Human L-ficolin (ficolin-2) and its clinical significance

The Molecular Mechanisms of Complement Receptor 1-It Is Complicated

Human complement receptor 1 (CR1) is a membrane-bound regulator of complement that has been the subject of recent attempts to generate soluble therapeutic compounds comprising different fragments of its extracellular domain. This review will focus on the extracellular domain of CR1 and detail how its highly duplicated domains work both separately and together to mediate binding to its main ligands C3b and C4b, and to inhibit the classical, lectin, and alternative pathways of the complement cascade via the mechanisms of decay acceleration activity (DAA) and co-factor activity (CFA). Understanding the molecular basis of CR1 activity is made more complicated by the presence not only of multiple ligand binding domains within CR1 but also the fact that C3b and C4b can interact with CR1 as both monomers, dimers, and heterodimers. Evidence for the interaction of CR1 with additional ligands such as C1q will also be reviewed. Finally, we will bring the mechanistic understanding of CR1 activity together to provide an explanation for the differential complement pathway inhibition recently observed with CSL040, a soluble CR1-based therapeutic candidate in pre-clinical development.

Evaluation of Personalized Skincare Through in-silico Gene Interactive Networks and Cellular Responses to UVR and Oxidative Stress

Purpose

Personalized approaches in dermatology are designed to match the specific requirements based on the individual genetic makeup. One major factor accounting for the differences in skin phenotypes is single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within several genes with diverse roles that extend beyond skin tone and pigmentation. Therefore, the cellular sensitivities to the environmental stress and damage linked to extrinsic aging could also underlie the individual characteristics of the skin and dictate the unique skin care requirements. This study aimed to identify the likely biomarkers and molecular signatures expressed in skin cells of different ethnic backgrounds, which could aid further the design of personalized skin products based on specific demands.

Methods

Using data mining and in-silico modeling, the association of SNP-affected genes with three major skin types of European, Asian and African origin was analyzed and compared within the structure-function gene interaction networks. Cultured dermal fibroblasts were subsequently subjected to ultraviolet radiation and oxidative stress and analyzed for DNA damage and senescent markers. The protective applications of two cosmetic ingredients, Resveratrol and Quercetin, were validated in both cellular and in-silico models.

Results

Each skin type was characterized by the presence of SNPs in the genes controlling facultative and constitutive pigmentation, which could also underlie the major differences in responses to photodamage, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and barrier homeostasis. Skin-type-specific dermal fibroblasts cultured in-vitro demonstrated distinctive sensitivities to ultraviolet radiation and oxidative stress, which could be modulated further by the bioactive compounds with the predicted capacities to interact with some of the genes in the in-silico models.

Conclusion

Evaluation of the SNP-affected gene networks and likely sensitivities of skin cells, defined as low threshold levels to extrinsic stress factors, can provide a valuable tool for the design and formulation of personalized skin products that match more accurately diverse ethnic backgrounds.

Proteins of the lectin pathway of the complement system activation: immunobiological functions, genetics and involvement in the pathogenesis of human diseases

The complement system is the most ancient components in the innate immunity, mainly functioning to primarily eliminate bacterial agents intravascularly. Moreover, the complement complex proteins play a role as a bridge between the systems of innate and adaptive immunity providing adequate conditions for maturation and differentiation of B- and T-lymphocytes. The complement system consists of plasma proteins and membrane receptors. Plasma proteins interact with each other via the three described cascade pathways lectin (which is most ancient phylogenetically), alternative and classical. Lectins are proteins comprising a separate superfamily of pattern-recognizing receptors able to sense molecules of oligo- and polysaccharide nature and induce their aggregation. Among all the lectins, ficolins (FCN) (common domain fibrinogen) and collectins (common domain collagen) mannose-binding lectin (MBL), hepatic and renal collectins have exert unique functions by complexing with carbohydrate components of microbial wall. Formation of a compound complex microbial wall polysaccharides + collectin/ficolin + specific mannose-binding lectin-associated serine proteases (MARP) results in the complement system activation, inflammatory reaction and bacterium elimination. Such scenario is proceeded along the lectin pathway compared to the two other pathways called classical and alternative. Examining a role of the complement system and congenital protein defects in the pathogenesis of various diseases is of topical interest because inborn deficiency of the complement components comprises at least 5% out of total primary immunodeficiency rate, whereas the aspects of their prevalence and pathogenesis remain unexplored. Relevance of investigating the complement system components for diverse populations is tremendous, taking into consideration accumulated evidence regarding an important role of the lectin pathway in viral infections. Lectins, the main proteins in the lectin pathway of the complement activation, are encoded by polymorphic genes, wherein single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) result in altered protein conformation and expression, which, in turn, affects functionality and potential to respond to a pathogen. The distribution of the lectin polymorphic gene frequencies and their haplotypes displays extremely marked population differences. According to analyzing available data, population SNP frequencies including those associated with inborn deficiencies for components of the lectin pathway have been currently scarce or unexplored. hence, here we review major lectins and their functions, their functionally significant SNPs in diverse populations and their pathogenetic importance for host defense functions.

Ficolin-2 Lectin Complement Pathway Mediates Capsule-Specific Innate Immunity Against Invasive Pneumococcal Disease

Reports conflict regarding which lectin-microbial ligand interactions elicit a protective response from the lectin pathway (LP) of complement. Using fluorescent microscopy, we demonstrate the human lectin ficolin-2 binds to Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 11A capsule polysaccharide dependent on the O-acetyltransferase gene wcjE. This triggers complement deposition and promotes opsonophagocytosis of encapsulated pneumococci. Even partial loss of ficolin-2 ligand expression through wcjE mutation abrogated bacterial killing. Ficolin-2 did not interact with any pneumococcal non-capsule structures, including teichoic acid. We describe multiple 11A clonal derivatives expressing varying degrees of wcjE-dependent epitopes co-isolated from single blood specimens, likely representing microevolutionary shifts towards wcjE-deficient populations during invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). We find epidemiological evidence of wcjE impairing pneumococcal invasiveness, supporting that the LP's ficolin-2 axis provides innate, serotype-specific serological protection against IPD. The fact that the LP is triggered by only a few discrete carbohydrate ligands emphasizes the need to reevaluate its impact in a glycopolymer-specific manner.

Ficolin-2 Plasma Level Assesses Liver Fibrosis in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Fibrosis is the strongest predictor for disease-specific mortality in non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLD), but the need for liver biopsy limits its diagnosis. We assessed the performance of plasma ficolin-2 (FCN-2) as a biomarker of fibrosis identified by an in silico discovery strategy. Two hundred and thirty-five morbidly obese (MO) subjects with biopsy-proven NAFLD stratified by fibrosis stage (F0, n = 44; F1, n = 134; F2, n = 46; F3/F4, n = 11) and 40 cirrhotic patients were enrolled. The cohort was subdivided into discovery (n = 76) and validation groups (n = 159). The plasma level of FCN-2 and other candidate markers was determined. FCN-2 was inversely correlated with the stage of liver fibrosis (ρ = −0.49, p < 0.001) independently of steatosis (p = 0.90), inflammation (p = 0.57), and ballooning (p = 0.59). In the global cohort, FCN-2 level decreased significantly in a stepwise fashion from F0/F1 (median 4753 ng/mL) to F2−F3−F4 (2760 ng/mL) and in cirrhotic subjects (1418 ng/mL). The diagnostic performance of FCN-2 in detecting F ≥ 2 was higher than other indexes (APRI, FIB-4) (AUROC 0.82, 0.68, and 0.6, respectively). The accuracy improved when combined with APRI score and HDL values (FCNscore, AUROC 0.85). Overall, the FCN-2 plasma level can accurately discriminate liver fibrosis status (minimal vs. moderate/advanced) significantly improving the fibrosis diagnostic algorithms.

The Plasma Proteome Fingerprint Associated with Circulating Carotenoids and Retinol in Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Although diets rich in carotenoids are associated with reduced risks of cardiovascular disease, age-related macular degeneration, disability, and other adverse aging outcomes, the underlying biological mechanisms are not fully elucidated.

OBJECTIVES

To characterize the plasma proteome fingerprint associated with circulating carotenoid and retinol concentrations in older adults.

METHODS

In 728 adults ≥65 y participating in the Invecchiare in Chianti (InCHIANTI) Study, plasma α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene were measured using HPLC. The SOMAscan assay was used to measure 1301 plasma proteins. Multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the relationship of individual carotenoids and retinol with plasma proteins. A false discovery rate approach was used to deal with multiple comparisons using a q-value < 0.05.

RESULTS

Plasma β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene were associated with 85, 39, 4, 2, and 5 plasma proteins, respectively, in multivariable linear regression models adjusting for potential confounders (q < 0.05). No proteins were associated with α-carotene or retinol. Two or more carotenoids were positively associated with ferritin, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (decarboxylating), hepcidin, thrombospondin-2, and choline/ethanolamine kinase. The proteins associated with circulating carotenoids were related to energy metabolism, sirtuin signaling, inflammation and oxidative stress, iron metabolism, proteostasis, innate immunity, and longevity.

CONCLUSIONS

The plasma proteomic fingerprint associated with elevated circulating carotenoids in older adults provides insight into the mechanisms underlying the protective role of carotenoids on health.

Uptake, recognition and responses to peptidoglycan in the mammalian host

Microbiota, and the plethora of signalling molecules that they generate, are a major driving force that underlies a striking range of inter-individual physioanatomic and behavioural consequences for the host organism. Among the bacterial effectors, one finds peptidoglycan, the major constituent of the bacterial cell surface. In the steady-state, fragments of peptidoglycan are constitutively liberated from bacterial members of the gut microbiota, cross the gut epithelial barrier and enter the host system. The fate of these peptidoglycan fragments, and the outcome for the host, depends on the molecular nature of the peptidoglycan, as well the cellular profile of the recipient tissue, mechanism of cell entry, the expression of specific processing and recognition mechanisms by the cell, and the local immune context. At the target level, physiological processes modulated by peptidoglycan are extremely diverse, ranging from immune activation to small molecule metabolism, autophagy and apoptosis. In this review, we bring together a fragmented body of literature on the kinetics and dynamics of peptidoglycan interactions with the mammalian host, explaining how peptidoglycan functions as a signalling molecule in the host under physiological conditions, how it disseminates within the host, and the cellular responses to peptidoglycan.

Plasma Proteomic Biomarkers Relating to Alzheimer's Disease: A Meta-Analysis Based on Our Own Studies

Background and Objective: Plasma biomarkers for the diagnosis and stratification of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are intensively sought. However, no plasma markers are well established so far for AD diagnosis. Our group has identified and validated various blood-based proteomic biomarkers relating to AD pathology in multiple cohorts. The study aims to conduct a meta-analysis based on our own studies to systematically assess the diagnostic performance of our previously identified blood biomarkers. Methods: To do this, we included seven studies that our group has conducted during the last decade. These studies used either Luminex xMAP or ELISA to measure proteomic biomarkers. As proteins measured in these studies differed, we selected protein based on the criteria that it must be measured in at least four studies. We then examined biomarker performance using random-effect meta-analyses based on the mean difference between biomarker concentrations in AD and controls (CTL), AD and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), MCI, and CTL as well as MCI converted to dementia (MCIc) and non-converted (MCInc) individuals. Results: An overall of 2,879 subjects were retrieved for meta-analysis including 1,053 CTL, 895 MCI, 882 AD, and 49 frontotemporal dementia (FTD) patients. Six proteins were measured in at least four studies and were chosen for meta-analyses for AD diagnosis. Of them, three proteins had significant difference between AD and controls, among which alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2M) and ficolin-2 (FCN2) increased in AD while fibrinogen gamma chain (FGG) decreased in AD compared to CTL. Furthermore, FGG significantly increased in FTD compared to AD. None of the proteins passed the significance between AD and MCI, or MCI and CTL, or MCIc and MCInc, although complement component 4 (CC4) tended to increase in MCIc individuals compared to MCInc. Conclusions: The results suggest that A2M, FCN2, and FGG are promising biomarkers to discriminate AD patients from controls, which are worthy of further validation.

Reconsidering adsorption in hemodialysis: is it just an epiphenomenon? A narrative review

Since the first attempt at extracorporeal renal replacement therapy, renal replacement therapy has been constantly improved. In the field of hemodialysis, substantial efforts have been made to improve toxin removal and biocompatibility. The advent of hemodiafiltration (HDF) and, more recently, of mid cut-off membranes have contributed to management of patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Although several uremic toxins have been discovered, we know little about the clinical impact of their clearance in hemodialysis patients. In addition, a great deal of progress has been made in the areas of filtration and diffusion, but the adsorptive properties of hemodialysis membranes remain under-studied. The mechanism of action of adsorption is based on the attraction between the polymer of the dialysis membrane and the solutes, through hydrophobic interactions, ionic or electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonds or van der Waals forces. Adsorption on the dialysis membrane depends on the membrane surface, pore size, structure and electric load. Its involvement in toxin removal and biocompatibility is significant, and is not just an epiphenomenon. Diffusive and convective properties cannot be improved indefinitely and high permeability membranes, despite their high performance in the clearance of many toxins, have several limitations for long-term use in hemodialysis. This review will discuss why adsorption should be reconsidered and better characterized to improve efficiency and adequacy of dialysis.

Genes and SNPs in the pathway of immune response and caries risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to pool the data on Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in immune response genes associated with dental caries. Nineteen studies were included in the review and 18 in the meta-analysis. Twenty-two SNPs were evaluated, which are linked to six different genes (MBL2, LFT, MASP2, DEFB1, FCN2 and MUC5B). Most SNPs (81.8%) are related to the possible functional impact on protein coding. The MBL2 gene was associated with caries experience in the analysis of the homozygote (OR = 2.12 CI95%[1.12-3.99]) and heterozygote (OR = 2.22 CI95%[1.44-3.44]) genotypes. The MUC5B gene was associated according to an analysis of the heterozygous genotype (OR = 1.83 CI95%[1.08-3.09]). Thus, SNPs related to immune response genes are linked to the phenotype of caries experience. Although the meta-analysis showed that the genes MBL2 and MUC5B were associated with caries, these results should be interpreted with caution due to the quality of the evidence.

Viral Evasion of the Complement System and Its Importance for Vaccines and Therapeutics

The complement system is a key component of innate immunity which readily responds to invading microorganisms. Activation of the complement system typically occurs via three main pathways and can induce various antimicrobial effects, including: neutralization of pathogens, regulation of inflammatory responses, promotion of chemotaxis, and enhancement of the adaptive immune response. These can be vital host responses to protect against acute, chronic, and recurrent viral infections. Consequently, many viruses (including dengue virus, West Nile virus and Nipah virus) have evolved mechanisms for evasion or dysregulation of the complement system to enhance viral infectivity and even exacerbate disease symptoms. The complement system has multifaceted roles in both innate and adaptive immunity, with both intracellular and extracellular functions, that can be relevant to all stages of viral infection. A better understanding of this virus-host interplay and its contribution to pathogenesis has previously led to: the identification of genetic factors which influence viral infection and disease outcome, the development of novel antivirals, and the production of safer, more effective vaccines. This review will discuss the antiviral effects of the complement system against numerous viruses, the mechanisms employed by these viruses to then evade or manipulate this system, and how these interactions have informed vaccine/therapeutic development. Where relevant, conflicting findings and current research gaps are highlighted to aid future developments in virology and immunology, with potential applications to the current COVID-19 pandemic.

Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis: A threat to elimination program

Leishmaniasis remains a public health concern around the world that primarily affects poor folks of the developing world spanning across 98 countries with mortality of 0.2 million to 0.4 million annually. Post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) is the late skin manifestation of visceral leishmaniasis (VL). It has been reported that about 2.5% to 20% of patients recovered from VL develop PKDL having stilted macular or nodular lesions with parasites. In the Indian subcontinent (ISC), it manifests a few months after recovery from VL, though in Africa it can occur simultaneously with VL or a little later. New cases of PKDL are also observed without prior VL in the ISC. These individuals with PKDL represent an important but largely neglected reservoir of infection that perpetuates anthroponotic Leishmania donovani transmission in the ISC and can jeopardize the VL elimination program as these cases can infect the sand flies and spread the endemic. Therefore, it becomes imperative to eradicate PKDL as a part of the VL elimination program. With the limited treatment options besides little knowledge on PKDL, this review stands out in focusing on different aspects that should be dealt for sustained VL elimination.

Association of FCN2 polymorphisms and Ficolin-2 levels with dengue fever in Vietnamese patients

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The human ficolin-2, encoded by FCN2, recognizes pathogen-associated acetylated residues on their cell surfaces and activates the lectin complement cascade. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of human ficolin-2 and the functional FCN2 genetic variants in dengue virus (DENV) infection and in clinical progression.

METHODS

FCN2 genetic polymorphisms in the promoter, intron 7 and exon 8 were genotyped in 279 patients with dengue fever and in 200 healthy controls by direct Sanger sequencing. The ficolin-2 levels were measured in serum samples by ELISA and correlated with clinical data.

RESULTS

The frequencies of +6031GG, +6220GG and +6424TT genotypes were significantly higher in dengue patients compared to healthy controls indicating an increased risk of dengue fever. The SNPs rs11103563 (+6031A/G), rs7872508 (+6220 T/G), and rs7851696 (+6424G/T) significantly regulated ficolin-2 levels in dengue patients (P < 0.0001). Ficolin-2 levels were increased in patients with dengue and Dengue with Warning Signs (DWS) compared to healthy controls (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.038, respectively). Ficolin-2 levels were significantly increased after 10-14 days of admission in both dengue and DWS patients and then slightly decreased after three weeks of discharge, indicating that ficolin-2 levels were modulated during the progression of dengue fever. In addition, ficolin-2 levels were negatively correlated with AST levels and positively correlated with platelet counts.

CONCLUSIONS

FCN2 polymorphisms are associated with dengue fever in the Vietnamese population. Ficolin-2 levels are modulated during the progression of dengue fever and correlated with clinical parameters and thus may play a possible role in the pathogenesis of DENV infection.

Systematic evaluation of species-independent serum pre-fractionation strategies revealed cost-effective methods to reduce proteome complexity

In this study, the efficiency of one commercial (ProteoMiner™ -PM) and five simple and cost-effective laboratory chemicals (Acetone, TCA/acetone, DTT, ACN and DTT-ACN) based serum protein pre-fractionation strategies was compared in pig model by label-free quantitation based mass spectrometric approach to find out the most suitable strategy for reducing the complexity of serum proteome for subsequent proteomic studies. The highest serum protein depletion percentage and highest depletion of albumin, the most abundant serum protein, was observed in DTT-ACN method. The maximum number of serum proteins was identified in ACN followed by DTT-ACN method and importantly, detection of more number of low-abundant proteins (LAPs) could also be achieved by these two methods. Although PM method resulted into lowest dynamic range of protein abundance, quite a less number of proteins were identified by this method. Overall, sequential depletion using DTT-ACN and ACN methods provided advantage of simultaneous detection of more number of proteins along with LAPs with a reasonably high dynamic range of protein abundances over other methods and thus emerged as cheaper and effective alternatives to the commercial methods. Further, these methods are species-independent and hence can be applied in human and in any livestock species to simplify the serum proteome.

Gut Microbiota Disorder, Gut Epithelial and Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunctions in Etiopathogenesis of Dementia: Molecular Mechanisms and Signaling Pathways

Emerging evidences indicate a critical role of the gut microbiota in etiopathogenesis of dementia, a debilitating multifactorial disorder characterized by progressive deterioration of cognition and behavior that interferes with the social and professional functions of the sufferer. Available data suggest that gut microbiota disorder that triggers development of dementia is characterized by substantial reduction in specific species belonging to the Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes phyla and presence of pathogenic species, predominantly, pro-inflammatory bacteria of the Proteobacteria phylum. These changes in gut microbiota microecology promote the production of toxic metabolites and pro-inflammatory cytokines, and reduction in beneficial substances such as short chain fatty acids and other anti-inflammatory factors, thereby, enhancing destruction of the gut epithelial barrier with concomitant activation of local and distant immune cells as well as dysregulation of enteric neurons and glia. This subsequently leads to blood-brain barrier dysfunctions that trigger neuroinflammatory reactions and predisposes to apoptotic neuronal and glial cell death, particularly in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, which underlie the development of dementia. However, the molecular switches that control these processes in the histo-hematic barriers of the gut and brain are not exactly known. This review integrates very recent data on the molecular mechanisms that link gut microbiota disorder to gut epithelial and blood-brain barrier dysfunctions, underlying the development of dementia. The signaling pathways that link gut microbiota disorder with impairment in cognition and behavior are also discussed. The review also highlights potential therapeutic options for dementia.

Congenitally impaired pattern-recognition receptors in pathogenesis of pediatric invasive and recurrent pneumococcal infection

Here we review currently available data showing that innate immune signs predisposing to recurrent and invasive pneumococcal infections were identified in children. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) belongs to Grampositive bacteria being the major cause of morbidity and mortality in infants, especially in developing countries and in communities with low socioeconomic status. Due to the lack of anti-pneumococcal vaccination, the significant proportion of pneumococcus carriers develop non-invasive (pneumonia, otitis media, sinusitis) and severe invasive (bacteremia/septicemia, meningitis) pneumococcal infection. A great deal of diverse factors related to pneumococcus biological features (virulence factors) as well individualized host-specific immunity are implicated in efficient bacterial penetration across the mucous membranes. The TLR signaling system plays a crucial role in the human nonspecific defense upon the first encounter with the pathogen. Various TLRs comprise the first pattern recognition receptor fami ly ever described which sense ligands derived from the outer bacterial wall. The complement system is the ancient innate immunity component mainly involved in intravascular elimination of bacterial agents. In addition, the complement proteins serve as a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity, ensuring optimal conditions for B- and T-cell maturation and differentiation. Because pneumococcus secretes the IgA protease, a local protective effects related to IgA antibodies might not be so prominent. Therefore, B-cell immunodeficiency and impaired complement system hold a lead place among congenital causes resulting in severe and recurrent pneumococcal infections in children. Thus, based on available data, we concluded that impaired B-cell function, the complement components deficiency as well as receptor-recognition receptors (TLR-2, -9, -4, MYD88 adapter protein, TLR cascade enzymes: IRAK4, NEMO, NOD-like receptors: NOD2, NLRP3; C-type lectins: MBL, Dextin-2, and, possibly, ficoline) play the most important role among congenital immunodeficiencies predisposing to invasive and recurrent pneumococcal infections play the most important role among congenital immunodeficiencies predisposing to invasive and recurrent pneumococcal infections, and should be used as a rationale for immunological surveillance and organizing immunogenetics screening in these patients.  

Plasma protein adsorption on Fe3O4-PEG nanoparticles activates the complement system and induces an inflammatory response

BACKGROUND

Understanding of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONP) interaction with the body milieu is crucial to guarantee their efficiency and biocompatibility in nanomedicine. Polymer coating to IONP, with polyethyleneglycol (PEG) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), is an accepted strategy to prevent toxicity and excessive protein binding.

AIM

The aim of this study was to investigate the feature of IONP adsorption of complement proteins, their activation and consequent inflammatory response as a strategy to further elucidate their biocompatibility.

METHODS

Three types of IONP with different surface characteristics were used: bare (IONP-bare), coated with PVP (IONP-PVP) and PEG-coated (IONP-PEG). IONPs were incubated with human plasma and adsorbed proteins were identified. BALB/c mice were intravenously exposed to IONP to evaluate complement activation and proinflammatory response.

RESULTS

Protein corona fingerprinting showed that PEG surface around IONP promoted a selective adsorption of complement recognition molecules which would be responsible for the complement system activation. Furthermore, IONP-PEG activated in vitro, the complement system and induced a substantial increment of C3a and C4a anaphylatoxins while IONP-bare and IONP-PVP did not. In vivo IONP-PEG induced an increment in complement activation markers (C5a and C5b-9), and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α).

CONCLUSION

The engineering of nanoparticles must incorporate the association between complement proteins and nanomedicines, which will regulate the immunostimulatory effects through a selective adsorption of plasma proteins and will enable a safer application of IONP in human therapy.

Decreased Ficolin-3-mediated Complement Lectin Pathway Activation and Alternative Pathway Amplification During Bacterial Infections in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Bacterial infections are frequent and severe in patients with diabetes mellitus. Whether diabetes per se induces functional alterations in the complement system hampering activation during infection is unknown. We investigated key elements of the complement system during bacterial infections in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and compared them to non-diabetic (ND) individuals. Using a prospective design, we included 197 T2DM, and 196 ND subjects, all with clinical diagnosis of acute community-acquired bacterial infections. Functional activities of the ficolin-3-mediated lectin (F3-LP), mannose binding lectin-mediated lectin- (MBL-LP), classical (CP), and alternative pathways (AP), as well as concentrations of complement activation products C4d and sC5b-9 were determined. Functional in vitro activities of F3-LP and AP were significantly higher in T2DM than in ND subjects, (median 64% vs. 45%, p = 0.0354 and 75 vs. 28%, p = 0.0013, respectively), indicating a decreased in vivo activation and lack of consumption of F3-LP and AP in T2DM patients, whereas no difference in functional capacities of CP and MBL-LP were observed between T2DM and ND subjects. Diminished F3-LP and AP activation was most pronounced in diabetic patients with urinary tract infections with positive microbiological culture results for Escherichia coli bacteria. In the T2DM group 3-months mortality significantly associated with diminished F3-LP and AP, but not with CP activation. Concentrations of C4d and sC5b-9 were significantly lower in the T2DM than in ND patients. In conclusion, we found impaired F3-LP activation and lack of AP amplification during bacterial infections in patients with type 2 diabetes, compared to non-diabetic subjects, suggesting a diminished complement mediated protection to bacterial infections in T2DM.

Development-specific transcriptomic profiling suggests new mechanisms for anoxic survival in the ventricle of overwintering turtles

Oxygen deprivation swiftly damages tissues in most animals, yet some species show remarkable abilities to tolerate little or even no oxygen. Painted turtles exhibit a development-dependent tolerance that allows adults to survive anoxia ∼4x longer than hatchlings: adults survive ∼170 days and hatchlings survive ∼40 days at 3°C. We hypothesized this difference is related to development-dependent differences in ventricular gene expression. Using a comparative ontogenetic approach, we examined whole transcriptomic changes before, during, and five days after a 20-day bout of anoxic submergence at 3°C. Ontogeny accounted for more gene expression differences than treatment (anoxia or recovery): 1,175 vs. 237 genes, respectively. Of the 237 differences, 93 could confer protection against anoxia and reperfusion injury, 68 could be injurious, and 20 may be constitutively protective. Especially striking during anoxia was the expression pattern of all 76 annotated ribosomal protein (R-protein) mRNAs, which decreased in anoxia-tolerant adults, but increased in anoxia-sensitive hatchlings, suggesting adult-specific regulation of translational suppression. These genes, along with 60 others that decreased their levels in adults and either increased or remained unchanged in hatchlings, implicate antagonistic pleiotropy as a mechanism to resolve the long-standing question about why hatchling painted turtles overwinter in terrestrial nests, rather than emerge and overwinter in water during their first year. In sum, developmental differences in the transcriptome of the turtle ventricle revealed potentially protective mechanisms that contribute to extraordinary adult-specific anoxia tolerance, and provide a unique perspective on differences between the anoxia-induced molecular responses of anoxia-tolerant or anoxia-sensitive phenotypes within a species.

Plasma Protein Biomarkers for the Prediction of CSF Amyloid and Tau and [18F]-Flutemetamol PET Scan Result

Background: Blood biomarkers may aid in recruitment to clinical trials of Alzheimer's disease (AD) modifying therapeutics by triaging potential trials participants for amyloid positron emission tomography (PET) or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aβ and tau tests. Objective: To discover a plasma proteomic signature associated with CSF and PET measures of AD pathology. Methods: Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) based proteomics were performed in plasma from participants with subjective cognitive decline (SCD), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and AD, recruited to the Amsterdam Dementia Cohort, stratified by CSF Tau/Aβ42 (n = 50). Technical replication and independent validation were performed by immunoassay in plasma from SCD, MCI, and AD participants recruited to the Amsterdam Dementia Cohort with CSF measures (n = 100), MCI participants enrolled in the GE067-005 study with [18F]-Flutemetamol PET amyloid measures (n = 173), and AD, MCI and cognitively healthy participants from the EMIF 500 study with CSF Aβ42 measurements (n = 494). Results: 25 discovery proteins were nominally associated with CSF Tau/Aβ42 (P < 0.05) with associations of ficolin-2 (FCN2), apolipoprotein C-IV and fibrinogen β chain confirmed by immunoassay (P < 0.05). In the GE067-005 cohort, FCN2 was nominally associated with PET amyloid (P < 0.05) replicating the association with CSF Tau/Aβ42. There were nominally significant associations of complement component 3 with PET amyloid, and apolipoprotein(a), apolipoprotein A-I, ceruloplasmin, and PPY with MCI conversion to AD (all P < 0.05). In the EMIF 500 cohort FCN2 was trending toward a significant relationship with CSF Aβ42 (P ≈ 0.05), while both A1AT and clusterin were nominally significantly associated with CSF Aβ42 (both P < 0.05). Conclusion: Associations of plasma proteins with multiple measures of AD pathology and progression are demonstrated. To our knowledge this is the first study to report an association of FCN2 with AD pathology. Further testing of the proteins in larger independent cohorts will be important.

Current Perspectives and Mechanisms of Relationship between Intestinal Microbiota Dysfunction and Dementia: A Review

BACKGROUND

Accumulating data suggest a crucial role of the intestinal microbiota in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. More recently, emerging reports have revealed an association between intestinal microbiota dysfunctions and dementia, a debilitating multifactorial disorder, characterized by progressive deterioration of cognition and behavior that interferes with the social and professional life of the sufferer. However, the mechanisms of this association are not fully understood.

SUMMARY

In this review, I discuss recent data that suggest mechanisms of cross-talk between intestinal microbiota dysfunction and the brain that underlie the development of dementia. Potential therapeutic options for dementia are also discussed. The pleiotropic signaling of the metabolic products of the intestinal microbiota together with their specific roles in the maintenance of both the intestinal and blood-brain barriers as well as regulation of local, distant, and circulating immunocytes, and enteric, visceral, and central neural functions are integral to a healthy gut and brain.

KEY MESSAGES

Research investigating the effect of intestinal microbiota dysfunctions on brain health should focus on multiple interrelated systems involving local and central neuroendocrine, immunocyte, and neural signaling of microbial products and transmitters and neurohumoral cells that not only maintain intestinal, but also blood brain-barrier integrity. The change in intestinal microbiome/dysbiome repertoire is crucial to the development of dementia.

Lectin-complement pathway molecules are decreased in patients with cirrhosis and constitute the risk of bacterial infections

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Lectin pathway molecules of the complement system are synthesized by hepatocytes and have pivotal role in innate host defence against infectious organisms. Ficolins (FCNs) act as soluble pattern recognition molecules, while mannan-binding lectin serine proteases(MASPs) do as effector molecules in elimination of pathogens. We aimed to study the significance of low level of these molecules in the development of cirrhosis-associated bacterial infections, which has not been elucidated so far.

METHODS

Sera of 266 stable outpatients with cirrhosis and 160 healthy subjects were assayed for a panel of lectin molecules (FCN-2, FCN-3 and MASP-2) by ELISA. In cirrhosis, a 5-year follow-up observational study was conducted to assess a possible association between lectin levels and development of clinically significant bacterial infections(CSI).

RESULTS

FCN-2, FCN-3 and MASP-2 levels were significantly lower in cirrhosis compared to healthy subjects and decreased according to disease severity (P<.001 for all molecules). In Kaplan-Meier analysis, development of CSI was associated with low level of FCN-2 (<427 ng/mL, pLogRank=0.047) and FCN-3 (<4857 ng/mL, pLogRank=0.029), but not with MASP-2 deficiency (<100 ng/mL, pLogRank=0.306). Combined FCN deficiency was associated with increased risk of development of bacterial infections in a step-wise manner. Patients with low level of both FCNs had higher cumulative probability of CSI (63.8%) compared to those with low level of one or normal FCN (52.7% and 45.7%, pLogRank=0.016). Neither FCN serum profile, nor MASP-2 deficiency were associated with infection-related mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Low level of FCNs associated with hepatic insufficiency might be considered as an additional constituent of cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction.

The prevalence of the variants of the L-ficolin gene (FCN2) in the arctic populations of East Siberia

L-ficolin encoded by FCN2 gene is a crucial factor of defence against infection in humans. We studied the prevalence of the two common variants (rs17549193 and rs7851696) in aboriginal and alien populations of the Taymyr-Dolgan-Nenets region of Krasnoyarskiy Kray, East Siberia, Russia (Nenets, Dolgans, Nganasans, Russians). We found a decreased prevalence of the rs17549193*T allele in all aboriginal populations as compared to Russians. Also, its frequency was the lowest in the Nenets among the studied populations, while frequency of the rs7851696*T allele was increased in this population. The results suggest that the Arctic populations of East Siberia are characterised by specificity of genetic make-up responsible for the activity of L-ficolin. Clinical and epidemiological studies are required to discover if these genetic features correlate with the infant infectious morbidity in East Siberian populations.

The Lack of Association between FCN2 Gene Promoter Region Polymorphisms and Dental Caries in Polish Children

The aim of this study was to examine the association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the gene encoding ficolin-2 protein (FCN2 gene) at positions -986 (rs17514136), -602 (rs3124953), and -4 (rs3124952) with dental caries in Polish children. Two hundred and sixty Polish Caucasian children aged 15 years were enrolled in this study: 82 with "higher" caries experience (DMFT >5) and 178 with "lower" caries experience (DMFT ≤5). In addition, subjects with caries experience (DMFT ≥1) and caries-free subjects (DMFT = 0) were compared. FCN2 SNPs were genotyped with PCR-RFLP methods. There were no significant differences in the genotype, allele, or haplotype distributions in 3 analyzed SNPs of the FCN2 gene between children with "higher" and those with "lower" caries experience as well as between children with caries experience and caries-free children. In conclusion, we did not find any association of FCN2 promoter polymorphisms at positions -986, -602, and -4 with dental caries in Polish children.

Ficolin-2 inhibitors are present in sera after prolonged storage at -80 °C

Ficolins can activate the lectin pathway of the complement system that provides innate immune protection against pathogens, marks host cellular debris for clearance, and promotes inflammation. Baseline inflammation increases with aging in a phenomenon known as “inflammaging.” Although IL-6 and C-reactive protein are known to increase with age, contributions of many complement factors, including ficolins, to inflammaging have been little studied.

Ficolin-2 is abundant in human serum and can recognize many target structures; therefore, ficolin-2 has potential to contribute to inflammaging. We hypothesized that inflammaging would alter ficolin-2 levels among older adults and examined 360 archived sera collected from older individuals. We found that these sera had apparently reduced ficolin-2 levels and that 84.2% of archived sera exhibited ficolin-2 inhibitors, which suppressed apparent amounts of ficolin-2 detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Fresh serum samples were obtained from donors whose archived sera showed inhibitors, but the fresh sera did not have ficolin-2 inhibitors. Ficolin-2 inhibitors were present in other long-stored sera from younger persons. Furthermore, noninhibiting samples and fresh sera from older adults had apparently normal amounts of ficolin-2. Thus, ficolin-2 inhibitors may arise as an artifact of long-term storage of serum at −80 °C.

Association of Low Ficolin-Lectin Pathway Parameters with Cardiac Syndrome X

In patients with typical angina pectoris, inducible myocardial ischaemia and macroscopically normal coronaries (cardiac syndrome X (CSX)), a significantly elevated plasma level of terminal complement complex (TCC), the common end product of complement activation, has been observed without accompanying activation of the classical or the alternative pathways. Therefore, our aim was to clarify the role of the ficolin-lectin pathway in CSX. Eighteen patients with CSX, 37 stable angina patients with significant coronary stenosis (CHD) and 54 healthy volunteers (HC) were enrolled. Serum levels of ficolin-2 and ficolin-3, ficolin-3/MASP-2 complex and ficolin-3-mediated TCC deposition (FCN3-TCC) were determined. Plasma level of TCC was significantly higher in the CSX than in the HC or CHD group (5.45 versus 1.30 versus 2.04 AU/ml, P < 0.001). Serum levels of ficolin-2 and ficolin-3 were significantly lower in the CSX compared to the HC or CHD group (3.60 versus 5.80 or 5.20 μg/ml, P < 0.05; 17.80 versus 24.10 or 26.80 μg/ml, P < 0.05). The ficolin-3/MASP-2 complex was significantly lower in the CSX group compared to the HC group (92.90 versus 144.90 AU/ml, P = 0.006). FCN3-TCC deposition was significantly lower in the CSX group compared to the HC and CHD groups (67.8% versus 143.3% or 159.7%, P < 0.05). In the CSX group, a significant correlation was found between TCC and FCN3-TCC level (r = 0.507, P = 0.032) and between ficolin-3/MASP-2 complex level and FCN3-TCC deposition (r = 0.651, P = 0.003). In conclusion, in patients with typical angina and myocardial ischaemia despite macroscopically normal coronary arteries, low levels of several lectin pathway parameters were observed, indicating complement activation and consumption. Complement activation through the ficolin-lectin pathway might play a role in the complex pathomechanism of CSX.

Six-SOMAmer Index Relating to Immune, Protease and Angiogenic Functions Predicts Progression in IPF

RATIONALE

Biomarkers in easily accessible compartments like peripheral blood that can predict disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) would be clinically useful regarding clinical trial participation or treatment decisions for patients. In this study, we used unbiased proteomics to identify relevant disease progression biomarkers in IPF.

METHODS

Plasma from IPF patients was measured using an 1129 analyte slow off-rate modified aptamer (SOMAmer) array, and patient outcomes were followed over the next 80 weeks. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves evaluated sensitivity and specificity for levels of each biomarker and estimated area under the curve (AUC) when prognostic biomarker thresholds were used to predict disease progression. Both logistic and Cox regression models advised biomarker selection for a composite disease progression index; index biomarkers were weighted via expected progression-free days lost during follow-up with a biomarker on the unfavorable side of the threshold.

RESULTS

A six-analyte index, scaled 0 to 11, composed of markers of immune function, proteolysis and angiogenesis [high levels of ficolin-2 (FCN2), cathepsin-S (Cath-S), legumain (LGMN) and soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFsR2), but low levels of inducible T cell costimulator (ICOS) or trypsin 3 (TRY3)] predicted better progression-free survival in IPF with a ROC AUC of 0.91. An index score ≥ 3 (group ≥ 2) was strongly associated with IPF progression after adjustment for age, gender, smoking status, immunomodulation, forced vital capacity % predicted and diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide % predicted (HR 16.8, 95% CI 2.2-126.7, P = 0.006).

CONCLUSION

This index, derived from the largest proteomic analysis of IPF plasma samples to date, could be useful for clinical decision making in IPF, and the identified analytes suggest biological processes that may promote disease progression.

Exploring host-pathogen interactions through genome wide protein microarray analysis

During bacterial pathogenesis extensive contacts between the human and the bacterial extracellular proteomes take place. The identification of novel host-pathogen interactions by standard methods using a case-by-case approach is laborious and time consuming. To overcome this limitation, we took advantage of large libraries of human and bacterial recombinant proteins. We applied a large-scale protein microarray-based screening on two important human pathogens using two different approaches: (I) 75 human extracellular proteins were tested on 159 spotted Staphylococcus aureus recombinant proteins and (II) Neisseria meningitidis adhesin (NadA), an important vaccine component against serogroup B meningococcus, was screened against ≈2300 spotted human recombinant proteins. The approach presented here allowed the identification of the interaction between the S. aureus immune evasion protein FLIPr (formyl-peptide receptor like-1 inhibitory protein) and the human complement component C1q, key players of the offense-defense fighting; and of the interaction between meningococcal NadA and human LOX-1 (low-density oxidized lipoprotein receptor), an endothelial receptor. The novel interactions between bacterial and human extracellular proteins here presented might provide a better understanding of the molecular events underlying S. aureus and N. meningitidis pathogenesis.

Mycobacterial antigen 85 complex (Ag85) as a target for ficolins and mannose-binding lectin

The pattern recognition molecules (PRMs) able to activate complement via the lectin pathway are suspected to be involved in the interaction between pathogenic Mycobacteria and the host immune response. Recently, we have found strong interactions between 25 and 35kDa mycobacterial cell fractions and mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and ficolins. Here we demonstrate that two biologically important mycobacterial structures, mannosylated lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM) and the antigen 85 (Ag85) complex, induce activation of the lectin pathway of complement. The strong interaction of recombinant MBL with purified ManLAM was confirmed, but no binding of recombinant ficolins (ficolin-1, -2, -3) with this structure was observed. Interestingly, all PRMs tested reacted with the mycobacterial antigen 85 (Ag85) complex. Based on the use of specific inhibitors (mannan for MBL, acetylated bovine serum albumin for ficolin-1 and -2, Hafnia alvei PCM 1200 lipopolysaccharide for ficolin-3), we concluded that carbohydrate-recognition (MBL) and fibrinogen-like domains (ficolins) were involved in these interactions. Our results indicate that the mycobacterial antigen 85 complex is a target for ficolins and MBL. Furthermore, those PRMs also bound to fibronectin and therefore might influence the Ag85 complex-dependent interaction of Mycobacterium with the extracellular matrix.

A New Ligand-Based Method for Purifying Active Human Plasma-Derived Ficolin-3 Complexes Supports the Phenomenon of Crosstalk between Pattern-Recognition Molecules and Immunoglobulins

Despite recombinant protein technology development, proteins isolated from natural sources remain important for structure and activity determination. Ficolins represent a class of proteins that are difficult to isolate. To date, three methods for purifying ficolin-3 from plasma/serum have been proposed, defined by most critical step: (i) hydroxyapatite absorption chromatography (ii) N-acetylated human serum albumin affinity chromatography and (iii) anti-ficolin-3 monoclonal antibody-based affinity chromatography. We present a new protocol for purifying ficolin-3 complexes from human plasma that is based on an exclusive ligand: the O-specific polysaccharide of Hafnia alvei PCM 1200 LPS (O-PS 1200). The protocol includes (i) poly(ethylene glycol) precipitation; (ii) yeast and l-fucose incubation, for depletion of mannose-binding lectin; (iii) affinity chromatography using O-PS 1200-Sepharose; (iv) size-exclusion chromatography. Application of this protocol yielded average 2.2 mg of ficolin-3 preparation free of mannose-binding lectin (MBL), ficolin-1 and -2 from 500 ml of plasma. The protein was complexed with MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) and was able to activate the complement in vitro. In-process monitoring of MBL, ficolins, and total protein content revealed the presence of difficult-to-remove immunoglobulin G, M and A, in some extent in agreement with recent findings suggesting crosstalk between IgG and ficolin-3. We demonstrated that recombinant ficolin-3 interacts with IgG and IgM in a concentration-dependent manner. Although this association does not appear to influence ficolin-3-ligand interactions in vitro, it may have numerous consequences in vivo. Thus our purification procedure provides Ig-ficolin-3/MASP complexes that might be useful for gaining further insight into the crosstalk and biological activity of ficolin-3.

Frequency and distribution of FCN2 and FCN3 functional variants among MBL2 genotypes

The six types of pattern recognition molecules (PRMs) that initiate complement via the lectin pathway (LP) comprise collectins and ficolins. The importance of having various PRMs to initiate the LP is currently unclear. Mannan-binding lectin (MBL) is a collectin member of the LP PRMs. MBL deficiency is common with mild clinical consequence. Thus, the lack of MBL may be compensated for by the other PRMs. We hypothesized that variants FCN2 + 6424 and FCN3 + 1637delC that cause gene-dose-dependent reduction in ficolin-2 and ficolin-3 levels, respectively, may be rare in MBL-deficient individuals due to the importance of compensation within the LP. The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution and frequency of these variants among MBL2 genotypes in healthy subjects. The allele frequency of FCN2 + 6424 and FCN3 + 1637delC was 0.099 and 0.015, respectively, in the cohort (n = 498). The frequency of FCN2 + 6424 tended to be lower among MBL-deficient subjects (n = 53) than among MBL-sufficient subjects (n = 445) (0.047 versus 0.106, P = 0.057). In addition, individuals who were homozygous for FCN2 + 6424 were sufficient MBL producers. The frequency of FCN3 + 1637delC did not differ between the groups. The frequency of FCN2 + 6424 was similar in FCN3 + 1637delC carriers (n = 15) versus wild type (n = 498). Furthermore, subjects that were heterozygote carriers of both FCN2 + 6424 and FCN3 + 1637delC were sufficient MBL producers. In conclusion, FCN2 + 6424 carriers with MBL deficiency tend to be rare among healthy individuals. MBL-deficient individuals with additional LP PRM defects may be at risk to morbidity.

Development of porcine ficolin-alpha monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for determining the binding capacity of multiple GlcNAc-binding proteins to bacterial danger components

Ficolins are a group of oligomeric defense proteins assembled from collagen-like stalks and fibrinogen-like domains that have common biochemical specificity for N-acetyl-d-glucose amine (GlcNAc) and can function as opsonins. In this report, GlcNAc-binding protein (GBP) purified from porcine nonimmune serum was biochemically characterized as ficolin-α. Ficolin-α was used as an immunogen to generate both rabbit polyclonal and murine monoclonal anti-ficolin-α antibodies, which are not yet commercially available. GBPs have been shown to be present in many animals, including humans; however, their functions are largely unknown. GBPs from chicken, dog, horse, bovine, and human sera were isolated using various chromatography methods. Interestingly, anti-ficolin-α antibody showed cross-reaction with those animal sera GBPs. Furthermore, anti-ficolin-α antibody was reactive with the GlcNAc eluate of Escherichia coli O26-bound and Salmonella-bound porcine serum proteins. Functionally, GBPs and bacteria-reactive pig serum proteins were able to bind with pathogen-associated molecular patterns such as lipopolysaccharides and lipoteichoic acids. Our studies demonstrate that ficolin-α specific antibody was reactive with GBPs from many species as well as bacteria-reactive serum proteins. These proteins may play important roles in innate immunity by sensing danger components that can lead to antibacterial activity.

Can ficolin-2 (L-ficolin) insufficiency be established by a single serum protein measurement?

Serum ficolin-2 was measured in multiple (2-27) samples from 68 paediatric sepsis patients. Fourteen individuals (21%) gave values that included a change in status from 'normal' to 'insufficient' or vice versa. Therefore, if possible, ficolin-2 concentration should be determined in samples obtained when a disease is inactive.

Association of the FCN2 Gene Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms with Susceptibility to Pulmonary Tuberculosis

Ficolin-2 (FCN2) is an innate immune pattern recognition molecule that can activate the complement pathway, opsonophagocytosis, and elimination of the pathogens. The present study aimed to investigate the association of the FCN2 gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). A total of seven SNPs in exon 8 (+6359 C>T and +6424 G>T) and in the promoter region (-986 G>A, -602 G>A, -557 A>G, -64 A>C and -4 A>G) of the FCN2 gene were genotyped using the PCR amplification and DNA sequencing methods in the healthy controls group (n = 254) and the pulmonary TB group (n = 282). The correlation between SNPs and pulmonary TB was analyzed using the logistic regression method. The results showed that there were no significant differences in the distribution of allelic frequencies of seven SNPs between the pulmonary TB group and the healthy controls group. However, the frequency of the variant homozygous genotype (P = 0.037, -557 A>G; P = 0.038, -64 A>C; P = 0.024, +6424 G>T) in the TB group was significantly lower than the control group. After adjustment for age and gender, these variant homozygous genotypes were found to be recessive models in association with pulmonary TB. In addition, -64 A>C (P = 0.047) and +6424 G>T (P = 0.03) were found to be codominant models in association with pulmonary TB. There was strong linkage disequilibrium (r2 > 0.80, P < 0.0001) between 7 SNPs except the -602 G>A site. Therefore, -557 A>G, -64 A>C and +6424 G>T SNPs of the FCN2 gene were correlated with pulmonary TB, and may be protective factors for TB. This study provides a novel idea for the prevention and control of TB transmission from a genetics perspective.

Rapid and efficient purification of ficolin-2 using a disposable CELLine bioreactor

The human opsonin ficolin-2 (L-ficolin) is an innate pattern-recognizing molecule that binds to acetylated moieties. Upon binding, ficolin-2 activates complement through the lectin pathway, opsonizing the target to promote phagocytic clearance. Ficolin-2 has been found to interact with a growing number of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Ficolin-2 also has proposed roles in host homeostasis, including the clearance of apoptotic cells. Consequently, there is an increased interest in studying ficolin-2, and access to purified ficolin-2 is necessary for these studies. Ficolin-2 purified from serum, plasma, or cell culture supernatants has been a useful tool in the characterization of ficolin-2 function; however, available protocols are laborious and inefficient, requiring additional processing of starting materials (e.g., polyethylene glycol precipitation or dialysis) and multiple steps of purification. Here, we investigated a simple solution to the problem: use of a simple, disposable bioreactor requiring only standard tissue culture equipment. Using this system, we generated cell culture supernatants containing high concentrations of recombinant ficolin-2, which permitted rapid purification of high-purity recombinant ficolin-2 without processing the supernatants. Purified recombinant ficolin-2 retained its binding capacity and supported complement activation in vitro. Bioreactor cultivation will likely be generally useful in the production of other recombinant proteins in the study of the complement system.

Association Study of Mannose-Binding Lectin Levels and Genetic Variants in Lectin Pathway Proteins with Susceptibility to Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

In age-related macular degeneration (AMD) the complement system is thought to be activated by chronic oxidative damage with genetic variants identified in the alternative pathway as susceptibility factors. However, the involvement of the lectin pathway of complement, a key mediator of oxidative damage, is controversial. This study investigated whether mannose-binding lectin (MBL) levels and genetic variants in lectin pathway proteins, are associated with the predisposition to and severity of AMD.

METHODS

MBL levels and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the MBL2 and the ficolin-2 (FCN2) gene were determined in 109 patients with AMD and 109 age- and sex-matched controls.

RESULTS

MBL expression levels were equally distributed in both cases (early and late AMD) and controls (p>0.05). However, there was a trend towards higher median MBL levels in cases with late AMD compared to cases with early AMD (1.0 vs. 0.4 μg/ml, p = 0.09) and MBL deficiency (<0.5 μg/ml) was encountered less frequently in the late AMD group (35% vs 56%, p = 0.03). FCN2 and MBL2 allele frequencies were similarly distributed in early and late AMD cases compared with controls (p>0.05 for all analyses) as were MBL2 genotypes. Similarly, there was no significant difference in allele frequencies in any SNPs in either the MBL2 or FCN2 gene in cases with early vs. late AMD.

CONCLUSIONS

SNPs of lectin pathway proteins investigated in this study were not associated with AMD or AMD severity. However, MBL levels deserve further study in a larger cohort of early vs. late AMD patients to elucidate any real effect on AMD severity.

Serum proteomics in multiple sclerosis disease progression

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is associated with chronic degeneration of the central nervous system and may cause permanent neurological problems and considerable disability. While its causes remain unclear, its extensive phenotypic variability makes its prognosis and treatment difficult. The identification of serum proteomic biomarkers of MS progression could further our understanding of the molecular mechanisms related to MS disease processes. In the current study, we used isobaric tagging for relative and absolute protein quantification (iTRAQ) methodology and advanced multivariate statistical analysis to quantify and identify potential serum biomarker proteins of MS progression. We identified a panel of 11 proteins and combined them into a classifier that best classified samples into the two disease groups. The estimated area under the receiver operating curve of this classifier was 0.88 (p-value=0.017), with 86% sensitivity and specificity. The identified proteins encompassed processes related to inflammation, opsonization, and complement activation. Results from this study are in particular valuable to design a targeted Multiple Reaction Monitoring mass spectrometry based (MRM-MS) assay to conduct an external validation in an independent and larger cohort of patients. Validated biomarkers may result in the development of a minimally-invasive tool to monitor MS progression and complement current clinical practices.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

A hallmark of multiple sclerosis is the unpredictable disease course (progression). There are currently no clinically useful biomarkers of MS disease progression; most work has focused on the analysis of CSF, which requires an invasive procedure. Here, we explore the potential of proteomics to identify panels of serum biomarkers of disease progression in MS. By comparing the protein signatures of two challenging to obtain, but well-defined, MS phenotypic groups at the extremes of progression (benign and aggressive cases of MS), we identified proteins that encompass processes related to inflammation, opsonization, and complement activation. Findings require validation, but are an important step on the pathway to clinically useful biomarker discovery. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein dynamics in health and disease. Guest Editors: Pierre Thibault and Anne-Claude Gingras.

Genetic variation of COLEC10 and COLEC11 and association with serum levels of collectin liver 1 (CL-L1) and collectin kidney 1 (CL-K1)

Collectin liver 1 (CL-L1, alias CL-10) and collectin kidney 1 (CL-K1, alias CL-11), encoded by the COLEC10 and COLEC11 genes, respectively, are highly homologous soluble pattern recognition molecules in the lectin pathway of complement. These proteins may be involved in anti-microbial activity and in tissue development as mutations in COLEC11 are one of the causes of the developmental defect syndrome 3MC. We studied variations in COLEC10 and COLEC11, the impact on serum concentration and to what extent CL-L1 and CL-K1 serum concentrations are correlated. We sequenced the promoter regions, exons and exon-intron boundaries of COLEC10 and COLEC11 in samples from Danish Caucasians and measured the corresponding serum levels of CL-L1 and CL-K1. The median concentration of CL-L1 and CL-K1 was 1.87 μg/ml (1.00-4.14 μg/ml) and 0.32 μg/ml (0.11-0.69 μg/ml), respectively. The level of CL-L1 strongly correlated with CL-K1 (ρ = 0.7405, P <0.0001). Both genes were highly conserved with the majority of variations in the non-coding regions. Three non-synonymous variations were tested: COLEC10 Glu78Asp (rs150828850, minor allele frequency (MAF): 0.003), COLEC10 Arg125Trp (rs149331285, MAF: 0.007) and COLEC11 His219Arg (rs7567833, MAF: 0.033). Carriers of COLEC10 Arg125Trp had increased CL-L1 serum levels (P = 0.0478), whereas promoter polymorphism COLEC11-9570C>T (rs3820897) was associated with decreased levels of CL-K1 (P = 0.044). In conclusion, COLEC10 and COLEC11 are highly conserved, which may reflect biological importance of CL-L1 and CL-K1. Moreover, the strong inter individual correlation between the two proteins suggests that a major proportion are found as heterooligomers or subjected to the same regulatory mechanisms.

Low ficolin-2 levels in common variable immunodeficiency patients with bronchiectasis

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) encompasses a heterogeneous group of antibody deficiencies characterized by susceptibility to recurrent infections and sequelae, including bronchiectasis. We investigated the relevance of the lectin complement pathway in CVID patients by analysing ficolin-2 and ficolin-3 serum levels and genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the FCN2 and FCN3 genes. Our results show that ficolin-2 levels in CVID patients are significantly lower (P < 0.0001) than in controls. The lowest ficolin-2 levels are found in CVID patients with bronchiectasis (P = 0.0004) and autoimmunity (P = 0.04). Although serum levels of ficolin-3 were similar in CVID patients and controls, CVID patients with bronchiectasis again showed lower levels when compared to controls (P = 0.0001). Analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the FCN2 gene confirmed known influences on ficolin-2 serum levels, but did not support a genetic basis for the observed ficolin-2 deficiency in CVID. We found that CVID patients with bronchiectasis have very low levels of ficolin-2. The reason for the deficiency of ficolin-2 in CVID and any possible causal relationship is currently unknown. However, as bronchiectasis is a very important factor for morbidity and mortality in CVID, ficolin-2 could also serve as biomarker for monitoring disease complications such as bronchiectasis.

Human L-ficolin recognizes phosphocholine moieties of pneumococcal teichoic acid

Human L-ficolin is a soluble protein of the innate immune system able to sense pathogens through its fibrinogen (FBG) recognition domains and to trigger activation of the lectin complement pathway through associated serine proteases. L-Ficolin has been previously shown to recognize pneumococcal clinical isolates, but its ligands and especially its molecular specificity remain to be identified. Using solid-phase binding assays, serum and recombinant L-ficolins were shown to interact with serotype 2 pneumococcal strain D39 and its unencapsulated R6 derivative. Incubation of both strains with serum triggered complement activation, as measured by C4b and C3b deposition, which was decreased by using ficolin-depleted serum. Recombinant L-ficolin and its FBG-like recognition domain bound to isolated pneumococcal cell wall extracts, whereas binding to cell walls depleted of teichoic acid (TA) was decreased. Both proteins were also shown to interact with two synthetic TA compounds, each comprising part structures of the complete lipoteichoic acid molecule with two PCho residues. Competition studies and direct interaction measurements by surface plasmon resonance identified PCho as a novel L-ficolin ligand. Structural analysis of complexes of the FBG domain of L-ficolin and PCho revealed that the phosphate moiety interacts with amino acids previously shown to define an acetyl binding site. Consequently, binding of L-ficolin to immobilized acetylated BSA was inhibited by PCho and synthetic TA. Binding of serum L-ficolin to immobilized synthetic TA and PCho-conjugated BSA triggered activation of the lectin complement pathway, thus further supporting the hypothesis of L-ficolin involvement in host antipneumococcal defense.

Interaction of lectin pathway of complement-activating pattern recognition molecules with mycobacteria

We have demonstrated that mannose-binding lectin (MBL) recognizes various slow-growing, pathogenic mycobacteria [Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), M. bovis, M. kansasii, M. gordonae] as well as non-pathogenic M. smegmatis. Recognition resulted in activation of the lectin pathway (LP) of complement and an enhancement of phagocytosis (shown for M. tuberculosis). Although MBL may be considered the main factor activating the LP upon recognition of mycobacteria, involvement of ficolins has also to be considered. Interaction of ficolin-3 with M. tuberculosis, M. bovis and M. kansasii, and ficolin-1 with M. tuberculosis and M. bovis was shown for the first time. Binding of recombinant MBL or ficolin-3 to MTB H37 Rv led to the agglutination of bacteria and promoted their phagocytosis, but little effect was apparent with ficolin-1 or ficolin-2. Data from Western blots suggest mannosylated lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM) to be one of the main cell components of slow-growing mycobacteria, involved in LP activation. However, the LP was also activated by other cell fractions. Results presented here supplement considerably the data concerning the ability of complement-activating lectins to interact with mycobacteria. Ficolins (especially ficolin-3) might influence host response to infection and thus have clinical significance, at least as disease modifiers.

Serum ficolin-2 in hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia

Mannose binding lectin (MBL) and ficolins contribute to host defence through activation of the lectin pathway of complement. In this study, serum levels of ficolin-2 and MBL were determined in 276 patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). MBL deficiency and ficolin-2 insufficiency were defined using previously validated cut-offs. No differences were observed in MBL or ficolin-2 between patients and controls. MBL-deficient patients (<500 ng/ml) were not at higher risk of 30-day mortality odds ratio (OR) 0.97 (0.38-2.48,p=0.9) or a composite outcome of mortality, mechanical ventilation, vasopressor support (MV/VS) or complications OR 0.89 (0.44-1.77, p=0.9). Although no significant relationship between ficolin-2 insufficiency and outcome was observed, very low ficolin-2 levels (<1,200 ng/ml) were associated with an OR 1.23 (0.15-10.1), p=0.6 for 30-day mortality, 3.05 (0.61-15.2, p=0.2) for MV/VS and OR 2.05 (0.52-8.1, p=0.2) for the composite outcome. Low serum levels of MBL and ficolin-2 are not associated with CAP susceptibility. The high frequency of ficolin-2 insufficiency in patients with severe CAP would justify a larger investigation of ficolin-2 as a modifier of CAP severity.

Commercially available complement component-depleted sera are unexpectedly codepleted of ficolin-2

The ficolins are a family of innate pattern recognition molecules that are known to bind acetylated compounds and activate complement through the association of mannose binding lectin (MBL)/ficolin-associated serine proteases (MASPs). Their importance has more recently become appreciated, as they have been shown to play a role in a variety of disease processes from infection to autoimmunity. While studying ficolin-2-mediated complement deposition on Streptococcus pneumoniae, we found that sera depleted of C1q or other complement components were also codepleted of ficolin-2 but not ficolin-1, ficolin-3, or MBL. MBL present in C1q-depleted sera was able to mediate complement deposition on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, suggesting the presence of MASPs. We found that complement was activated on pneumococci in C1q-depleted serum only after opsonization with exogenous recombinant ficolin-2 (rFicolin-2). Also, no complement deposition was observed in C1q-depleted serum when pneumococci were opsonized with rFicolin-2 mutated at its lysine-57 residue, where MASPs are known to associate. Thus, these depleted sera are a unique tool to study ficolin-2-mediated complement pathways; however, one should be aware that ficolin-2 is absent from complement component-depleted sera.