontaneous development of autoimmune pathologies due to a breakdown of B cell tolerance. BC-CosmcKO mice display multiple phenotypic abnormalities, including severe weight loss, ocular manifestations, lymphadenopathy, and increased female-associated mortality. Disruption of B cell tolerance in BC-CosmcKO mice is manifested as elevated self-reactive IgM and IgG autoantibodies. Cosmc-deficient B cells exhibit enhanced basal activation and responsiveness to stimuli. There is also an elevated frequency of spontaneous germinal center B cells in BC-CosmcKO mice. Mechanistically, loss of Cosmc confers enhanced B cell receptor (BCR) signaling through diminished BCR internalization. The results demonstrate that Cosmc, through control of core 1 O-glycans, is a previously unidentified immune checkpoint gene in maintaining B cell tolerance.

Potential of Point-of-Care and At-Home Assessment of Immune Status via Rapid Cytokine Detection and Questionnaire-Based Anamnesis

Monitoring the immune system's status has emerged as an urgent demand in critical health conditions. The circulating cytokine levels in the blood reflect a thorough insight into the immune system status. Indeed, measuring one cytokine may deliver more information equivalent to detecting multiple diseases at a time. However, if the reported cytokine levels are interpreted with considering lifestyle and any comorbid health conditions for the individual, this will promote a more precise assessment of the immune status. Therefore, this study addresses the most recent advanced assays that deliver rapid, accurate measuring of the cytokine levels in human blood, focusing on add-on potentials for point-of-care (PoC) or personal at-home usage, and investigates existing health questionnaires as supportive assessment tools that collect all necessary information for the concrete analysis of the measured cytokine levels. We introduced a ten-dimensional featuring of cytokine measurement assays. We found 15 rapid cytokine assays with assay time less than 1 h; some could operate on unprocessed blood samples, while others are mature commercial products available in the market. In addition, we retrieved several health questionnaires that addressed various health conditions such as chronic diseases and psychological issues. Then, we present a machine learning-based solution to determine what makes the immune system fit. To this end, we discuss how to employ topic modeling for deriving the definition of immune fitness automatically from literature. Finally, we propose a prototype model to assess the fitness of the immune system through leveraging the derived definition of the immune fitness, the cytokine measurements delivered by a rapid PoC immunoassay, and the complementary information collected by the health questionnaire about other health factors. In conclusion, we discovered various advanced rapid cytokine detection technologies that are promising candidates for point-of-care or at-home usage; if paired with a health status questionnaire, the assessment of the immune system status becomes solid and we demonstrated potentials for promoting the assessment tool with data mining techniques.

A Proinflammatory Cytokine Network Profile in Th1/Type 1 Effector B Cells Delineates a Common Group of Patients in Four Systemic Autoimmune Diseases

OBJECTIVE

The effector T cell and B cell cytokine networks have been implicated in the pathogenesis of systemic autoimmune diseases, but the association of these cytokine networks with the heterogeneity of clinical manifestations and immune profiles has not been carefully examined. This study was undertaken to examine whether cytokine profiles can delineate distinct groups of patients in 4 systemic autoimmune diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic sclerosis).

METHODS

A total of 179 patients and 48 healthy volunteers were enrolled in the multicenter cross-sectional PRECISE Systemic Autoimmune Diseases (PRECISESADS) study. Multi-low-dimensional omics data (cytokines, autoantibodies, circulating immune cells) were examined. Coculture experiments were performed to test the impact of the cytokine microenvironment on T cell/B cell cross-talk.

RESULTS

A proinflammatory cytokine profile defined by high levels of CXCL10, interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-2, and tumor necrosis factor characterized a distinct group of patients in the 4 systemic autoimmune diseases. In each disease, this proinflammatory cluster was associated with a specific circulating immune cell signature, more severe disease, and higher levels of autoantibodies, suggesting an uncontrolled proinflammatory Th1 immune response. We observed in vitro that B cells reinforce Th1 differentiation and naive T cell proliferation, leading to the induction of type 1 effector B cells and IgG production. This process was associated with an increase in CXCL10, IL-6, IL-2, and interferon-γ production.

CONCLUSION

This composite analysis brings new insights into human B cell functional heterogeneity based on T cell/B cell cross-talk, and proposes a better stratification of patients with systemic autoimmune diseases, suggesting that combined biomarkers would be of great value for the design of personalized treatments.

Rhupus: dual rheumatic disease

Autoimmune disorders are typically categorized into systematic and local diseases that affect a single organ or tissue. Organs and tissues affected by autoimmune disorders include components of the endocrine system, such as thyroid, pancreas, and adrenal glands; blood, such as red blood cells; and the connective tissues, skin, muscles, and joints. Rhupus is a complex musculoskeletal autoimmune disease (AD) in which features of both rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are simultaneously present. The cause and trigger of rhupus is still unknown, suggesting the role of genetic, immunological, hormonal, and environmental factors in the initiation and progression of the disease. The role of immune system has been established by the presence of specific autoantibodies as markers for diagnosis of rhupus and the formation of immune complex in serum. The complications of rhupus include the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF) and nodules and the involvement of nervous and renal systems that complicates its diagnosis and prognosis. The rhupus arthritis resembles RA-like pathophysiology and leads to inflammation, deformation, and disability. Due to the heterogeneity and rarity of the disease, the prevalence, pathophysiology, and natural history as well as radiological and immunological profiles of rhupus are still not properly understood.

PK/PD Modeling of the PDE7 Inhibitor-GRMS-55 in a Mouse Model of Autoimmune Hepatitis

This study aimed to assess the efficacy and explore the mechanisms of action of a potent phosphodiesterase (PDE)7A and a moderate PDE4B inhibitor GRMS-55 in a mouse model of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). The concentrations of GRMS-55 and relevant biomarkers were measured in the serum of BALB/c mice with concanavalin A (ConA)-induced hepatitis administered with GRMS-55 at two dose levels. A semi-mechanistic PK/PD/disease progression model describing the time courses of measured biomarkers was developed. The emetogenicity as a potential side effect of the studied compound was evaluated in the α₂-adrenoceptor agonist-induced anesthesia model. The results indicate that liver damage observed in mice challenged with ConA was mainly mediated by TNF-α and IFN-γ. GRMS-55 decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators and the transaminase activities in the serum of mice with AIH. The anti-inflammatory properties of GRMS-55, resulting mainly from PDE7A inhibition, led to a high hepatoprotective activity in mice with AIH, which was mediated by an inhibition of pro-inflammatory signaling. GRMS-55 did not induce the emetic-like behavior. The developed PK/PD/disease progression model may be used in future studies to assess the potency and explore the mechanisms of action of new investigational compounds for the treatment of AIH.

Co-Isolation of Cytokines and Exosomes: Implications for Immunomodulation Studies

Exosomes play a vital role in intercellular communication and their immunomodulatory potential have become an important focus in cancer research. Various methods have been developed for the isolation although each method differs in the number and purity of exosomes they yield. In melanoma, tumor-derived exosomes drive immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment. The co-elution of exosomes and soluble factors such as cytokines during isolation, however, make it difficult to ascertain the contribution of exosome cargo, as soluble cytokines are equally capable of immune suppression. In this review we will expound upon the biological relevance that exosome-associated cytokines possess. Furthermore, we discuss the technical challenges that arise during exosome isolation and what this means for further studies into the TME and in vivo work.

Biomarkers of non-infectious inflammatory CNS diseases in dogs - Where are we now? Part I: Meningoencephalitis of unknown origin

Meningoencephalitides of Unknown Origin (MUO) comprises a group of non-infectious inflammatory brain conditions, which frequently cause severe neurological disease and death in dogs. Although multiple diagnostic markers have been investigated, a conclusive diagnosis, at present, essentially relies on postmortem histopathology. However, different groups of biomarkers, e.g. acute phase proteins, antibodies, cytokines, and neuro-imaging markers may prove useful in the diagnostic investigation of dogs with MUO. It appears from the current literature that acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein are often normal in MUO, but may be useful to rule out steroid responsive meningitis-arteritis as well as other systemic inflammatory conditions. In antibody research, anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) may play a role, but further research is needed to establish this as a consistent marker of particularly Pug dog encephalitis. The proposed diagnostic markers often lack specificity to distinguish between the subtypes of MUO, but an increased expression of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in necrotizing meningoencephalitis (NME) and interleukin-17 (IL-17) in granulomatous meningoencephalitis (GME) in tissue biopsies may indicate their potential as specific markers of NME and GME, respectively, suggesting further investigations of these in serum and CSF. While neuro-imaging is already an important part of the diagnostic work-up in MUO, further promising results have been shown with Positron Emission Tomography (PET) as well as proton resonance spectroscopy (¹H MRS), which may be able to detect areas of necrosis and granulomas, respectively, with relatively high specificity. This review presents different groups of established and potential diagnostic markers of MUO assessing current results and future potential.

Type I Interferons in Systemic Autoimmune Diseases: Distinguishing Between Afferent and Efferent Functions for Precision Medicine and Individualized Treatment

A sustained increase in type I interferon (IFN-I) may accompany clinical manifestations and disease activity in systemic autoimmune diseases (SADs). Despite the very frequent presence of IFN-I in SADs, clinical manifestations are extremely varied between and within SADs. The present short review will address the following key questions associated with high IFN-I in SADs in the perspective of precision medicine. 1) What are the mechanisms leading to high IFN-I? 2) What are the predisposing conditions favoring high IFN-I production? 3) What is the role of IFN-I in the development of distinct clinical manifestations within SADs? 4) Would therapeutic strategies targeting IFN-I be helpful in controlling or even preventing SADs? In answering these questions, we will underlie areas of incertitude and the intertwined role of autoantibodies, immune complexes, and neutrophils.

Use of anti-TNF-α therapy in Crohn's disease is associated with increased incidence of multiple sclerosis

OBJECTIVE

We investigated if anti-tumor necrosis factor-α (anti-TNF-α) drugs used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) alter the incidence of MS and if so, to understand the magnitude of such an effect.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study of data from Truven Health Market Scan administrative claims database. The patients included in the study had to be ≥ 18 years of age. The presence of IBD was based on at least 2 claims of International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9 or 10) diagnosis codes. The IBD diagnosis index date had to precede the MS diagnosis index date for inclusion in the study. The diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS) was defined as having at least 2 claims for the disease (ICD 9, 340 and ICD 10 codes, G35) and at least one prescription claim for any of the drugs that were defined as MS therapy.

RESULTS

Patients with IBD had 1.32 times the risk of MS incidence compared to healthy controls (adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR): 1.32; 95% CI: 1.03 - 1.71; p = .0312). Patients with IBD exposed to anti-TNF-α therapies had a 43% increase in the incidence of MS compared to those with IBD without exposure (adjusted incidence rate: 1.43; 95% CI: .062 - 3.32; p = .3989). Among CD patients treated anti-TNF-α medications an increase in the incidence of MS, compared to CD patients not exposed to such medications was observed (IRR = 2.62; 95% CI: 1.00 to 6.83; p = 0.049), statistically significant. After adjusting for age/gender, patients with CD using anti-TNF-α agents had an increase of incidence in MS (adjusted IRR: 2.24; 95% CI: 0.85 - 5.94; p = .1035) but it was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of anti-TNF-α drugs in CD was associated with a statistically significant increase in the incidence of MS but this effect was lost when controlled for age/gender.

Inflammatory Biomarkers in Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome with Elevated G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Autoantibodies

A growing body of evidence suggests that postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) may be an autoimmune disorder. We have reported in a previous manuscript that 89% of POTS patients (n = 55) had elevations in G-protein-coupled adrenergic A1 receptor autoantibodies and 53% had elevations in muscarinic acetylcholine M4 receptor autoantibodies, as assessed by ELISA. Patients with autoimmune disorders have been reported with a variety of elevated cytokines and cytokines (such as rheumatoid arthritis); thus, we evaluated a limited number of cytokines/chemokines in POTS patients with elevated adrenergic and muscarinic receptor autoantibodies. We utilized the plasma of 34 patients from a previous study; all of the patients (100%) had autoantibodies against the A1 adrenergic receptor and 55.9% (19/34) had autoantibodies against the M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. In particular, the plasma cytokine/chemokine levels were measured as biomarkers of inflammation by Quantibody® technology (Raybiotech, Peachtree Corners, GA, USA). We also evaluated the platelet dense granule numbers, as these patients frequently complain of symptoms related to platelet dysfunction. Patients were predominantly young females who displayed a multitude of co-morbidities but generally reported viral-like symptoms preceding episodes of syncope. Eighty five percent (29/34) had platelet storage pool deficiency. Patients had elevations in five of ten cytokine/chemokines biomarkers (IL1β, IL21, TNFα, INFγ, and CD30), whereas two biomarkers had decreased levels (CD40L and RANTES). Our observations demonstrate that POTS patients known to have autoantibodies against the G-protein-coupled adrenergic A1 receptor have abnormal plasma concentrations of inflammatory cytokines.

Impact of Human Cytomegalovirus and Human Herpesvirus 6 Infection on the Expression of Factors Associated with Cell Fibrosis and Apoptosis: Clues for Implication in Systemic Sclerosis Development

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a severe autoimmune disorder characterized by vasculopathy and multi-organ fibrosis; its etiology and pathogenesis are still largely unknown. Herpesvirus infections, particularly by human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), have been suggested among triggers of the disease based on virological and immunological observations. However, the direct impact of HCMV and/or HHV-6 infection on cell fibrosis and apoptosis at the cell microenvironment level has not yet been clarified. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of HCMV and HHV-6 infection on the induction of pro-fibrosis or pro-apoptosis conditions in primary human dermal fibroblasts, one of the relevant SSc target cells. The analysis, performed by microarray in in vitro HCMV- or HHV-6-infected vs. uninfected cells, using specific panels for the detection of the main cellular factors associated with fibrosis or apoptosis, showed that both viruses significantly modified the expression of at least 30 pro-fibrotic and 20 pro-apoptotic factors. Notably, several recognized pro-fibrotic factors were highly induced, and most of them were reported to be involved in vivo in the multifactorial and multistep pathogenic process of SSc, thus suggesting a potential role of both HCMV and HHV-6.

Role of long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) in multiple sclerosis: a brief review

Multiple sclerosis (MS) as chronic autoimmune inflammatory neurological disease of the central nervous system (CNS) occurs due to several environmental and genetic factors, whose pathogenesis is associated with genes with regulatory role in the immune system. Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) are able to reportedly regulate responses of immune systems and expression of genes, and show the tissue specificity and complexity of biofunctions. Various studies have suggested that the aberrant LncRNA expression is an underlying factor involved in the incidence of MS and that the analysis of the expression profile of these molecules can be a specific biomarker of MS for preventing the course of the disease or responding to treatment. The purpose of this research was to review the recent studies for exploring the functions of LncRNAs in the processes leading to MS disease.

Adipose stem cells from patients with Crohn's disease show a distinctive DNA methylation pattern

Background

Crohn’s disease (CD) is characterized by persistent inflammation and ulceration of the small or large bowel, and expansion of mesenteric adipose tissue, termed creeping fat (CF). We previously demonstrated that human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) from CF of patients with CD exhibit dysfunctional phenotypes, including a pro-inflammatory profile, high phagocytic capacity, and weak immunosuppressive properties. Importantly, these phenotypes persist in patients in remission and are found in all adipose depots explored including subcutaneous fat. We hypothesized that changes in hASCs are a consequence of epigenetic modifications.

Methods

We applied epigenome-wide profiling with a methylation array (Illumina EPIC/850k array) and gene expression analysis to explore the impact of CD on the methylation signature of hASCs isolated from the subcutaneous fat of patients with CD and healthy controls (n = 7 and 5, respectively; cohort I). Differentially methylated positions (p value cutoff < 1 × 10⁻⁴ and ten or more DMPs per gene) and regions (inclusion threshold 0.2, p value cutoff < 1 × 10⁻² and more than 2 DMRs per gene) were identified using dmpfinder and Bumphunter (minfi), respectively. Changes in the expression of differentially methylated genes in hASCs were validated in a second cohort (n = 10/10 inactive and active CD and 10 controls; including patients from cohort I) and also in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of patients with active/inactive CD and of healthy controls (cohort III; n = 30 independent subjects).

Results

We found a distinct DNA methylation landscape in hASCs from patients with CD, leading to changes in the expression of differentially methylated genes involved in immune response, metabolic, cell differentiation, and development processes. Notably, the expression of several of these genes in hASCs and PBMCs such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFA) and PR domain zinc finger protein 16 (PRDM16) were not restored to normal (healthy) levels after disease remission.

Conclusions

hASCs of patients with CD exhibit a unique DNA methylation and gene expression profile, but the expression of several genes are only partially restored in patients with inactive CD, both in hASCs and PBMCs. Understanding how CD shapes the functionality of hASCs is critical for investigating the complex pathophysiology of this disease, as well as for the success of cell-based therapies.

Graphical abstract

Human adipose-stem cells isolated from subcutaneous fat of patients with Crohn’s disease exhibit an altered DNA methylation pattern and gene expression profile compared with those isolated from healthy individuals, with immune system, cell differentiation, metabolic and development processes identified as the main pathways affected. Interestingly, the gene expression of several genes involved in these pathways is only partially restored to control levels in patients with inactive Crohn’s disease, both in human adipose-stem cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Understanding how Crohn’s disease shapes the functionality of human adipose-stem cells is critical for investigating the complex pathophysiology of this disease, as well as for the success of cell-based therapies.

Structure-function guided modeling of chemokine-GPCR specificity for the chemokine XCL1 and its receptor XCR1

Chemokines interact with their G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) through a two-step, two-site mechanism and, through this interaction, mediate various homeostatic and immune response mechanisms. Upon initial recognition of the chemokine by the receptor, the amino terminus of the chemokine inserts into the orthosteric pocket of the GPCR, causing conformational changes that trigger intracellular signaling. There is considerable structural and functional evidence to suggest that the amino acid composition and length of the chemokine amino terminus is critical for GPCR activation, complementing the size and amino acid composition of the orthosteric pocket. However, very few structures of a native chemokine-receptor complex have been solved. Here, we used a hybrid approach that combines structure-function data with Rosetta modeling to describe key contacts within a chemokine-GPCR interface. We found that the extreme amino-terminal residues of the chemokine XCL1 (Val¹, Gly², Ser³, and Glu⁴) contribute a large fraction of the binding energy to its receptor XCR1, whereas residues near the disulfide bond-forming residue Cys¹¹ modulate XCR1 activation. Alterations in the XCL1 amino terminus changed XCR1 activation, as determined by assessing inositol triphosphate accumulation, intracellular calcium release, and directed cell migration. Computational analysis of XCL1-XCR1 interactions revealed functional contacts involving Glu⁴ of XCL1 and Tyr¹¹⁷ and Arg²⁷³ of XCR1. Subsequent mutation of Tyr¹¹⁷ and Arg²⁷³ led to diminished binding and activation of XCR1 by XCL1. These findings demonstrate the utility of a hybrid approach, using biological data and homology modeling, to study chemokine-GPCR interactions.

Cryptotanshinone ameliorates the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus by blocking T cell proliferation

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic, devastating autoimmune disorder associated with severe organ damage. Recently, the role of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3) in murine lupus has been described, suggesting the involvement of STAT3 signaling in the development of SLE. Cryptotanshinone (CTS) is an effective inhibitor of STAT3; however its potential as a SLE treatment remains to be explored. To determine the function of CTS in SLE, we treated MRL/lpr female mice with CTS. Firstly, we found CTS treatment reversed the elevated STAT3 signaling of spleens in lupus-prone MRL/lpr mice, accompanying with a dramatically decreased number of T cells, especially double-negative (DN) T cells. Further research showed that CTS inhibited T cell proliferation via suppressing of STAT3 activation in vitro and in vivo. Consistently, we also proved that CTS treatment significantly alleviated autoimmune response including notably diminished skin lesions, reduced spleen size and increased life span. In addition, CTS treatment decreased the levels of auto-antibodies and pro-inflammatory cytokines, as well as normalized structure and function of kidneys. All these data suggested that CTS treatment depressed STAT3 phosphorylation, which resulted in blocked DN T cell proliferation and finally attenuated the spontaneous SLE development. Taken together, our data identify CTS as a potential therapeutic drug for SLE patients.

1H, 13C, and 15N resonance assignments of the cytokine interleukin-36β isoform-2

Interleukins are cytokines performing central tasks in the human immune system. Interleukin-36β (IL-36β) is a member of the interleukin-1 superfamily as are its homologues IL-36α and IL-36γ. All of them interact with a common receptor composed of IL-36R and IL-1R/acP. IL-36 cytokines can activate IL-36R to proliferation of CD4 + lymphocytes or stimulate M2 macrophages as potently as IL-1β. Within our efforts to study the structure-function relationship of the three interleukins IL-36α, IL-36β and IL-36γ by heteronuclear multidimensional NMR, we here report the ¹H, ¹³C, and ¹⁵N resonance assignments for the backbone and side chain nuclei of cytokine interleukin-36β isoform-2.

Inhibitory effect of tanshinone IIA on inflammatory response in rheumatoid arthritis through regulating β-arrestin 2

The current study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effect of tanshinone IIA (Tan IIA) on the inflammatory response in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and explore its mechanism. A total of 50 patients with RA were randomly separated into the control group (15 cases) and the research group (35 cases). The tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 levels in serum were determined, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were separated from patients with RA and cultured in vitro. The effects of the β-arrestin 2 small interfering (si)RNA incubation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation or Tan IIA incubation on TNF-α and IL-6 levels, and the expression levels of β-arrestin 2, NAD-dependent protein deacetylase sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) and transcription factor p65 (p65) proteins were investigated. Prior to treatment, no significant differences in TNF-α and IL-6 levels in serum of patients with RA were identified between the research and control groups. Following treatment, the TNF-α and IL-6 levels in the serum of patients with RA in the research group were significantly lower compared with those in the research group prior to treatment and those in the control group following treatment (P<0.05). Tan IIA inhibited the LPS-induced secretion of TNF-α and IL-6, upregulated the LPS-inhibited expression of the β-arrestin 2 and SIRT1 proteins, and downregulated the LPS-induced expression of the p65 protein in the PBMCs of patients with RA. The β-arrestin 2 small interfering (si)RNA significantly upregulated the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6, inhibited the expression of the SIRT1 protein and upregulated the expression of the p65 protein in PBMCs of patients with RA. Tan II A effectively increased the weight of rats with rheumatoid arthritis, and reduced the circumference of the left posterior ankle, the posterior plantar metatarsal thickness, and the content of serum TNF-α and IL-6. Tan IIA did not significantly reverse these β-arrestin 2 siRNA-induced changes. Tan IIA inhibited the inflammatory response in PBMCs of patients with RA by upregulating β-arrestin 2 expression.

The Effect of Human Recombinant Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-2 on Reducing Inflammatory of Collagen -Induced Arthritis in Balb/c Mice

Background

The tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) is a cytokine that produced principally by monocyte/macrophages and T lymphocytes, respectively. TNFα is recognized as the primary mediator of immunity in inflammation reaction. One important application of Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 2 (TNFR2) is for the treatment of autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the therapeutic trace of the recombinant humanTNFR2 on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in mice.

Materials and Methods

CIA was created in 20 mice by immunization with bovine type II collagen (CII). After the mice were boosted on day 21, they were injected with the recombinant protein in test group (1 mg.kg-1) and assessed edema in paws and knee joints after two weeks. The quantities of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, interleukin-1 beta (IL-β1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-10(IL-10) in serum were evaluated through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. In addition, the histopathology of joints sections was analyzed.

Results

The cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 values in serum markedly decreased in groups treated with TNFR2 (P < 0.01-0.001). The results showed that treatment with TNFR2 significantly reduced edema in paws and joints (P < 0.01-0.001).

Conclusions

Pathological investigations proved that administration of recombinant TNF receptor has blocked or protected joints from progressive damage. This study suggests that the anti-arthritic effectiveness of TNFR2 will repress the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. Moreover, it seems that TNFR2 is a strong candidate for the treatment of the RA disease.

Serum levels of proinflammatory, anti-inflammatory cytokines, and RANKL/OPG in synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, and osteitis (SAPHO) syndrome

OBJECTIVE

To measure the expression of proinflammatory, anti-inflammatory cytokines, and receptor activator NK-κB ligand (RANKL)/osteoprotegerin (OPG) in synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, and osteitis (SAPHO) syndrome, and to assess the relationship between those factors and disease activity.

METHODS

We studied 30 cases of SAPHO syndrome and 15 healthy controls. According to the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) pain scores and Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Activity Index (BASDAI), patients were divided into active group and stable group. The serum levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, TGF-β1, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17A, IL-22, RANKL, and OPG were determined by ELISA.

RESULTS

The active group IL-6 (2.34 ± 1.31 pg/ml), IL-8 (36.41 ± 12.93 pg/ml), and IL-17A (29.17 ± 4.01 pg/ml) levels were significantly higher than those in the stable group (p < .01) and healthy controls (p < .01). RANKL in active group (73.43 ± 57.07 pg/ml) was significantly higher than the ones in other groups (p < .0001), with increased RANKL/OPG ratio in the active group compared with other groups (p < .05). While the level of TGF-β1 in the active group was significantly lower than that in the stable and control groups (p < .0001). There was no significant difference with clinical significance were found in IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-22, and OPG.

CONCLUSION

In active SAPHO patients, there was an anomaly of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines balance in SAPHO syndrome.

Meta-analyses of IL1A polymorphisms and the risk of several autoimmune diseases published in databases

Background

Based on published data, we aimed to quantitatively elucidate the possible genetic influence of rs17561 G/T and rs1800587 C/T polymorphisms of the IL1A (interleukin 1 alpha) gene in the susceptibility to several autoimmune diseases.

Methods

A series of meta-analyses were carried out. After database searching, we utilized our inclusion/exclusion criteria to screen and include the eligible studies. P_association (P value of association test), Bonferroni-corrected P_association value; false discovery rate (FDR)-corrected P_association, ORs (odd ratios), and 95% CI (confidence interval) were generated to assess the magnitudes of genetic relationships.

Results

A total of 35 eligible articles were included. Pooled analysis data of both rs17561 G/T and rs1800587 C/T in the overall population indicated a negative association between cases of autoimmune diseases and negative controls (all P_association>0.05, Bonferroni-corrected P_association>0.05, FDR-corrected P_association>0.05). Similar results were found in most subgroup analyses (all P_association>0.05, Bonferroni-corrected P_association>0.05, FDR-corrected P_association>0.05), apart from the rs1800587 in the Graves’ disease subgroup, which showed an increased risk in some cases, compared with controls, under the models of allele T vs. C, carrier T vs. C, CT+TT vs. CC, and CT vs. CC (all P_association<0.05, Bonferroni-corrected P_association<0.05, FDR-corrected P_association>0.05, OR>1).

Conclusion

Based on the available data, C/T genotype of the rs1800587 polymorphism within IL1A gene may be associated with an increased Graves’ disease risk. We did not see evidence regarding a positive role for rs1800587 or rs17561 in the risk of other autoimmune diseases, such as systemic sclerosis or rheumatoid arthritis. These conclusions still merit further data support and molecular exploration.

Commensal bacterial modulation of the host immune response to ameliorate pain in a murine model of chronic prostatitis

The human commensal microflora plays an essential role in modulating the immune response to control homeostasis. Staphylococcus epidermidis, a commensal bacterium most commonly associated with the skin exerts such effects locally, modulating local immune responses during inflammation and preventing superinfection by pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus. Although the prostate is considered by many to be sterile, multiple investigations have shown that small numbers of gram-positive bacterial species such as S. epidermidis can be isolated from the expressed prostatic secretions of both healthy and diseased men. Chronic pelvic pain syndrome is a complex syndrome with symptoms including pain and lower urinary tract dysfunction. It has an unknown etiology and limited effective treatments but is associated with modulation of prostate immune responses. Chronic pelvic pain syndrome can be modeled using murine experimental prostatitis (EAP), where CD4+ve IL17A+ve T cells have been shown to play a critical role in disease orchestration and development of pelvic tactile allodynia. Here, we report that intraurethral instillation of a specific S. epidermidis strain (designated NPI [non-pain inducing]), isolated from the expressed prostatic secretion of a healthy human male, into EAP-treated mice reduced the pelvic tactile allodynia responses and increased CD4+ve IL17A+ve T-cell numbers associated with EAP. Furthermore, a cell wall constituent of NPI, lipoteichoic acid, specifically recapitulates these effects and mediates increased expression of CTLA4-like ligands PDL1 and PDL2 on prostatic CD11b+ve antigen-presenting cells. These results identify a new potential therapeutic role for commensal S. epidermidis NPI lipoteichoic acid in the treatment of prostatitis-associated pain.

Therapeutic Potential of Pien Tze Huang on Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Rat

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). There is still lack of commercially viable treatment currently. Pien Tze Huang (PZH), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been proved to have anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immunoregulatory effects. This study investigated the possible therapeutic effects of PZH on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) rats, a classic animal model of MS. Male Lewis rats were immunized with myelin basic protein (MBP) peptide to establish an EAE model and then treated with three doses of PZH. Clinical symptoms, organ coefficient, histopathological features, levels of proinflammatory cytokines, and chemokines as well as MBP and Olig2 were analyzed. The results indicated that PZH ameliorated the clinical severity of EAE rats. It also remarkably reduced inflammatory cell infiltration in the CNS of EAE rats. Furthermore, the levels of IL-17A, IL-23, CCL3, and CCL5 in serum and the CNS were significantly decreased; the p-P65 and p-STAT3 levels were also downregulated in the CNS, while MBP and Olig2 in the CNS of EAE rats had a distinct improvement after PZH treatment. In addition, PZH has no obvious toxicity at the concentration of 0.486 g/kg/d. This study demonstrated that PZH could be used to treat MS.

Interleukin-37: A crucial cytokine with multiple roles in disease and potentially clinical therapy

Interleukin (IL)-37, a new IL-1 family member, has received increasing attention in recent years. In the past decade, it has been determined that IL-37 is expressed in various normal cells and tissues and is regulated by inflammatory stimuli and pro-cytokines via different signal transduction pathways. Recently, it has been found that IL-37 is expressed in a variety of cancers, chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and exerts anti-inflammatory effects. Moreover, a growing body of literature demonstrates that IL-37 plays a vital role in inhibiting both innate and adaptive immune responses as well as inflammatory reactions. In addition, IL-37 may prove to be a new and potentially useful target for effective cytokine therapy. Further evidence is needed to clarify in more detail the effects of IL-37 in experimental and clinical studies. Based on an extensive summary of published data, the aim of this review is to outline the current knowledge of IL-37, including the location, structure, expression, regulation and function, as well as the potential clinical applications of this cytokine.

A fluorescent microbead-based microfluidic immunoassay chip for immune cell cytokine secretion quantification

Quantitative and dynamic analyses of immune cell secretory cytokines are essential for precise determination and characterization of the "immune phenotype" of patients for clinical diagnosis and treatment of immune-related diseases. Although multiple methods including the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have been applied for cytokine detection, such measurements remain very challenging in real-time, high-throughput, and high-sensitivity immune cell analysis. In this paper, we report a highly integrated microfluidic device that allows for on-chip isolation, culture, and stimulation, as well as sensitive and dynamic cytokine profiling of immune cells. Such a microfluidic sensing chip is integrated with cytometric fluorescent microbeads for real-time and multiplexed monitoring of immune cell cytokine secretion dynamics, consuming a relatively small extracted sample volume (160 nl) without interrupting the immune cell culture. Furthermore, it is integrated with a Taylor dispersion-based mixing unit in each detection chamber that shortens the immunoassay period down to less than 30 minutes. We demonstrate the profiling of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokine secretions (e.g. interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and tumor necrosis factors) of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with a sensitivity of 20 pg ml-1 and a sample volume of 160 nl per detection. Further applications of this automated, rapid, and high-throughput microfluidic immunophenotyping platform can help unleash the mechanisms of systemic immune responses, and enable efficient assessments of the pathologic immune status for clinical diagnosis and immune therapy.

Butyrylcholinesterase and Acetylcholinesterase polymorphisms in Multiple Sclerosis patients: implication in peripheral inflammation

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease, having not fully understood aetiology, and both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease. The cholinergic system has been indicated as a mediator of neuro-immune interactions, as well as an internal regulator of immune responses. The aim of the present research was to assess the associations between BChE and AChE genetic variations and serum cholinergic and inflammatory profiles in 102 Relapsing Remitting-MS patients and 117 healthy controls. An increased frequency of the BChE K-allele in MS patients as compared to controls was found. In addition, data showed that patients had higher BChE enzymatic activity, which is increased by the presence of the polymorphic allele and reduced amounts of circulating ACh. AChE polymorphism was significantly associated to reduced activity in both patients and controls. We propose that serum BChE and AChE activity may be used as a secondary markers to assess the role of non-neuronal cholinergic system in regulating peripheral inflammation via ACh regulation. This pilot study shed light on the role of the non-neuronal cholinergic system in immune cells to better understand MS pathogenesis. The cross-talk between the periphery and the CNS could have a new undescribed crucial role for MS, regarded as a systemic disease.

Influence of Adalimumab on the Expression Profile of Genes Associated with the Histaminergic System in the Skin Fibroblasts In Vitro

Objective

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of adalimumab on expression profile of genes associated with the histaminergic system in Normal Human Dermal Fibroblast (NHDF) cells stimulated with 8.00 μg/ml of adalimumab and the identification of miRNAs regulating these genes' expression.

Methods

NHDFs were cultured with or without the presence of adalimumab for 2, 8, and 24 hours. The expression profile of genes and miRNA were determined with the use of microarray technology.

Results

Among 22283 ID mRNA, 65 are associated with the histaminergic system. It can be observed that 15 mRNAs differentiate NHDFs cultures with adalimumab form control. The analysis of miRNAs showed that, among 1105 ID miRNA, 20 miRNAs are differentiating in cells treated with adalimumab for 2 hours, 9 miRNA after 8 hours, and only 3 miRNAs after 24 hours.

Conclusion

It was also determined that miRNAs play certain role in the regulation of the expression of genes associated with the histaminergic system. The results of this study confirmed the possibility of using both genes associated with this system as well as miRNAs regulating their expression, as complementary molecular markers of sensitivity to the adalimumab treatment.

Regenerative Therapies in Dry Eye Disease: From Growth Factors to Cell Therapy

Dry eye syndrome is a complex and insidious pathology with a high level of prevalence among the human population and with a consequently high impact on quality of life and economic cost. Currently, its treatment is symptomatic, mainly based on the control of lubrication and inflammation, with significant limitations. Therefore, the latest research is focused on the development of new biological strategies, with the aim of regenerating affected tissues, or at least restricting the progression of the disease, reducing scar tissue, and maintaining corneal transparency. Therapies range from growth factors and cytokines to the use of different cell sources, in particular mesenchymal stem cells, due to their multipotentiality, trophic, and immunomodulatory properties. We will review the state of the art and the latest advances and results of these promising treatments in this pathology.

PK/PD studies on non-selective PDE inhibitors in rats using cAMP as a marker of pharmacological response

In recent years, phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors have been frequently tested for the treatment of experimental inflammatory and immune disorders. It is suggested that anti-inflammatory properties of PDE inhibitors are related to their ability to increase cAMP levels. The aim of this study was to verify the hypothesis that cAMP may be a useful marker of pharmacological response following administration of non-selective PDE inhibitors (pentoxifylline and (±)-lisofylline) to endotoxemic rats. Male Wistar rats were administered LPS (1 mg kg⁻¹, i.v.) simultaneously with either compound given at two doses (40 and 80 mg kg⁻¹, i.v.). Levels of cAMP and both compounds in animal plasma were measured by the validated HPLC methods. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis was performed using basic and modified indirect response (IDR) models II in Phoenix WinNonlin. The results of this study indicate that, in contrast to pentoxifylline, (±)-lisofylline demonstrates a non-linear pharmacokinetics in rats with endotoxemia. In vitro study using human recombinant PDE4B and PDE7A revealed the occurrence of additive interaction between studied compounds. Moreover, (±)-lisofylline is a more potent inhibitor of PDEs compared to pentoxifylline, as evidenced by lower IC₅₀ values. Following administration of both compounds, levels of cAMP in rat plasma increased in a dose-dependent manner. The modified IDR model II better described cAMP levels over time profiles. The validity of the proposed marker was confirmed by measuring plasma TNF-α levels in the studied animals. In conclusion, cAMP may be used in future preclinical and clinical studies of some PDE inhibitors to evaluate the drug concentration–effect relationship.

Hepatic expression profiles in retroviral infection: relevance to drug hypersensitivity risk

HIV‐infected patients show a markedly increased risk of delayed hypersensitivity (HS) reactions to potentiated sulfonamide antibiotics (trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or TMP/SMX). Some studies have suggested altered SMX biotransformation in HIV infection, but hepatic biotransformation pathways have not been evaluated directly. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is another chronic inflammatory disease with a higher incidence of sulfonamide HS, but it is unclear whether retroviral infection and SLE share risk factors for drug HS. We hypothesized that retroviral infection would lead to dysregulation of hepatic pathways of SMX biotransformation, as well as pathway alterations in common with SLE that could contribute to drug HS risk. We characterized hepatic expression profiles and enzymatic activities in an SIV‐infected macaque model of retroviral infection, and found no evidence for dysregulation of sulfonamide drug biotransformation pathways. Specifically, NAT1,NAT2,CYP2C8,CYP2C9,CYB5R3,MARC1/2, and glutathione‐related genes (GCLC,GCLM,GSS,GSTM1, and GSTP1) were not differentially expressed in drug naïve SIVmac239‐infected male macaques compared to age‐matched controls, and activities for SMX N‐acetylation and SMX hydroxylamine reduction were not different. However, multiple genes that are reportedly over‐expressed in SLE patients were also up‐regulated in retroviral infection, to include enhanced immunoproteasomal processing and presentation of antigens as well as up‐regulation of gene clusters that may be permissive to autoimmunity. These findings support the hypothesis that pathways downstream from drug biotransformation may be primarily important in drug HS risk in HIV infection.

Effect of the anticoagulant, storage time and temperature of blood samples on the concentrations of 27 multiplex assayed cytokines - Consequences for defining reference values in healthy humans

Cytokines are potentially useful biomarkers of sepsis and other inflammatory conditions. Many cytokines can be released by leukocytes and platelets after sampling. The sampling and processing techniques are consequently critically important to measure the in vivo levels. We therefore examined the effects of four different anticoagulants, EDTA, citrate, lepirudin, heparin compared to serum, on the levels of 27 different cytokines. The effects of storage temperature, freezing and thawing on the plasma cytokines were examined. Cytokines were analysed using a multiplex immunoassay. The cytokine levels in serum were significantly higher compared with plasma, consistent with release of cytokines in vitro during coagulation. In general, the lowest values for all cytokines were found in EDTA samples, stored on crushed ice, centrifuged within 4h and thereafter stored at -80°C. MCP-1 and MIP-1β levels were highest in heparin plasma and storage of blood for up to 4h at room temperature significantly increased the interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ and GM-CSF levels in EDTA plasma, indicating post-sampling release. In contrast, the IP-10 levels were unaffected by sample storage at both temperatures. Our results indicate that the cytokines were more stable in plasma than in whole blood after sampling. Thus, cytokines should be analysed in EDTA plasma samples stored on ice and centrifuged within 4h. Based on these data, the reference ranges of 27 cytokines in EDTA plasma in 162 healthy human donors were calculated.

High Sensitivity Determination of TNF-α for Early Diagnosis of Neonatal Infections with a Novel and Reusable Electrochemical Sensor

Early diagnosis is vital for the reduction of mortality caused by neonatal infections. Since TNF-α can be used as a marker for the early diagnosis, the detection of TNF-α with high sensitivity and specificity has great clinical significance. Herein, a highly sensitive and reusable electrochemical sensor was fabricated. Due to the high specificity of aptamers, TNF-α could be accurately detected from five similar cytokines, even from serum samples. In addition, Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) with a high surface area were able to combine a large number of doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOXh), which made the sensor have a high sensitivity. The sensor had a good linear relationship with TNF-α concentration in the range from 1 to 1 × 10⁴ pg/mL and the lowest detection limit is 0.7 pg/mL. More important was that the sensor could be reused 6 times by a crafty use of chain replacement reaction. Meanwhile, the detection time and cost were greatly reduced. Thus, we believe that these advantages of higher specificity and sensitivity, lower cost, and shorter detection time will provide a stronger potential for early diagnosis of neonatal infections in clinical applications.

Buprenorphine Alters Inflammatory and Oxidative Stress Molecular Markers in Arthritis

Buprenorphine is recommended for use as an analgesic in animal models including in murine models of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). However, the effect of buprenorphine on the expression of disease-associated biomarkers is not well defined. We examined the effect of buprenorphine administration on disease progression and the expression of inflammatory and oxidative stress markers, in a murine model of CIA. Buprenorphine administration altered the expression of cytokines, IFN-γ, IL-6, and MMP-3, and oxidative markers, for example, iNOS, superoxide dismutase (SOD1), and catalase (CAT), in the CIA mice. As buprenorphine is an analgesic, we further monitored the association of expression of these biomarkers with pain scores in a human cohort of early rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Serum MMP-3 levels and blood mRNA expression of antioxidants sod1 and cat correlated with pain scores in the RA cohort. We have demonstrated that administration of buprenorphine alters the expression of inflammatory and oxidative stress-related molecular markers in a murine model of CIA. This caveat needs to be considered in animal experiments using buprenorphine as an analgesic, as it can be a confounding factor in murine studies used for prediction of response to therapy. Furthermore, the antioxidant enzymes that showed an association with pain scores in the human cohort may be explored as biomarkers for pain in future studies.

Sphingosine Toxicity in EAE and MS: Evidence for Ceramide Generation via Serine-Palmitoyltransferase Activation

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disorder characterized by massive neurodegeneration and profound axonal loss. Since myelin is enriched with sphingolipids and some of them display toxicity, biological function of sphingolipids in demyelination has been investigated in MS brain tissues. An elevation of sphingosine with a decrease in monoglycosylceramide and psychosine (myelin markers) was observed in MS white matter and plaque compared to normal brain tissue. This indicated that sphingosine toxicity might mediate oligodendrocyte degeneration. To explain the source of sphingosine accumulation, total sphingolipid profile was investigated in Lewis rats after inducing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and also in human oligodendrocytes in culture. An intermittent increase in ceramide followed by sphingosine accumulation in EAE spinal cord along with a stimulation of serine-palmitoyltransferase (SPT) activity was observed. Apoptosis was identified in the lumbar spinal cord, the most prominent demyelinating area, in the EAE rats. TNFα and IFNγ stimulation of oligodendrocytes in culture also led to an accumulation of ceramide with an elevation of sphingosine. Ceramide elevation was drastically blocked by myriocin, an inhibitor of SPT, and also by FTY720. Myriocin treatment also protected oligodendrocytes from cytokine mediated apoptosis or programmed cell death. Hence, we propose that sphingosine toxicity may contribute to demyelination in both EAE and MS, and the intermittent ceramide accumulation in EAE may, at least partly, be mediated via SPT activation, which is a novel observation that has not been previously reported.