1
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Qin H, Luo J, Zhao N, Lou W, Chen P, Wang H, Pan Z, Xiong X. Xuanfei Formula inhibited RSV infection by normalizing the SREBP2-mediated cholesterol synthesis process. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1387062. [PMID: 38765687 PMCID: PMC11100329 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1387062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and aims Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children and the elderly, often progressing to pneumonia and severe sequelae. However, there are currently no feasible and cost-effective interventions with proven efficacy for children, making medications with anti-RSV activity urgently needed. Traditional Chinese medicine has shown promising therapeutic efficacy in alleviating viral infection symptoms. Therefore, we aimed to develop effective strategies for RSV treatment based on traditional Chinese medicine. Methods and results The infection status was assessed in BALB/c mice with or without Xuanfei Formula (XFF) treatment over a one-week period using H&E staining, cytokine assays and RSV titer testing after RSV challenge. Remarkably, on the first day of XFF intervention, both the pro-inflammation cytokine levels in the serum and RSV-N gene copies in the lung of mice were plummeted, compared to the RSV-infected group. This implied that XFF might possess the immune-independent anti-RSV capability. To elucidate the underlying mechanism, we employed transcriptome analysis followed by k-means analysis. The reversal effects of XFF against RSV primarily focused on the processes of innate and adaptive immunity. Additionally, we found that XFF administration corrected the disordered fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism processes during RSV infection. Lipidomics profiling indicated consistent cholesterol abundance with transcriptional changes but not fatty acids. Cholesterol synthesis-related genes mRNA levels and cholesterol synthesis intermediates detection supported XFF's repression upon cholesterol biosynthesis. Aberrantly increased cholesterol production has been reported as necessary for RSV infection. To mimic that, we observed lovastatin treatment inhibited RSV replication and pro-inflammation cytokine expression in vitro. Transcription factor prediction of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in cholesterol synthesis implicated SREBP2. Through network pharmacology, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol were identified as the effective active ingredients within the XFF, with the help of further molecular docking and mass spectrum detection. In vitro experiments demonstrated β-sitosterol and stigmasterol reinforced the bonding between SREBP cleavage-activation protein (SCAP) and insulin-induced gene proteins (INSIGs) to inhibit SREBP2 cleavage maturation and consequent RSV infection. Conclusion Xuanfei Formula (XFF) exhibits excellent anti-RSV efficacy by inhibiting SREBP2-mediated cholesterol synthesis to reduce RSV replication and ameliorate inflammation in the lung of infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Qin
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Wuhan Children’s Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jin Luo
- Institute of Maternal and Child Health, Wuhan Children’s Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Nan Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Wange Lou
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Wuhan Children’s Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huihao Wang
- Information Department, Wuhan Children’s Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zishu Pan
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoli Xiong
- Clinical Laboratory, Wuhan Children’s Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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2
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Carter T, Iqbal M. The Influenza A Virus Replication Cycle: A Comprehensive Review. Viruses 2024; 16:316. [PMID: 38400091 PMCID: PMC10892522 DOI: 10.3390/v16020316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is the primary causative agent of influenza, colloquially called the flu. Each year, it infects up to a billion people, resulting in hundreds of thousands of human deaths, and causes devastating avian outbreaks with worldwide losses worth billions of dollars. Always present is the possibility that a highly pathogenic novel subtype capable of direct human-to-human transmission will spill over into humans, causing a pandemic as devastating if not more so than the 1918 influenza pandemic. While antiviral drugs for influenza do exist, they target very few aspects of IAV replication and risk becoming obsolete due to antiviral resistance. Antivirals targeting other areas of IAV replication are needed to overcome this resistance and combat the yearly epidemics, which exact a serious toll worldwide. This review aims to summarise the key steps in the IAV replication cycle, along with highlighting areas of research that need more focus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Carter
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK;
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3
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Michalski M, Setny P. Molecular Mechanisms behind Conformational Transitions of the Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin Membrane Anchor. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:9450-9460. [PMID: 37877534 PMCID: PMC10641832 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c05257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Membrane fusion is a fundamental process that is exploited by enveloped viruses to enter host cells. In the case of the influenza virus, fusion is facilitated by the trimeric viral hemagglutinin protein (HA). So far, major focus has been put on its N-terminal fusion peptides, which are directly responsible for fusion initiation. A growing body of evidence points also to a significant functional role of the HA C-terminal domain, which however remains incompletely understood. Our computational study aimed to elucidate the structural and functional interdependencies within the HA C-terminal region encompassing the transmembrane domain (TMD) and the cytoplasmic tail (CT). In particular, we were interested in the conformational shift of the TMD in response to varying cholesterol concentration in the viral membrane and in its modulation by the presence of CT. Using free-energy calculations based on atomistic molecular dynamics simulations, we characterized transitions between straight and tilted metastable TMD configurations under varying conditions. We found that the presence of CT is essential for achieving a stable, highly tilted TMD configuration. As we demonstrate, such a configuration of HA membrane anchor likely supports the tilting motion of its ectodomain, which needs to be executed during membrane fusion. This finding highlights the functional role of, so far, the relatively overlooked CT region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Michalski
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Setny
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
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4
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Roe K. Eight influenza virus cellular manipulations which can boost concurrent SARS-CoV-2 infections to severe outcomes. Hum Cell 2023; 36:1581-1592. [PMID: 37306884 DOI: 10.1007/s13577-023-00923-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Viral pathogens in the lungs can cause severe outcomes, including acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Dangerous respiratory pathogens include some influenza A and B viruses, and the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Unfortunately, concurrent infections of influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 increase severe outcome probabilities. Influenza viruses have eight cellular manipulations which can assist concurrent SARS-CoV-2 viral infections. The eight cellular manipulations include: (1) viral protein binding with cellular sensors to block antiviral transcription factors and cytokine expressions, (2) viral protein binding with cell proteins to impair cellular pre-messenger ribonucleic acid splicing, (3) increased ribonucleic acid virus replication through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt (protein kinase B) pathway, (4) regulatory ribonucleic acids to manipulate cellular sensors and pathways to suppress antiviral defenses, (5) exosomes to transmit influenza virus to uninfected cells to weaken cellular defenses before SARS-CoV-2 infection, (6) increased cellular cholesterol and lipids to improve virion synthesis stability, quality and virion infectivity, (7) increased cellular autophagy, benefiting influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 replications and (8) adrenal gland stimulation to produce glucocorticoids, which suppress immune cells, including reduced synthesis of cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules. Concurrent infections by one of the influenza viruses and SARS-CoV-2 will increase the probability of severe outcomes, and with sufficient synergy potentially enable the recurrence of tragic pandemics.
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5
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Matveeva M, Lefebvre M, Chahinian H, Yahi N, Fantini J. Host Membranes as Drivers of Virus Evolution. Viruses 2023; 15:1854. [PMID: 37766261 PMCID: PMC10535233 DOI: 10.3390/v15091854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms controlling the adaptation of viruses to host cells are generally poorly documented. An essential issue to resolve is whether host membranes, and especially lipid rafts, which are usually considered passive gateways for many enveloped viruses, also encode informational guidelines that could determine virus evolution. Due to their enrichment in gangliosides which confer an electronegative surface potential, lipid rafts impose a first control level favoring the selection of viruses with enhanced cationic areas, as illustrated by SARS-CoV-2 variants. Ganglioside clusters attract viral particles in a dynamic electrostatic funnel, the more cationic viruses of a viral population winning the race. However, electrostatic forces account for only a small part of the energy of raft-virus interaction, which depends mainly on the ability of viruses to form a network of hydrogen bonds with raft gangliosides. This fine tuning of virus-ganglioside interactions, which is essential to stabilize the virus on the host membrane, generates a second level of selection pressure driven by a typical induced-fit mechanism. Gangliosides play an active role in this process, wrapping around the virus spikes through a dynamic quicksand-like mechanism. Viruses are thus in an endless race for access to lipid rafts, and they are bound to evolve perpetually, combining speed (electrostatic potential) and precision (fine tuning of amino acids) under the selective pressure of the immune system. Deciphering the host membrane guidelines controlling virus evolution mechanisms may open new avenues for the design of innovative antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jacques Fantini
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Aix-Marseille, INSERM UMR_S 1072, 13015 Marseille, France; (M.M.); (M.L.); (H.C.); (N.Y.)
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6
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Petrich A, Chiantia S. Influenza A Virus Infection Alters Lipid Packing and Surface Electrostatic Potential of the Host Plasma Membrane. Viruses 2023; 15:1830. [PMID: 37766238 PMCID: PMC10537794 DOI: 10.3390/v15091830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of influenza A viruses (IAVs) is influenced by several factors, including IAV strain origin and reassortment, tissue tropism and host type. While such factors were mostly investigated in the context of virus entry, fusion and replication, little is known about the viral-induced changes to the host lipid membranes which might be relevant in the context of virion assembly. In this work, we applied several biophysical fluorescence microscope techniques (i.e., Förster energy resonance transfer, generalized polarization imaging and scanning fluorescence correlation spectroscopy) to quantify the effect of infection by two IAV strains of different origin on the plasma membrane (PM) of avian and human cell lines. We found that IAV infection affects the membrane charge of the inner leaflet of the PM. Moreover, we showed that IAV infection impacts lipid-lipid interactions by decreasing membrane fluidity and increasing lipid packing. Because of such alterations, diffusive dynamics of membrane-associated proteins are hindered. Taken together, our results indicate that the infection of avian and human cell lines with IAV strains of different origins had similar effects on the biophysical properties of the PM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Salvatore Chiantia
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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7
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Moreno-Pescador G, Arastoo MR, Ruhoff VT, Chiantia S, Daniels R, Bendix PM. Thermoplasmonic Vesicle Fusion Reveals Membrane Phase Segregation of Influenza Spike Proteins. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:3377-3384. [PMID: 37040311 PMCID: PMC10141563 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Many cellular processes involve the lateral organization of integral and peripheral membrane proteins into nanoscale domains. Despite the biological significance, the mechanisms that facilitate membrane protein clustering into nanoscale lipid domains remain enigmatic. In cells, the analysis of membrane protein phase affinity is complicated by the size and temporal nature of ordered and disordered lipid domains. To overcome these limitations, we developed a method for delivering membrane proteins from transfected cells into phase-separated model membranes that combines optical trapping with thermoplasmonic-mediated membrane fusion and confocal imaging. Using this approach, we observed clear phase partitioning into the liquid disordered phase following the transfer of GFP-tagged influenza hemagglutinin and neuraminidase from transfected cell membranes to giant unilamellar vesicles. The generic platform presented here allows investigation of the phase affinity of any plasma membrane protein which can be labeled or tagged with a fluorescent marker.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohammad Reza Arastoo
- Niels
Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, 2100 København Ø, Denmark
| | | | - Salvatore Chiantia
- Institute
of Biochemistry and Biology, University
of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Robert Daniels
- Division
of Viral Products, Center for Biologics
Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993, United States
| | - Poul Martin Bendix
- Niels
Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 17, 2100 København Ø, Denmark
- Email
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8
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Shekunov EV, Zlodeeva PD, Efimova SS, Muryleva AA, Zarubaev VV, Slita AV, Ostroumova OS. Cyclic lipopeptides as membrane fusion inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2: New tricks for old dogs. Antiviral Res 2023; 212:105575. [PMID: 36868316 PMCID: PMC9977712 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
With the resurgence of the coronavirus pandemic, the repositioning of FDA-approved drugs against coronovirus and finding alternative strategies for antiviral therapy are both important. We previously identified the viral lipid envelope as a potential target for the prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection with plant alkaloids (Shekunov et al., 2021). Here, we investigated the effects of eleven cyclic lipopeptides (CLPs), including well-known antifungal and antibacterial compounds, on the liposome fusion triggered by calcium, polyethylene glycol 8000, and a fragment of SARS-CoV-2 fusion peptide (816-827) by calcein release assays. Differential scanning microcalorimetry of the gel-to-liquid-crystalline and lamellar-to-inverted hexagonal phase transitions and confocal fluorescence microscopy demonstrated the relation of the fusion inhibitory effects of CLPs to alterations in lipid packing, membrane curvature stress and domain organization. The antiviral effects of CLPs were evaluated in an in vitro Vero-based cell model, and aculeacin A, anidulafugin, iturin A, and mycosubtilin attenuated the cytopathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 without specific toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egor V Shekunov
- Institute of Cytology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky 4, 194064, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Polina D Zlodeeva
- Institute of Cytology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky 4, 194064, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Svetlana S Efimova
- Institute of Cytology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky 4, 194064, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Anna A Muryleva
- Institute of Cytology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky 4, 194064, Saint Petersburg, Russia; Saint-Petersburg Pasteur Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Mira 14, 197101, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Vladimir V Zarubaev
- Saint-Petersburg Pasteur Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Mira 14, 197101, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Alexander V Slita
- Saint-Petersburg Pasteur Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Mira 14, 197101, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Olga S Ostroumova
- Institute of Cytology of Russian Academy of Sciences, Tikhoretsky 4, 194064, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
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9
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Loshkareva AS, Popova MM, Shilova LA, Fedorova NV, Timofeeva TA, Galimzyanov TR, Kuzmin PI, Knyazev DG, Batishchev OV. Influenza A Virus M1 Protein Non-Specifically Deforms Charged Lipid Membranes and Specifically Interacts with the Raft Boundary. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:76. [PMID: 36676883 PMCID: PMC9864314 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13010076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Topological rearrangements of biological membranes, such as fusion and fission, often require a sophisticated interplay between different proteins and cellular membranes. However, in the case of fusion proteins of enveloped viruses, even one molecule can execute membrane restructurings. Growing evidence indicates that matrix proteins of enveloped viruses can solely trigger the membrane bending required for another crucial step in virogenesis, the budding of progeny virions. For the case of the influenza A virus matrix protein M1, different studies report both in favor and against M1 being able to produce virus-like particles without other viral proteins. Here, we investigated the physicochemical mechanisms of M1 membrane activity on giant unilamellar vesicles of different lipid compositions using fluorescent confocal microscopy. We confirmed that M1 predominantly interacts electrostatically with the membrane, and its ability to deform the lipid bilayer is non-specific and typical for membrane-binding proteins and polypeptides. However, in the case of phase-separating membranes, M1 demonstrates a unique ability to induce macro-phase separation, probably due to the high affinity of M1's amphipathic helices to the raft boundary. Thus, we suggest that M1 is tailored to deform charged membranes with a specific activity in the case of phase-separating membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S. Loshkareva
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Marina M. Popova
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Liudmila A. Shilova
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalia V. Fedorova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatiana A. Timofeeva
- Laboratory of Physiology of Viruses, D. I. Ivanovsky Institute of Virology, FSBI N. F. Gamaleya NRCEM, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, 123098 Moscow, Russia
| | - Timur R. Galimzyanov
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Petr I. Kuzmin
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Denis G. Knyazev
- Institute of Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, 4020 Linz, Austria
| | - Oleg V. Batishchev
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
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10
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Casalino L, Seitz C, Lederhofer J, Tsybovsky Y, Wilson IA, Kanekiyo M, Amaro RE. Breathing and Tilting: Mesoscale Simulations Illuminate Influenza Glycoprotein Vulnerabilities. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2022; 8:1646-1663. [PMID: 36589893 PMCID: PMC9801513 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.2c00981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Influenza virus has resurfaced recently from inactivity during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, raising serious concerns about the nature and magnitude of future epidemics. The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented. Here, we investigate the dynamics of influenza glycoproteins in a crowded protein environment through mesoscale all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of two evolutionary-linked glycosylated influenza A whole-virion models. Our simulations reveal and kinetically characterize three main molecular motions of influenza glycoproteins: NA head tilting, HA ectodomain tilting, and HA head breathing. The flexibility of HA and NA highlights antigenically relevant conformational states, as well as facilitates the characterization of a novel monoclonal antibody, derived from convalescent human donor, that binds to the underside of the NA head. Our work provides previously unappreciated views on the dynamics of HA and NA, advancing the understanding of their interplay and suggesting possible strategies for the design of future vaccines and antivirals against influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Casalino
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California92093, United States
| | - Christian Seitz
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California92093, United States
| | - Julia Lederhofer
- Vaccine
Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland20892, United States
| | - Yaroslav Tsybovsky
- Electron
Microscopy Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research
Sponsored by the National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland21702, United States
| | - Ian A. Wilson
- Department
of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology and the Skaggs
Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps
Research Institute, La Jolla, California92037, United States
| | - Masaru Kanekiyo
- Vaccine
Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland20892, United States
| | - Rommie E. Amaro
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California92093, United States
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11
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Chavda V, Bezbaruah R, Kalita T, Sarma A, Devi JR, Bania R, Apostolopoulos V. Variant influenza: connecting the missing dots. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2022; 20:1567-1585. [PMID: 36346383 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2022.2144231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In June 2009, the World Health Organization declared a new pandemic, the 2009 swine influenza pandemic (swine flu). The symptoms of the swine flu pandemic causing strain were comparable to most of the symptoms noted by seasonal influenza. AREA COVERED Zoonotic viruses that caused the swine flu pandemic and its preventive measures. EXPERT OPINION As per Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the clinical manifestations in humans produced by the 2009 H1N1 'swine flu' virus were equivalent to the manifestations caused by related flu strains. The H1N1 vaccination was the most successful prophylactic measure since it prevented the virus from spreading and reduced the intensity and consequences of the pandemic. Despite the availability of therapeutics, the ongoing evolution and appearance of new strains have made it difficult to develop effective vaccines and therapies. Currently, the CDC recommends yearly flu immunization for those aged 6 months and above. The lessons learned from the A/2009/H1N1 pandemic in 2009 indicated that readiness of mankind toward new illnesses caused by mutant viral subtypes that leap from animals to people must be maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Chavda
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L M College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, India
| | - Rajashri Bezbaruah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, India
| | - Tutumoni Kalita
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Regional College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, RIPT Group of Institution, Sonapur, Guwahati, India
| | - Anupam Sarma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Hatkhowapara, Azara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Juti Rani Devi
- NETES Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Mirza, Guwahati, India
| | - Ratnali Bania
- Pratiksha Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, India
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12
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Roy A, Byrne S, Sarangi NK, Murphy PV, Keyes TE. A cell free biomembrane platform for multimodal study of influenza virus hemagglutinin and for evaluation of entry-inhibitors against hemagglutinin. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1017338. [DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1017338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Seasonal periodic pandemics and epidemics caused by Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are associated with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. They are frequent and unpredictable in severity so there is a need for biophysical platforms that can be used to provide both mechanistic insights into influenza virulence and its potential treatment by anti-IAV agents. Host membrane viral association through the glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) of IAVs is one of the primary steps in infection. HA is thus a potential target for drug discovery and development against influenza. Deconvolution of the multivalent interactions of HA at the interfaces of the host cell membrane can help unravel therapeutic targets. In this contribution, we reported the effect of a multivalent HA glycoprotein association on various glycosphingolipid receptors (GD1a, GM3, GM1) doped asymmetrically into an artificial host membrane spanned across an aqueous filled microcavity array. The extent of HA association and its impact on membrane resistance, capacitance, and diffusivity was measured using highly sensitive electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and fluorescence lifetime correlation spectroscopy (FLCS). Furthermore, we investigated the inhibition of the influenza HA glycoprotein association with the host mimetic surface by natural and synthetic sialic acid-based inhibitors (sialic acid, Siaα2,3-GalOMe, FB127, 3-sialyl lactose) using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and observe that while all inhibit, they do not prevent host binding. Overall, the work demonstrates the platform provides a label-free screening platform for the biophysical evaluation of new inhibitors in the development of potential therapeutics for IAV infection prevention and treatment.
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13
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Li YJ, Chen CY, Yang JH, Chiu YF. Modulating cholesterol-rich lipid rafts to disrupt influenza A virus infection. Front Immunol 2022; 13:982264. [PMID: 36177026 PMCID: PMC9513517 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.982264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is widely disseminated across different species and can cause recurrent epidemics and severe pandemics in humans. During infection, IAV attaches to receptors that are predominantly located in cell membrane regions known as lipid rafts, which are highly enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids. Following IAV entry into the host cell, uncoating, transcription, and replication of the viral genome occur, after which newly synthesized viral proteins and genomes are delivered to lipid rafts for assembly prior to viral budding from the cell. Moreover, during budding, IAV acquires an envelope with embedded cholesterol from the host cell membrane, and it is known that decreased cholesterol levels on IAV virions reduce infectivity. Statins are commonly used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis for preventing cardiovascular diseases, and several studies have investigated whether such inhibition can block IAV infection and propagation, as well as modulate the host immune response to IAV. Taken together, current research suggests that there may be a role for statins in countering IAV infections and modulating the host immune response to prevent or mitigate cytokine storms, and further investigation into this is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jyun Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Yuan Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jeng-How Yang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Fang Chiu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Ya-Fang Chiu,
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Guo Y, Raev S, Kick MK, Raque M, Saif LJ, Vlasova AN. Rotavirus C Replication in Porcine Intestinal Enteroids Reveals Roles for Cellular Cholesterol and Sialic Acids. Viruses 2022; 14:v14081825. [PMID: 36016447 PMCID: PMC9416568 DOI: 10.3390/v14081825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rotaviruses (RVs) are a significant cause of severe diarrheal illness in infants and young animals, including pigs. Group C rotavirus (RVC) is an emerging pathogen increasingly reported in pigs and humans worldwide, and is currently recognized as the major cause of gastroenteritis in neonatal piglets that results in substantial economic losses to the pork industry. However, little is known about RVC pathogenesis due to the lack of a robust cell culture system, with the exception of the RVC Cowden strain. Here, we evaluated the permissiveness of porcine crypt-derived 3D and 2D intestinal enteroid (PIE) culture systems for RVC infection. Differentiated 3D and 2D PIEs were infected with porcine RVC (PRVC) Cowden G1P[1], PRVC104 G3P[18], and PRVC143 G6P[5] virulent strains, and the virus replication was measured by qRT-PCR. Our results demonstrated that all RVC strains replicated in 2D-PIEs poorly, while 3D-PIEs supported a higher level of replication, suggesting that RVC selectively infects terminally differentiated enterocytes, which were less abundant in the 2D vs. 3D PIE cultures. While cellular receptors for RVC are unknown, target cell surface carbohydrates, including histo-blood-group antigens (HBGAs) and sialic acids (SAs), are believed to play a role in cell attachment/entry. The evaluation of the selective binding of RVCs to different HBGAs revealed that PRVC Cowden G1P[1] replicated to the highest titers in the HBGA-A PIEs, while PRVC104 or PRVC143 achieved the highest titers in the HBGA-H PIEs. Further, contrasting outcomes were observed following sialidase treatment (resulting in terminal SA removal), which significantly enhanced Cowden and RVC143 replication, but inhibited the growth of PRVC104. These observations suggest that different RVC strains may recognize terminal (PRVC104) as well as internal (Cowden and RVC143) SAs on gangliosides. Finally, several cell culture additives, such as diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-dextran, cholesterol, and bile extract, were tested to establish if they could enhance RVC replication. We observed that only DEAE-dextran significantly enhanced RVC attachment, but it had no effect on RVC replication. Additionally, the depletion of cellular cholesterol by MβCD inhibited Cowden replication, while the restoration of the cellular cholesterol partially reversed the MβCD effects. These results suggest that cellular cholesterol plays an important role in the replication of the PRVC strain tested. Overall, our study has established a novel robust and physiologically relevant system to investigate RVC pathogenesis. We also generated novel, experimentally derived evidence regarding the role of host glycans, DEAE, and cholesterol in RVC replication, which is critical for the development of control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusheng Guo
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Sergei Raev
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Maryssa K. Kick
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Molly Raque
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Linda J. Saif
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Anastasia N. Vlasova
- Center for Food Animal Health, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Animal Sciences, College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
- Correspondence:
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15
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Carascal MB, Pavon RDN, Rivera WL. Recent Progress in Recombinant Influenza Vaccine Development Toward Heterosubtypic Immune Response. Front Immunol 2022; 13:878943. [PMID: 35663997 PMCID: PMC9162156 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.878943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Flu, a viral infection caused by the influenza virus, is still a global public health concern with potential to cause seasonal epidemics and pandemics. Vaccination is considered the most effective protective strategy against the infection. However, given the high plasticity of the virus and the suboptimal immunogenicity of existing influenza vaccines, scientists are moving toward the development of universal vaccines. An important property of universal vaccines is their ability to induce heterosubtypic immunity, i.e., a wide immune response coverage toward different influenza subtypes. With the increasing number of studies and mounting evidence on the safety and efficacy of recombinant influenza vaccines (RIVs), they have been proposed as promising platforms for the development of universal vaccines. This review highlights the current progress and advances in the development of RIVs in the context of heterosubtypic immunity induction toward universal vaccine production. In particular, this review discussed existing knowledge on influenza and vaccine development, current hemagglutinin-based RIVs in the market and in the pipeline, other potential vaccine targets for RIVs (neuraminidase, matrix 1 and 2, nucleoprotein, polymerase acidic, and basic 1 and 2 antigens), and deantigenization process. This review also provided discussion points and future perspectives in looking at RIVs as potential universal vaccine candidates for influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark B Carascal
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.,Clinical and Translational Research Institute, The Medical City, Pasig City, Philippines
| | - Rance Derrick N Pavon
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Windell L Rivera
- Pathogen-Host-Environment Interactions Research Laboratory, Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
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16
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ARHGAP1 Transported with Influenza Viral Genome Ensures Integrity of Viral Particle Surface through Efficient Budozone Formation. mBio 2022; 13:e0072122. [PMID: 35475647 PMCID: PMC9239208 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00721-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza viral particles are assembled at the plasma membrane concomitantly with Rab11a-mediated endocytic transport of viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNPs). The mechanism of spatiotemporal regulation of viral budozone formation and its regulatory molecules on the endocytic vesicles remain unclear. Here, we performed a proximity-based proteomics approach for Rab11a and found that ARHGAP1, a Rho GTPase-activating protein, is transported through the Rab11a-mediated apical transport of vRNP. ARHGAP1 stabilized actin filaments in infected cells for the lateral clustering of hemagglutinin (HA) molecules, a viral surface membrane protein, to the budozone. Disruption of the HA clustering results in the production of virions with low HA content, and such virions were less resistant to protease and had enhanced antigenicity, presumably because reduced clustering of viral membrane proteins exposes hidden surfaces. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Rab11a-mediated endocytic transport of ARHGAP1 with vRNPs stimulates budozone formation to ensure the integrity of virion surface required for viral survival.
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Batishchev OV. Physico-Chemical Mechanisms of the Functioning of Membrane-Active Proteins of Enveloped Viruses. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) SUPPLEMENT. SERIES A, MEMBRANE AND CELL BIOLOGY 2022; 16:247-260. [PMCID: PMC9734521 DOI: 10.1134/s1990747822050038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Over the past few years, the attention of the whole world has been riveted to the emergence of new dangerous strains of viruses, among which a special place is occupied by coronaviruses that have overcome the interspecies barrier in the past 20 years: SARS viruses (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), as well as a new coronavirus infection (SARS-CoV-2), which caused the largest pandemic since the Spanish flu in 1918. Coronaviruses are members of a class of enveloped viruses that have a lipoprotein envelope. This class also includes such serious pathogens as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis, Ebola virus, influenza, etc. Despite significant differences in the clinical picture of the course of disease caused by enveloped viruses, they themselves have a number of characteristic features, which determine their commonality. Regardless of the way of penetration into the cell—by endocytosis or direct fusion with the cell membrane—enveloped viruses are characterized by the following stages of interaction with the target cell: binding to receptors on the cell surface, interaction of the surface glycoproteins of the virus with the membrane structures of the infected cell, fusion of the lipid envelope of the virion with plasma or endosomal membrane, destruction of the protein capsid and its dissociation from the viral nucleoprotein. Subsequently, within the infected cell, the newly synthesized viral proteins must self-assemble on various membrane structures to form a progeny virion. Thus, both the initial stages of viral infection and the assembly and release of new viral particles are associated with the activity of viral proteins in relation to the cell membrane and its organelles. This review is devoted to the analysis of physicochemical mechanisms of functioning of the main structural proteins of a number of enveloped viruses in order to identify possible strategies for the membrane activity of such proteins at various stages of viral infection of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. V. Batishchev
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
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Petrich A, Dunsing V, Bobone S, Chiantia S. Influenza A M2 recruits M1 to the plasma membrane: A fluorescence fluctuation microscopy study. Biophys J 2021; 120:5478-5490. [PMID: 34808098 PMCID: PMC8715234 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is a respiratory pathogen that causes seasonal epidemics with significant mortality. One of the most abundant proteins in IAV particles is the matrix protein 1 (M1), which is essential for the virus structural stability. M1 organizes virion assembly and budding at the plasma membrane (PM), where it interacts with other viral components. The recruitment of M1 to the PM as well as its interaction with the other viral envelope proteins (hemagglutinin [HA], neuraminidase, matrix protein 2 [M2]) is controversially discussed in previous studies. Therefore, we used fluorescence fluctuation microscopy techniques (i.e., scanning fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy and number and brightness) to quantify the oligomeric state of M1 and its interactions with other viral proteins in co-transfected as well as infected cells. Our results indicate that M1 is recruited to the PM by M2, as a consequence of the strong interaction between the two proteins. In contrast, only a weak interaction between M1 and HA was observed. M1-HA interaction occurred only in the event that M1 was already bound to the PM. We therefore conclude that M2 initiates the assembly of IAV by recruiting M1 to the PM, possibly allowing its further interaction with other viral proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annett Petrich
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Valentin Dunsing
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Sara Bobone
- University of Rome Tor Vergata, Department of Chemical Science and Technologies, Roma, Italy
| | - Salvatore Chiantia
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam, Germany.
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Kordyukova LV, Konarev PV, Fedorova NV, Shtykova EV, Ksenofontov AL, Loshkarev NA, Dadinova LA, Timofeeva TA, Abramchuk SS, Moiseenko AV, Baratova LA, Svergun DI, Batishchev OV. The Cytoplasmic Tail of Influenza A Virus Hemagglutinin and Membrane Lipid Composition Change the Mode of M1 Protein Association with the Lipid Bilayer. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:772. [PMID: 34677538 PMCID: PMC8541430 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11100772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A virus envelope contains lipid molecules of the host cell and three integral viral proteins: major hemagglutinin, neuraminidase, and minor M2 protein. Membrane-associated M1 matrix protein is thought to interact with the lipid bilayer and cytoplasmic domains of integral viral proteins to form infectious virus progeny. We used small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and complementary techniques to analyze the interactions of different components of the viral envelope with M1 matrix protein. Small unilamellar liposomes composed of various mixtures of synthetic or "native" lipids extracted from Influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) virions as well as proteoliposomes built from the viral lipids and anchored peptides of integral viral proteins (mainly, hemagglutinin) were incubated with isolated M1 and measured using SAXS. The results imply that M1 interaction with phosphatidylserine leads to condensation of the lipid in the protein-contacting monolayer, thus resulting in formation of lipid tubules. This effect vanishes in the presence of the liquid-ordered (raft-forming) constituents (sphingomyelin and cholesterol) regardless of their proportion in the lipid bilayer. We also detected a specific role of the hemagglutinin anchoring peptides in ordering of viral lipid membrane into the raft-like one. These peptides stimulate the oligomerization of M1 on the membrane to form a viral scaffold for subsequent budding of the virion from the plasma membrane of the infected cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larisa V. Kordyukova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.V.K.); (N.V.F.); (A.L.K.); (L.A.B.)
| | - Petr V. Konarev
- Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography, Federal Scientific Research Centre “Crystallography and Photonics” of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Russia; (P.V.K.); (E.V.S.); (L.A.D.)
| | - Nataliya V. Fedorova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.V.K.); (N.V.F.); (A.L.K.); (L.A.B.)
| | - Eleonora V. Shtykova
- Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography, Federal Scientific Research Centre “Crystallography and Photonics” of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Russia; (P.V.K.); (E.V.S.); (L.A.D.)
| | - Alexander L. Ksenofontov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.V.K.); (N.V.F.); (A.L.K.); (L.A.B.)
| | - Nikita A. Loshkarev
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Lubov A. Dadinova
- Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography, Federal Scientific Research Centre “Crystallography and Photonics” of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Russia; (P.V.K.); (E.V.S.); (L.A.D.)
| | - Tatyana A. Timofeeva
- Laboratory of Physiology of Viruses, D. I. Ivanovsky Institute of Virology, FSBI N. F. Gamaleya NRCEM, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, 123098 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Sergei S. Abramchuk
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia;
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Polymers, A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrei V. Moiseenko
- Laboratory of Electron Microscopy, Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Lyudmila A. Baratova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.V.K.); (N.V.F.); (A.L.K.); (L.A.B.)
| | | | - Oleg V. Batishchev
- Laboratory of Bioelectrochemistry, Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
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20
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Targovnik AM, Simonin JA, Mc Callum GJ, Smith I, Cuccovia Warlet FU, Nugnes MV, Miranda MV, Belaich MN. Solutions against emerging infectious and noninfectious human diseases through the application of baculovirus technologies. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:8195-8226. [PMID: 34618205 PMCID: PMC8495437 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11615-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Baculoviruses are insect pathogens widely used as biotechnological tools in different fields of life sciences and technologies. The particular biology of these entities (biosafety viruses 1; large circular double-stranded DNA genomes, infective per se; generally of narrow host range on insect larvae; many of the latter being pests in agriculture) and the availability of molecular-biology procedures (e.g., genetic engineering to edit their genomes) and cellular resources (availability of cell lines that grow under in vitro culture conditions) have enabled the application of baculoviruses as active ingredients in pest control, as systems for the expression of recombinant proteins (Baculovirus Expression Vector Systems—BEVS) and as viral vectors for gene delivery in mammals or to display antigenic proteins (Baculoviruses applied on mammals—BacMam). Accordingly, BEVS and BacMam technologies have been introduced in academia because of their availability as commercial systems and ease of use and have also reached the human pharmaceutical industry, as incomparable tools in the development of biological products such as diagnostic kits, vaccines, protein therapies, and—though still in the conceptual stage involving animal models—gene therapies. Among all the baculovirus species, the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus has been the most highly exploited in the above utilities for the human-biotechnology field. This review highlights the main achievements (in their different stages of development) of the use of BEVS and BacMam technologies for the generation of products for infectious and noninfectious human diseases. Key points • Baculoviruses can assist as biotechnological tools in human health problems. • Vaccines and diagnosis reagents produced in the baculovirus platform are described. • The use of recombinant baculovirus for gene therapy–based treatment is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Marisa Targovnik
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina.
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Jorge Alejandro Simonin
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gregorio Juan Mc Callum
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ignacio Smith
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Franco Uriel Cuccovia Warlet
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Nugnes
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Miranda
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Departamento de Microbiología, Inmunología, Biotecnología y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires, 1113, Argentina
- Instituto de Nanobiotecnología (NANOBIOTEC), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, CONICET -Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Sexto Piso, C1113AAD, 1113, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariano Nicolás Belaich
- Laboratorio de Ingeniería Genética y Biología Celular y Molecular, Área Virosis de Insectos, Instituto de Microbiología Básica y Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Compartmentalization of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate metabolism into plasma membrane liquid-ordered/raft domains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2025343118. [PMID: 33619111 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2025343118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Possible segregation of plasma membrane (PM) phosphoinositide metabolism in membrane lipid domains is not fully understood. We exploited two differently lipidated peptide sequences, L10 and S15, to mark liquid-ordered, cholesterol-rich (Lo) and liquid-disordered, cholesterol-poor (Ld) domains of the PM, often called raft and nonraft domains, respectively. Imaging of the fluorescent labels verified that L10 segregated into cholesterol-rich Lo phases of cooled giant plasma-membrane vesicles (GPMVs), whereas S15 and the dye FAST DiI cosegregated into cholesterol-poor Ld phases. The fluorescent protein markers were used as Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) pairs in intact cells. An increase of homologous FRET between L10 probes showed that depleting membrane cholesterol shrank Lo domains and enlarged Ld domains, whereas a decrease of L10 FRET showed that adding more cholesterol enlarged Lo and shrank Ld Heterologous FRET signals between the lipid domain probes and phosphoinositide marker proteins suggested that phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P 2] and phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns4P) are present in both Lo and Ld domains. In kinetic analysis, muscarinic-receptor-activated phospholipase C (PLC) depleted PtdIns(4,5)P 2 and PtdIns4P more rapidly and produced diacylglycerol (DAG) more rapidly in Lo than in Ld Further, PtdIns(4,5)P 2 was restored more rapidly in Lo than in Ld Thus destruction and restoration of PtdIns(4,5)P 2 are faster in Lo than in Ld This suggests that Lo is enriched with both the receptor G protein/PLC pathway and the PtdIns/PI4-kinase/PtdIns4P pathway. The significant kinetic differences of lipid depletion and restoration also mean that exchange of lipids between these domains is much slower than free diffusion predicts.
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Differential recognition of HIV-stimulated IL-1β and IL-18 secretion through NLR and NAIP signalling in monocyte-derived macrophages. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009417. [PMID: 33861800 PMCID: PMC8109768 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are important drivers of pathogenesis and progression to AIDS in HIV infection. The virus in the later phases of the infection is often predominantly macrophage-tropic and this tropism contributes to a chronic inflammatory and immune activation state that is observed in HIV patients. Pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system are the key molecules that recognise HIV and mount the inflammatory responses in macrophages. The innate immune response against HIV-1 is potent and elicits caspase-1-dependent pro-inflammatory cytokine production of IL-1β and IL-18. Although, NLRP3 has been reported as an inflammasome sensor dictating this response little is known about the pattern recognition receptors that trigger the “priming” signal for inflammasome activation, the NLRs involved or the HIV components that trigger the response. Using a combination of siRNA knockdowns in monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs) of different TLRs and NLRs as well as chemical inhibition, it was demonstrated that HIV Vpu could trigger inflammasome activation via TLR4/NLRP3 leading to IL-1β/IL-18 secretion. The priming signal is triggered via TLR4, whereas the activation signal is triggered by direct effects on Kv1.3 channels, causing K+ efflux. In contrast, HIV gp41 could trigger IL-18 production via NAIP/NLRC4, independently of priming, as a one-step inflammasome activation. NAIP binds directly to the cytoplasmic tail of HIV envelope protein gp41 and represents the first non-bacterial ligand for the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome. These divergent pathways represent novel targets to resolve specific inflammatory pathologies associated with HIV-1 infection in macrophages. It has been previously shown that inflammasome activation can be triggered during viral infection to produce the active cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. Our study represents a significant advance, as we now show that in fact there are distinct NLR inflammasome complexes and viral ligands for IL-1β secretion (Vpu) compared to IL-18 secretion (gp41) in response to HIV-1. Most importantly, we show that the HIV envelope protein gp41 represents the first non-bacterial ligand for the assembly of the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome. HIV gp41 is a viroporin, and thus our data demonstrates for the first time that the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome assembles for all pore-forming proteins, irrespective of whether they have a viral or bacterial origin. This is critical for the host antiviral response and has broad implications for innate immunity in general.
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Wang J, Tang K, Feng K, Lin X, Lv W, Chen K, Wang F. Impact of temperature and relative humidity on the transmission of COVID-19: a modelling study in China and the United States. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e043863. [PMID: 33597143 PMCID: PMC7893211 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We aim to assess the impact of temperature and relative humidity on the transmission of COVID-19 across communities after accounting for community-level factors such as demographics, socioeconomic status and human mobility status. DESIGN A retrospective cross-sectional regression analysis via the Fama-MacBeth procedure is adopted. SETTING We use the data for COVID-19 daily symptom-onset cases for 100 Chinese cities and COVID-19 daily confirmed cases for 1005 US counties. PARTICIPANTS A total of 69 498 cases in China and 740 843 cases in the USA are used for calculating the effective reproductive numbers. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES Regression analysis of the impact of temperature and relative humidity on the effective reproductive number (R value). RESULTS Statistically significant negative correlations are found between temperature/relative humidity and the effective reproductive number (R value) in both China and the USA. CONCLUSIONS Higher temperature and higher relative humidity potentially suppress the transmission of COVID-19. Specifically, an increase in temperature by 1°C is associated with a reduction in the R value of COVID-19 by 0.026 (95% CI (-0.0395 to -0.0125)) in China and by 0.020 (95% CI (-0.0311 to -0.0096)) in the USA; an increase in relative humidity by 1% is associated with a reduction in the R value by 0.0076 (95% CI (-0.0108 to -0.0045)) in China and by 0.0080 (95% CI (-0.0150 to -0.0010)) in the USA. Therefore, the potential impact of temperature/relative humidity on the effective reproductive number alone is not strong enough to stop the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyuan Wang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Software Development Environment, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data and Brain Computing, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Ke Tang
- Institute of Economics, School of Social Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Kai Feng
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Lin
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Weifeng Lv
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Software Development Environment, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Kun Chen
- Center for Population Health, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Statistics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Fei Wang
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
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24
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Recombinant H7 hemagglutinin expressed in glycoengineered Pichia pastoris forms nanoparticles that protect mice from challenge with H7N9 influenza virus. Vaccine 2020; 38:7938-7948. [PMID: 33131935 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.10.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cases of H7N9 human infection caused by an avian-origin H7N9 virus emerged in eastern China in 2013, leading to the urgent requirement of developing an effective vaccine to reduce its pandemic potential. In this report, the full-length recombinant H7 protein (rH7) of A/Hangzhou/1/2013 (H7N9) virus was expressed by a glycoengineered Pichia pastoris system. The rH7 protein underwent complex glycosylation modifications and polymerized to nanoparticles of 30-50 nm in diameter. Recombinant H7 (1.9 µg) elicited a > 1:40 hemagglutination inhibition titer, and 3.75 µg rH7 protected 100% of the mice in the mice challenge model with 10-fold 50% lethal dose of the A/Shanghai/2/2013 (H7N9) rat lung-adapted strain. In conclusion, rH7 produced by the glycoengineered P. pastoris can be used for vaccination against the H7N9 virus, and provides an effective platform for the rapid production of future influenza vaccines.
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25
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Zhao L, Qi Y, Luzzatto-Fegiz P, Cui Y, Zhu Y. COVID-19: Effects of Environmental Conditions on the Propagation of Respiratory Droplets. NANO LETTERS 2020; 20:7744-7750. [PMID: 32909761 DOI: 10.1101/2020.05.24.20111963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
As coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) continues to spread, a detailed understanding on the transmission mechanisms is of paramount importance. The disease transmits mainly through respiratory droplets and aerosol. Although models for the evaporation and trajectory of respiratory droplets have been developed, how the environment impacts the transmission of COVID-19 is still unclear. In this study, we investigate the propagation of respiratory droplets and aerosol particles generated by speech under a wide range of temperatures (0-40 °C) and relative humidity (0-92%) conditions. We show that droplets can travel three times farther in low-temperature and high-humidity environment, whereas the number of aerosol particles increases in high-temperature and low-humidity environments. The results also underscore the importance of proper ventilation, as droplets and aerosol spread significantly farther in airstreams. This study contributes to the understanding of the environmental impact on COVID-19 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Yuhang Qi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Paolo Luzzatto-Fegiz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Yi Cui
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Yangying Zhu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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26
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Bukrinsky MI, Mukhamedova N, Sviridov D. Lipid rafts and pathogens: the art of deception and exploitation. J Lipid Res 2020; 61:601-610. [PMID: 31615838 PMCID: PMC7193957 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.tr119000391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid rafts, solid regions of the plasma membrane enriched in cholesterol and glycosphingolipids, are essential parts of a cell. Functionally, lipid rafts present a platform that facilitates interaction of cells with the outside world. However, the unique properties of lipid rafts required to fulfill this function at the same time make them susceptible to exploitation by pathogens. Many steps of pathogen interaction with host cells, and sometimes all steps within the entire lifecycle of various pathogens, rely on host lipid rafts. Such steps as binding of pathogens to the host cells, invasion of intracellular parasites into the cell, the intracellular dwelling of parasites, microbial assembly and exit from the host cell, and microbe transfer from one cell to another all involve lipid rafts. Interaction also includes modification of lipid rafts in host cells, inflicted by pathogens from both inside and outside the cell, through contact or remotely, to advance pathogen replication, to utilize cellular resources, and/or to mitigate immune response. Here, we provide a systematic overview of how and why pathogens interact with and exploit host lipid rafts, as well as the consequences of this interaction for the host, locally and systemically, and for the microbe. We also raise the possibility of modulation of lipid rafts as a therapeutic approach against a variety of infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael I Bukrinsky
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Tropical Medicine,George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Science, Washington, DC 20037
| | | | - Dmitri Sviridov
- Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne 3004, Australia. mailto:
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27
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Amphipathic Helices of Cellular Proteins Can Replace the Helix in M2 of Influenza A Virus with Only Small Effects on Virus Replication. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01605-19. [PMID: 31694941 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01605-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
M2 of influenza virus functions as a proton channel during virus entry. In addition, an amphipathic helix in its cytoplasmic tail plays a role during budding. It targets M2 to the assembly site where it inserts into the inner membrane leaflet to induce curvature that causes virus scission. Since vesicularization of membranes can be performed by a variety of amphiphilic peptides, we used reverse genetics to investigate whether the peptides can substitute for M2's helix. Virus could not be generated if M2's helix was deleted or replaced by a peptide predicted not to form an amphiphilic helix. In contrast, viruses could be rescued if the M2 helix was exchanged by helices known to induce membrane curvature. Infectious virus titers were marginally reduced if M2 contains the helix of the amphipathic lipid packing sensor from the Epsin N-terminal homology domain or the nonnatural membrane inducer RW16. Transmission electron microscopy of infected cells did not reveal unequivocal evidence that virus budding or membrane scission was disturbed in any of the mutants. Instead, individual virus mutants exhibit other defects in M2, such as reduced surface expression, incorporation into virus particles, and ion channel activity. The protein composition and specific infectivity were also altered for mutant virions. We conclude that the presence of an amphiphilic helix in M2 is essential for virus replication but that other helices can replace its basic (curvature-inducing) function.IMPORTANCE Influenza virus is unique among enveloped viruses since it does not rely on the cellular ESCRT machinery for budding. Instead, viruses encode their own scission machine, the M2 protein. M2 is targeted to the edge of the viral assembly site, where it inserts an amphiphilic helix into the membrane to induce curvature. Cellular proteins utilize a similar mechanism for scission of vesicles. We show that the helix of M2 can be replaced by helices from cellular proteins with only small effects on virus replication. No evidence was obtained that budding is disturbed, but individual mutants exhibit other defects in M2 that explain the reduced virus titers. In contrast, no virus could be generated if the helix of M2 is deleted or replaced by irrelevant sequences. These experiments support the concept that M2 requires an amphiphilic helix to induce membrane curvature, but its biophysical properties are more important than the amino acid sequence.
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28
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Kordyukova LV, Serebryakova MV, Khrustalev VV, Veit M. Differential S-Acylation of Enveloped Viruses. Protein Pept Lett 2019; 26:588-600. [PMID: 31161979 DOI: 10.2174/0929866526666190603082521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications often regulate protein functioning. Covalent attachment of long chain fatty acids to cysteine residues via a thioester linkage (known as protein palmitoylation or S-acylation) affects protein trafficking, protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions. This post-translational modification is coupled to membrane fusion or virus assembly and may affect viral replication in vitro and thus also virus pathogenesis in vivo. In this review we outline modern methods to study S-acylation of viral proteins and to characterize palmitoylproteomes of virus infected cells. The palmitoylation site predictor CSS-palm is critically tested against the Class I enveloped virus proteins. We further focus on identifying the S-acylation sites directly within acyl-peptides and the specific fatty acid (e.g, palmitate, stearate) bound to them using MALDI-TOF MS-based approaches. The fatty acid heterogeneity/ selectivity issue attracts now more attention since the recently published 3D-structures of two DHHC-acyl-transferases gave a hint how this might be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larisa V Kordyukova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russian Federation
| | - Marina V Serebryakova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russian Federation
| | - Vladislav V Khrustalev
- Department of General Chemistry, Belarusian State Medical University, Minsk 220116, Belarus
| | - Michael Veit
- Institut für Virologie, Vet.-Med. Faculty, Free University Berlin, Berlin 14163, Germany
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29
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Zak AJ, Hill BD, Rizvi SM, Smith MR, Yang M, Wen F. Enhancing the Yield and Quality of Influenza Virus-like Particles (VLPs) Produced in Insect Cells by Inhibiting Cytopathic Effects of Matrix Protein M2. ACS Synth Biol 2019; 8:2303-2314. [PMID: 31487465 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.9b00111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
To provide broader protection and eliminate the need for annual update of influenza vaccines, biomolecular engineering of influenza virus-like particles (VLPs) to display more conserved influenza proteins such as the matrix protein M2 has been explored. However, achieving high surface density of full-length M2 in influenza VLPs has been left unrealized. In this study, we show that the ion channel activity of M2 induces significant cytopathic effects in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells when expressed using M2-encoding baculovirus. These effects include altered Sf9 cell morphology and reduced baculovirus replication, resulting in impaired influenza protein expression and thus VLP production. On the basis of the function of M2, we hypothesized that blocking its ion channel activity could potentially relieve these cytopathic effects, and thus restore influenza protein expression to improve VLP production. The use of the M2 inhibitor amantadine indeed improves Sf9 cellular expression not only of M2 (∼3-fold), but also of hemagglutinin (HA) (∼7-fold) and of matrix protein M1 (∼3-fold) when coexpressed to produce influenza VLPs. This increased cellular expression of all three influenza proteins further leads to ∼2-fold greater VLP yield. More importantly, the quality of the resulting influenza VLPs is significantly improved, as demonstrated by the ∼2-fold, ∼50-fold, and ∼2-fold increase in the antigen density to approximately 53 HA, 48 M1, and 156 M2 per influenza VLP, respectively. Taken together, this study represents a novel approach to enable the efficient incorporation of full-length M2 while enhancing both the yield and quality of influenza VLPs produced by Sf9 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Zak
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Brett D. Hill
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Syed M. Rizvi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Mason R. Smith
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Madeleine Yang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Fei Wen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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30
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Matczuk AK, Chodaczek G, Ugorski M. Production of Recombinant EAV with Tagged Structural Protein Gp3 to Study Artervirus Minor Protein Localization in Infected Cells. Viruses 2019; 11:E735. [PMID: 31404947 PMCID: PMC6723265 DOI: 10.3390/v11080735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is a prototype member of the Arterivirus family, comprising important pathogens of domestic animals. Minor glycoproteins of Arteriviruses are responsible for virus entry and cellular tropism. The experimental methods for studying minor Arterivirus proteins are limited because of the lack of antibodies and nested open reading frames (ORFs). In this study, we generated recombinant EAV with separated ORFs 3 and 4, and Gp3 carrying HA-tag (Gp3-HA). The recombinant viruses were stable on passaging and replicated in titers similar to the wild-type EAV. Gp3-HA was incorporated into the virion particles as monomers and as a Gp2/Gp3-HA/Gp4 trimer. Gp3-HA localized in ER and, to a lesser extent, in the Golgi, it also co-localized with the E protein but not with the N protein. The co-localization of Gp3-HA and the E protein with ERGIC was reduced. Moreover, EAV with Gp3-HA could become a valuable research tool for identifying host cell factors during infection and the role of Gp3 in virus attachment and entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Karolina Matczuk
- Department of Pathology, Division of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław 50-375, Poland.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław 50-375, Poland.
| | - Grzegorz Chodaczek
- Confocal Microscopy Laboratory, PORT Polish Center for Technology Development, Wrocław 54-066, Poland
| | - Maciej Ugorski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław 50-375, Poland
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31
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Influenza A matrix protein M1 induces lipid membrane deformation via protein multimerization. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20191024. [PMID: 31324731 PMCID: PMC6682550 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20191024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The matrix protein M1 of the Influenza A virus (IAV) is supposed to mediate viral assembly and budding at the plasma membrane (PM) of infected cells. In order for a new viral particle to form, the PM lipid bilayer has to bend into a vesicle toward the extracellular side. Studies in cellular models have proposed that different viral proteins might be responsible for inducing membrane curvature in this context (including M1), but a clear consensus has not been reached. In the present study, we use a combination of fluorescence microscopy, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) and scanning fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (sFCS) to investigate M1-induced membrane deformation in biophysical models of the PM. Our results indicate that M1 is indeed able to cause membrane curvature in lipid bilayers containing negatively charged lipids, in the absence of other viral components. Furthermore, we prove that protein binding is not sufficient to induce membrane restructuring. Rather, it appears that stable M1-M1 interactions and multimer formation are required in order to alter the bilayer three-dimensional structure, through the formation of a protein scaffold. Finally, our results suggest that, in a physiological context, M1-induced membrane deformation might be modulated by the initial bilayer curvature and the lateral organization of membrane components (i.e. the presence of lipid domains).
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32
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Cholesterol Binding to the Transmembrane Region of a Group 2 Hemagglutinin (HA) of Influenza Virus Is Essential for Virus Replication, Affecting both Virus Assembly and HA Fusion Activity. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00555-19. [PMID: 31118253 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00555-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemagglutinin (HA) of influenza virus is incorporated into cholesterol-enriched nanodomains of the plasma membrane. Phylogenetic group 2 HAs contain the conserved cholesterol consensus motif (CCM) YKLW in the transmembrane region. We previously reported that mutations in the CCM retarded intracellular transport of HA and decreased its nanodomain association. Here, we analyzed whether cholesterol interacts with the CCM. Incorporation of photocholesterol into HA was significantly reduced if the whole CCM is replaced by alanine, both using immunoprecipitated HA and when HA is embedded in the membrane. We next used reverse genetics to investigate the significance of the CCM for virus replication. No virus was rescued if the whole motif is exchanged (YKLW4A); singly (LA) or doubly (YK2A and LW2A) mutated virus showed decreased titers and a comparative fitness disadvantage. In polarized cells, transport of HA mutants to the apical membrane was not disturbed. Reduced amounts of HA and cholesterol were incorporated into the viral membrane. Mutant viruses exhibit a decrease in hemolysis, which is only partially corrected if the membrane is replenished with cholesterol. More specifically, viruses have a defect in hemifusion, as demonstrated by fluorescence dequenching. Cells expressing HA YKLW4A fuse with erythrocytes, but the number of events is reduced. Even after acidification unfused erythrocytes remain cell bound, a phenomenon not observed with wild-type HA. We conclude that cholesterol binding to a group 2 HA is essential for virus replication. It has pleiotropic effects on virus assembly and membrane fusion, mainly on lipid mixing and possibly a preceding step.IMPORTANCE The glycoprotein HA is a major pathogenicity factor of influenza viruses. Whereas the structure and function of HA's ectodomain is known in great detail, similar data for the membrane-anchoring part of the protein are missing. Here, we demonstrate that the transmembrane region of a group 2 HA interacts with cholesterol, the major lipid of the plasma membrane and the defining element of the viral budding site nanodomains of the plasma membrane. The cholesterol binding motif is essential for virus replication. Its partial removal affects various steps of the viral life cycle, such as assembly of new virus particles and their subsequent cell entry via membrane fusion. A cholesterol binding pocket in group 2 HAs might be a promising target for a small lipophilic drug that inactivates the virus.
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33
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Moreno-Pescador G, Florentsen CD, Østbye H, Sønder SL, Boye TL, Veje EL, Sonne AK, Semsey S, Nylandsted J, Daniels R, Bendix PM. Curvature- and Phase-Induced Protein Sorting Quantified in Transfected Cell-Derived Giant Vesicles. ACS NANO 2019; 13:6689-6701. [PMID: 31199124 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b01052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Eukaryotic cells possess a dynamic network of membranes that vary in lipid composition. To perform numerous biological functions, cells modulate their shape and the lateral organization of proteins associated with membranes. The modulation is generally facilitated by physical cues that recruit proteins to specific regions of the membrane. Analyzing these cues is difficult due to the complexity of the membrane conformations that exist in cells. Here, we examine how different types of membrane proteins respond to changes in curvature and to lipid phases found in the plasma membrane. By using giant plasma membrane vesicles derived from transfected cells, the proteins were positioned in the correct orientation and the analysis was performed in plasma membranes with a biological composition. Nanoscale membrane curvatures were generated by extracting nanotubes from these vesicles with an optical trap. The viral membrane protein neuraminidase was not sensitive to curvature, but it did exhibit strong partitioning (coefficient of K = 0.16) disordered membrane regions. In contrast, the membrane repair protein annexin 5 showed a preference for nanotubes with a density up to 10-15 times higher than that on the more flat vesicle membrane. The investigation of nanoscale effects in isolated plasma membranes provides a quantitative platform for studying peripheral and integral membrane proteins in their natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Henrik Østbye
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics , Stockholm University , 10691 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Stine L Sønder
- Membrane Integrity Group, Unit for Cell Death and Metabolism, Center for Autophagy, Recycling and Disease , Danish Cancer Society Research Center , Strandboulevarden 49 , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Theresa L Boye
- Membrane Integrity Group, Unit for Cell Death and Metabolism, Center for Autophagy, Recycling and Disease , Danish Cancer Society Research Center , Strandboulevarden 49 , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Emilie L Veje
- Niels Bohr Institute , University of Copenhagen , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Alexander K Sonne
- Niels Bohr Institute , University of Copenhagen , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Szabolcs Semsey
- Niels Bohr Institute , University of Copenhagen , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Jesper Nylandsted
- Membrane Integrity Group, Unit for Cell Death and Metabolism, Center for Autophagy, Recycling and Disease , Danish Cancer Society Research Center , Strandboulevarden 49 , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Copenhagen , DK-2200 Copenhagen N , Denmark
| | - Robert Daniels
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics , Stockholm University , 10691 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Poul Martin Bendix
- Niels Bohr Institute , University of Copenhagen , DK-2100 Copenhagen , Denmark
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34
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Abstract
Palmitoylation or S-acylation is the posttranslational attachment of fatty acids to cysteine residues and is common among integral and peripheral membrane proteins. Palmitoylated proteins have been found in every eukaryotic cell type examined (yeast, insect, and vertebrate cells), as well as in viruses grown in these cells. The exact functions of protein palmitoylation are not well understood. Intrinsically hydrophilic proteins, especially signaling molecules, are anchored by long-chain fatty acids to the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane. Palmitoylation may also promote targeting to membrane subdomains enriched in glycosphingolipids and cholesterol or affect protein-protein interactions.This chapter describes (1) a standard protocol for metabolic labeling of palmitoylated proteins and also the procedures to prove a covalent and ester-type linkage of the fatty acids, (2) a simple method to analyze the fatty acid content of S-acylated proteins, (3) two methods to analyze dynamic palmitoylation for a given protein, and (4) protocols to study cell-free palmitoylation of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larisa Kordyukova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Ludwig Krabben
- Freie Universität Berlin, Fachbereich Veterinärmedizin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Institut für Virologie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marina Serebryakova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Michael Veit
- Freie Universität Berlin, Fachbereich Veterinärmedizin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Institut für Virologie, Berlin, Germany.
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35
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Abstract
Identification of host cell determinants promoting or suppressing replication of viruses has been aided by analyses of host cells that impose inherent blocks on viral replication. In this study, we show that primary human MDM, which are not permissive to IAV replication, fail to support virus particle formation. This defect is specific to primary human macrophages, since a human monocytic cell line differentiated to macrophage-like cells supports IAV particle formation. We further identified association between two viral transmembrane proteins, HA and M2, on the cell surface as a discrete assembly step, which is defective in MDM. Defective HA-M2 association and particle budding, but not virus release, in MDM are rescued by disruption of actin cytoskeleton, revealing a previously unknown, negative role for actin, which specifically targets an early step in the multistep IAV production. Overall, our study uncovered a host-mediated restriction of association between viral transmembrane components during IAV assembly. Influenza A virus (IAV) propagates efficiently in epithelial cells, its primary target in the respiratory tract. In contrast, productive infection of most IAV strains is either blocked or highly inefficient in macrophages. The exact nature of the defect in IAV replication in human macrophages remains unknown. In this study, we showed that even compared to a monocytic cell line differentiated to macrophage-like cells, primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) are inefficient in IAV production, despite comparable levels of expression of viral glycoproteins at the plasma membrane. Correlative fluorescence scanning electron microscopy revealed that formation of budding structures at the cell surface is inefficient in MDM even though clustering of a viral glycoprotein, hemagglutinin (HA), is observed, suggesting that a step in IAV particle assembly is blocked in MDM. Using an in situ proximity ligation assay, we further determined that HA associates with neuraminidase (NA) but fails to associate with another viral transmembrane protein, M2, at the MDM plasma membrane. Notably, the defects in HA-M2 association and particle assembly in MDM were reversed upon cytochalasin D treatment that inhibits actin polymerization. These results suggest that HA-M2 association on the plasma membrane is a discrete step in IAV production, which is susceptible to suppression by actin cytoskeleton in MDM. Virus release remained inefficient in MDM upon cytochalasin D treatment, suggesting the presence of an additional defect(s) in virus release in this cell type. Overall, our study revealed the presence of multiple cell-type-specific mechanisms negatively regulating IAV production at the plasma membrane in MDM.
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36
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Dou D, Revol R, Östbye H, Wang H, Daniels R. Influenza A Virus Cell Entry, Replication, Virion Assembly and Movement. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1581. [PMID: 30079062 PMCID: PMC6062596 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza viruses replicate within the nucleus of the host cell. This uncommon RNA virus trait provides influenza with the advantage of access to the nuclear machinery during replication. However, it also increases the complexity of the intracellular trafficking that is required for the viral components to establish a productive infection. The segmentation of the influenza genome makes these additional trafficking requirements especially challenging, as each viral RNA (vRNA) gene segment must navigate the network of cellular membrane barriers during the processes of entry and assembly. To accomplish this goal, influenza A viruses (IAVs) utilize a combination of viral and cellular mechanisms to coordinate the transport of their proteins and the eight vRNA gene segments in and out of the cell. The aim of this review is to present the current mechanistic understanding for how IAVs facilitate cell entry, replication, virion assembly, and intercellular movement, in an effort to highlight some of the unanswered questions regarding the coordination of the IAV infection process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Dou
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rebecca Revol
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Henrik Östbye
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Robert Daniels
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Snead WT, Stachowiak JC. Structure Versus Stochasticity-The Role of Molecular Crowding and Intrinsic Disorder in Membrane Fission. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:2293-2308. [PMID: 29627460 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cellular membranes must undergo remodeling to facilitate critical functions including membrane trafficking, organelle biogenesis, and cell division. An essential step in membrane remodeling is membrane fission, in which an initially continuous membrane surface is divided into multiple, separate compartments. The established view has been that membrane fission requires proteins with conserved structural features such as helical scaffolds, hydrophobic insertions, and polymerized assemblies. In this review, we discuss these structure-based fission mechanisms and highlight recent findings from several groups that support an alternative, structure-independent mechanism of membrane fission. This mechanism relies on lateral collisions among crowded, membrane-bound proteins to generate sufficient steric pressure to drive membrane vesiculation. As a stochastic process, this mechanism contrasts with the paradigm that deterministic protein structures are required to drive fission, raising the prospect that many more proteins may participate in fission than previously thought. Paradoxically, our recent work suggests that intrinsically disordered domains may be among the most potent drivers of membrane fission, owing to their large hydrodynamic radii and substantial chain entropy. This stochastic view of fission also suggests new roles for the structure-based fission proteins. Specifically, we hypothesize that in addition to driving fission directly, the canonical fission machines may facilitate the enrichment and organization of bulky disordered protein domains in order to promote membrane fission by locally amplifying protein crowding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilton T Snead
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Jeanne C Stachowiak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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Kordyukova LV, Shtykova EV, Baratova LA, Svergun DI, Batishchev OV. Matrix proteins of enveloped viruses: a case study of Influenza A virus M1 protein. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2018; 37:671-690. [PMID: 29388479 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2018.1436089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Influenza A virus, a member of the Orthomyxoviridae family of enveloped viruses, is one of the human and animal top killers, and its structure and components are therefore extensively studied during the last decades. The most abundant component, M1 matrix protein, forms a matrix layer (scaffold) under the viral lipid envelope, and the functional roles as well as structural peculiarities of the M1 protein are still under heavy debate. Despite multiple attempts of crystallization, no high resolution structure is available for the full length M1 of Influenza A virus. The likely reason for the difficulties lies in the intrinsic disorder of the M1 C-terminal part preventing diffraction quality crystals to be grown. Alternative structural methods including synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), atomic force microscopy, cryo-electron microscopy/tomography are therefore widely applied to understand the structure of M1, its self-association and interactions with the lipid membrane and the viral nucleocapsid. These methods reveal striking similarities in the behavior of M1 and matrix proteins of other enveloped RNA viruses, with the differences accompanied by the specific features of the viral lifecycles, thus suggesting common interaction principles and, possibly, common evolutional ancestors. The structural information on the Influenza A virus M1 protein obtained to the date strongly suggests that the intrinsic disorder in the C-terminal domain has important functional implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larisa V Kordyukova
- a Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University , Moscow , Russian Federation
| | - Eleonora V Shtykova
- b Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography of Federal Scientific Research Centre 'Crystallography and Photonics' of Russian Academy of Sciences , Moscow , Russian Federation.,c Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics , Russian Academy of Sciences , Moscow , Russian Federation
| | - Lyudmila A Baratova
- a Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University , Moscow , Russian Federation
| | | | - Oleg V Batishchev
- e Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , Russian Academy of Sciences , Moscow , Russian Federation.,f Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology , Dolgoprudniy , Russian Federation
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Influenza A Virus M2 Protein: Roles from Ingress to Egress. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18122649. [PMID: 29215568 PMCID: PMC5751251 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18122649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) matrix protein 2 (M2) is among the smallest bona fide, hence extensively studied, ion channel proteins. The M2 ion channel activity is not only essential for virus replication, but also involved in modulation of cellular homeostasis in a variety of ways. It is also the target for ion channel inhibitors, i.e., anti-influenza drugs. Thus far, several studies have been conducted to elucidate its biophysical characteristics, structure-function relationships of the ion channel, and the M2-host interactome. In this review, we discuss M2 protein synthesis and assembly into an ion channel, its roles in IAV replication, and the pathophysiological impact on the host cell.
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Bajimaya S, Frankl T, Hayashi T, Takimoto T. Cholesterol is required for stability and infectivity of influenza A and respiratory syncytial viruses. Virology 2017; 510:234-241. [PMID: 28750327 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol-rich lipid raft microdomains in the plasma membrane are considered to play a major role in the enveloped virus lifecycle. However, the functional role of cholesterol in assembly, infectivity and stability of respiratory RNA viruses is not fully understood. We previously reported that depletion of cellular cholesterol by cholesterol-reducing agents decreased production of human parainfluenza virus type 1 (hPIV1) particles by inhibiting virus assembly. In this study, we analyzed the role of cholesterol on influenza A virus (IAV) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) production. Unlike hPIV1, treatment of human airway cells with the agents did not decrease virus particle production. However, the released virions were less homogeneous in density and unstable. Addition of exogenous cholesterol to the released virions restored virus stability and infectivity. Collectively, these data indicate a critical role of cholesterol in maintaining IAV and RSV membrane structure that is essential for sustaining viral stability and infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shringkhala Bajimaya
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Box 672, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Tünde Frankl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Box 672, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Tsuyoshi Hayashi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Box 672, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Toru Takimoto
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Box 672, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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Phosphatidylserine Lateral Organization Influences the Interaction of Influenza Virus Matrix Protein 1 with Lipid Membranes. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.00267-17. [PMID: 28356535 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00267-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus matrix protein 1 (M1) is an essential component involved in the structural stability of the virus and in the budding of new virions from infected cells. A deeper understanding of the molecular basis of virion formation and the budding process is required in order to devise new therapeutic approaches. We performed a detailed investigation of the interaction between M1 and phosphatidylserine (PS) (i.e., its main binding target at the plasma membrane [PM]), as well as the distribution of PS itself, both in model membranes and in living cells. To this end, we used a combination of techniques, including Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), confocal microscopy imaging, raster image correlation spectroscopy, and number and brightness (N&B) analysis. Our results show that PS can cluster in segregated regions in the plane of the lipid bilayer, both in model bilayers constituted of PS and phosphatidylcholine and in living cells. The viral protein M1 interacts specifically with PS-enriched domains, and such interaction in turn affects its oligomerization process. Furthermore, M1 can stabilize PS domains, as observed in model membranes. For living cells, the presence of PS clusters is suggested by N&B experiments monitoring the clustering of the PS sensor lactadherin. Also, colocalization between M1 and a fluorescent PS probe suggest that, in infected cells, the matrix protein can specifically bind to the regions of PM in which PS is clustered. Taken together, our observations provide novel evidence regarding the role of PS-rich domains in tuning M1-lipid and M1-M1 interactions at the PM of infected cells.IMPORTANCE Influenza virus particles assemble at the plasma membranes (PM) of infected cells. This process is orchestrated by the matrix protein M1, which interacts with membrane lipids while binding to the other proteins and genetic material of the virus. Despite its importance, the initial step in virus assembly (i.e., M1-lipid interaction) is still not well understood. In this work, we show that phosphatidylserine can form lipid domains in physical models of the inner leaflet of the PM. Furthermore, the spatial organization of PS in the plane of the bilayer modulates M1-M1 interactions. Finally, we show that PS domains appear to be present in the PM of living cells and that M1 seems to display a high affinity for them.
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Shimasaki N, Nojima Y, Okaue A, Takahashi H, Kageyama T, Hamamoto I, Shinohara K. A Novel Method of Safely Measuring Influenza Virus Aerosol Using Antigen-Capture Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for the Performance Evaluation of Protective Clothing Materials. Biocontrol Sci 2017; 21:81-9. [PMID: 27350426 DOI: 10.4265/bio.21.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Currently, threats caused by pathogens are serious public health problems worldwide. Protective clothing is essential when one is treating infected patients or dealing with unknown pathogens. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the performance of protective clothing against pathogens. In Japan, some methods for evaluating the performance of protective clothing have been established in the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS). However, a test method against virus aerosols has not been established. Because there is a risk of infection from a live virus during the test, it is necessary to devise a safe method for the virus-aerosol-based test. Here, we propose a new method of safely measuring virus aerosols for the performance evaluation of protective clothing materials. To ensure safety, an inactivated virus was used. As a model virus, the influenza virus was selected owing to the proper small diameter of the virus particles. To quantitatively measure the particle-amount of the inactivated influenza virus, we developed an antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) targeting the M1 protein. Furthermore, we evaluated two materials using our method. Significant differences in the protection performance against the virus aerosol were observed between different sample materials, thereby confirming the applicability of our new method for performance evaluation.
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43
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Kordyukova L. Structural and functional specificity of Influenza virus haemagglutinin and paramyxovirus fusion protein anchoring peptides. Virus Res 2017; 227:183-199. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Feng KH, Sun M, Iketani S, Holmes EC, Parrish CR. Comparing the functions of equine and canine influenza H3N8 virus PA-X proteins: Suppression of reporter gene expression and modulation of global host gene expression. Virology 2016; 496:138-146. [PMID: 27314620 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The influenza PA-X protein is translated from the PA open reading frame from frameshifting and suppresses cellular gene expression due to its ribonuclease activity. We further defined the functional roles of PA-X by comparing PA-X proteins from two related viruses - equine influenza (EIV) and canine influenza (CIV) H3N8 - that differ in a C-terminal truncation and internal mutations. In vitro reporter gene assays revealed that both proteins were able to suppress gene expression. Interestingly, EIV PA-X demonstrated ~50% greater activity compared to CIV PA-X, and we identified the mutations that caused this difference. We used RNA-seq to evaluate the effects of PA-X on host gene expression after transfection into cultured cells. There were no significant differences in this property between EIV and CIV PA-X proteins, but expression of either resulted in the up-regulation of genes when compared to controls, most notably immunity-related proteins, trafficking proteins, and transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurtis H Feng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Miao Sun
- Computational and Systems Biology 5, Genome Institute of Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Sho Iketani
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Edward C Holmes
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Biological Sciences and Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Colin R Parrish
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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45
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Wang M, Ludwig K, Böttcher C, Veit M. The role of stearate attachment to the hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion glycoprotein HEF of influenza C virus. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:692-704. [PMID: 26518983 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The only spike of influenza C virus, the hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion glycoprotein (HEF) combines receptor binding, receptor hydrolysis and membrane fusion activities. Like other hemagglutinating glycoproteins of influenza viruses HEF is S-acylated, but only with stearic acid at a single cysteine located at the cytosol-facing end of the transmembrane region. Previous studies established the essential role of S-acylation of hemagglutinin for replication of influenza A and B virus by affecting budding and/or membrane fusion, but the function of acylation of HEF was hitherto not investigated. Using reverse genetics we rescued a virus containing non-stearoylated HEF, which was stable during serial passage and showed no competitive fitness defect, but the growth rate of the mutant virus was reduced by one log. Deacylation of HEF does neither affect the kinetics of its plasma membrane transport nor the protein composition of virus particles. Cryo-electron microscopy showed that the shape of viral particles and the hexagonal array of spikes typical for influenza C virus were not influenced by this mutation indicating that virus budding was not disturbed. However, the extent and kinetics of haemolysis were reduced in mutant virus at 37°C, but not at 33°C, the optimal temperature for virus growth, suggesting that non-acylated HEF has a defect in membrane fusion under suboptimal conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyang Wang
- Institute of Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Ludwig
- Research Center of Electron Microscopy, Department of Chemistry, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Böttcher
- Research Center of Electron Microscopy, Department of Chemistry, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Veit
- Institute of Virology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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46
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Kon TC, Onu A, Berbecila L, Lupulescu E, Ghiorgisor A, Kersten GF, Cui YQ, Amorij JP, Van der Pol L. Influenza Vaccine Manufacturing: Effect of Inactivation, Splitting and Site of Manufacturing. Comparison of Influenza Vaccine Production Processes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150700. [PMID: 26959983 PMCID: PMC4784929 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of different inactivation and splitting procedures on influenza vaccine product composition, stability and recovery to support transfer of process technology. Four split and two whole inactivated virus (WIV) influenza vaccine bulks were produced and compared with respect to release criteria, stability of the bulk and haemagglutinin recovery. One clarified harvest of influenza H3N2 A/Uruguay virus prepared on 25.000 fertilized eggs was divided equally over six downstream processes. The main unit operation for purification was sucrose gradient zonal ultracentrifugation. The inactivation of the virus was performed with either formaldehyde in phosphate buffer or with beta-propiolactone in citrate buffer. For splitting of the viral products in presence of Tween®, either Triton™ X-100 or di-ethyl-ether was used. Removal of ether was established by centrifugation and evaporation, whereas removal of Triton-X100 was performed by hydrophobic interaction chromatography. All products were sterile filtered and subjected to a 5 months real time stability study. In all processes, major product losses were measured after sterile filtration; with larger losses for split virus than for WIV. The beta-propiolactone inactivation on average resulted in higher recoveries compared to processes using formaldehyde inactivation. Especially ether split formaldehyde product showed low recovery and least stability over a period of five months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theone C. Kon
- Department of Product Development, Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Adrian Onu
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Cantacuzino National Research Institute, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Laurentiu Berbecila
- Unit of Influenza Vaccine Production, Cantacuzino National Research Institute, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Emilia Lupulescu
- Laboratory of Respiratory Viral Infections, Cantacuzino National Research Institute, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Alina Ghiorgisor
- Laboratory of Respiratory Viral Infections, Cantacuzino National Research Institute, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Gideon F. Kersten
- Department of Research, Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Yi-Qing Cui
- Department of Product Development, Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jean-Pierre Amorij
- Department of Business Development, Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Leo Van der Pol
- Department of Research, Intravacc, Institute for Translational Vaccinology, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Reddy T, Sansom MSP. The Role of the Membrane in the Structure and Biophysical Robustness of the Dengue Virion Envelope. Structure 2016; 24:375-82. [PMID: 26833387 PMCID: PMC4780862 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2015.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2015] [Revised: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The dengue virion is surrounded by an envelope of membrane proteins surrounding a lipid bilayer. We have combined the cryoelectron microscopy structures of the membrane proteins (PDB: 3J27) with a lipid bilayer whose composition is based on lipidomics data for insect cell membranes, to obtain a near-atomic resolution computational model of the envelope of the dengue virion. A coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulation on the microsecond timescale enables analysis of key biophysical properties of the dengue outer envelope. Properties analyzed include area per lipid values (for a spherical virion with a mixed lipid composition), bilayer thickness, and lipid diffusion coefficients. Despite the absence of cholesterol from the lipid bilayer, the virion exhibits biophysical robustness (slow lipid diffusion alongside stable bilayer thickness, virion diameter, and shape) that matches the cholesterol-rich membrane of influenza A, with similarly anomalous diffusion of lipids. Biophysical robustness of the envelope may confer resilience to environmental perturbations. The dengue virus envelope is a lipid bilayer plus an outer layer of membrane proteins The structures of the proteins plus lipidomics data were used to model the envelope Microsecond MD simulations revealed the dynamic behavior of the lipid bilayer Protein interactions confer “raft-like” robustness on a cholesterol-free membrane
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Reddy
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Mark S P Sansom
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK.
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48
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Wang M, Veit M. Hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HEF) protein of influenza C virus. Protein Cell 2016; 7:28-45. [PMID: 26215728 PMCID: PMC4707155 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-015-0193-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza C virus, a member of the Orthomyxoviridae family, causes flu-like disease but typically only with mild symptoms. Humans are the main reservoir of the virus, but it also infects pigs and dogs. Very recently, influenza C-like viruses were isolated from pigs and cattle that differ from classical influenza C virus and might constitute a new influenza virus genus. Influenza C virus is unique since it contains only one spike protein, the hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion glycoprotein HEF that possesses receptor binding, receptor destroying and membrane fusion activities, thus combining the functions of Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA) of influenza A and B viruses. Here we briefly review the epidemiology and pathology of the virus and the morphology of virus particles and their genome. The main focus is on the structure of the HEF protein as well as on its co- and post-translational modification, such as N-glycosylation, disulfide bond formation, S-acylation and proteolytic cleavage into HEF1 and HEF2 subunits. Finally, we describe the functions of HEF: receptor binding, esterase activity and membrane fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyang Wang
- Institute of Virology, Veterinary Medicine, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Veit
- Institute of Virology, Veterinary Medicine, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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49
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Wilson RL, Frisz JF, Klitzing HA, Zimmerberg J, Weber PK, Kraft ML. Hemagglutinin clusters in the plasma membrane are not enriched with cholesterol and sphingolipids. Biophys J 2016; 108:1652-1659. [PMID: 25863057 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The clusters of the influenza envelope protein, hemagglutinin, within the plasma membrane are hypothesized to be enriched with cholesterol and sphingolipids. Here, we directly tested this hypothesis by using high-resolution secondary ion mass spectrometry to image the distributions of antibody-labeled hemagglutinin and isotope-labeled cholesterol and sphingolipids in the plasma membranes of fibroblast cells that stably express hemagglutinin. We found that the hemagglutinin clusters were neither enriched with cholesterol nor colocalized with sphingolipid domains. Thus, hemagglutinin clustering and localization in the plasma membrane is not controlled by cohesive interactions between hemagglutinin and liquid-ordered domains enriched with cholesterol and sphingolipids, or from specific binding interactions between hemagglutinin, cholesterol, and/or the majority of sphingolipid species in the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Jessica F Frisz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Haley A Klitzing
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Joshua Zimmerberg
- Section on Cellular and Membrane Biophysics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Peter K Weber
- Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
| | - Mary L Kraft
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illnois.
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50
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Wang X, Zhu N, Li W, Zhu F, Wang Y, Yuan Y. Mono-ubiquitylated ORF45 Mediates Association of KSHV Particles with Internal Lipid Rafts for Viral Assembly and Egress. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005332. [PMID: 26650119 PMCID: PMC4674120 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses acquire their envelope by budding into the lumen of cytoplasmic membrane vesicles. This process is initiated by component(s) on viral particles, which recognize the budding site where the viral glycoproteins are present and recruit cellular cargo transport and sorting machinery to the site to complete the budding process. Proteins in the tegument layer, connecting capsid and envelope, are candidates for the recognition of budding sites on vesicle membrane and induction of budding and final envelopment. We examined several outer and matrix tegument proteins of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and found that ORF45 associates with lipid rafts (LRs) of cellular membrane. LRs are membrane micro-domains, which have been implicated as relay stations in intracellular signaling and transport including viral entry and virion assembly. The ability of ORF45 to target LR is dependent on the mono-ubiquitylation of ORF45 at Lys297 as the mutation at Lys297 (K297R) abolished LR-association of ORF45. The K297R mutation also impairs ORF45 and viral particle co-localization with trans-Golgi network and endosomes, but facilitates ORF45 and viral particles co-localizing with lysosomes. More importantly, the recombinant KSHV carrying ORF45 K297R mutant (BAC-K297R) was found severely defective in producing mature and infectious virion particles in comparison to wild type KSHV (BAC16). Taken together, our results reveal a new function of KSHV tegument protein ORF45 in targeting LR of host cell membrane, promoting viral particles co-localization with trans-Golgi and endosome vesicles and facilitating the maturation and release of virion particles, suggesting that ORF45 plays a role in bringing KSHV particles to the budding site on cytoplasmic vesicle membrane and triggering the viral budding process for final envelopment and virion maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- Institute of Human Virology and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangdong, China
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Nannan Zhu
- Institute of Human Virology and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangdong, China
| | - Wenwei Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Fanxiu Zhu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Yan Wang
- Institute of Human Virology and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangdong, China
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- * E-mail: (YW); (YY)
| | - Yan Yuan
- Institute of Human Virology and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangdong, China
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail: (YW); (YY)
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