A Systematic Review of Carcinogenic Outcomes and Potential Mechanisms from Exposure to 2,4-D and MCPA in the Environment

Sustained anaerobic degradation of 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid by acclimated sludge in a continuous-flow reactor

4-Chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) is a widely used herbicide across the world. MCPA is persistent and easily transports into anoxic environment, such as groundwater, sediments and deep soils. However, little research on anaerobic microbial degradation of MCPA was carried out. The functional microorganisms as well as the catabolic pathway are still unknown. In this research, an anaerobic MCPA-degrading bacterial consortium was enriched from the river sediment near a pesticide-manufacturing plant. After about 6 months' acclimation, the MCPA transformation rate of the consortium reached 4.32 μmol g^-1 day^-1, 25 times faster than that of the original sludge. 96% of added MCPA (2.5 mM) was degraded within 9 d of incubation. Three metabolites including 4-chloro-2-methylphenol (MCP), 2-methylphenol (2-MP) and phenol were identified during the anaerobic degradation of MCPA. An anaerobic catabolic pathway was firstly proposed: firstly, MCPA was transformed to MCP via the cleavage of the aryl ether, then MCP was reductively dechlorinated to 2-MP which was further demethylated to phenol. The 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing revealed a substantial shift in the bacterial community composition after the acclimation. SBR1031, Acidaminococcaceae, Aminicenantales, Syntrophorhabdus, Acidaminobacter, Bacteroidetes_vadinHA17, Methanosaeta, Bathyarchaeia, KD4-96, Anaeromyxobacter, and Dehalobacter were significantly increased in the enriched consortium after acclimation, and positively correlated with the anaerobic degradation of MCPA as suggested by heat map correlation analysis. This study provides a basis for further elucidation of the anaerobic catabolism of MCPA, and contributes to developing efficient and low-cost anaerobic treatment technologies for MCPA pollution.

Adsorption of 2,4-D and MCPA Herbicides on Carbon Black Modified with Hydrogen Peroxide and Aminopropyltriethoxysilane

The carbon black N-220 surface was subjected to modification through H2O2 oxidation and deposition of aminopropyltriethoxysilane. The pristine (CB-NM) and modified materials (CB-Ox and CB-APTES) were characterized by N2 adsorption−desorption isotherms, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), thermogravimetry, and FTIR spectroscopy. Carbon black samples were applied as adsorbents for the removal of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) herbicides from aqueous solutions. The influence of their surface properties on adsorption efficiency was analyzed and discussed. The results showed that the adsorption of the herbicides was pH-dependent, and the most favorable adsorption was observed in an acidic environment. The experimental data best fit pseudo-second-order and Langmuir models for kinetic and equilibrium data, respectively. The adsorption rate of both the herbicides increased in the order of CB-APTES < CB-Ox < CB-NM and was closely correlated with the mesopore volume of the carbon blacks. The monolayer adsorption capacities were found to be 0.138, 0.340, and 0.124 mmol/g for the adsorption of 2,4-D and 0.181, 0.348, and 0.139 mmol/g for the adsorption of MCPA on CB-NM, CB-APTES, and CB-Ox, respectively. The results showed that the surface chemistry of the adsorbent plays a more important role than its porous structure. Both herbicides were preferably adsorbed on APTES-modified carbon black and were adsorbed the worst on oxidized carbon black (CB-APTES > CB-NM > CB-Ox).

Quantifying MCPA load pathways at catchment scale using high temporal resolution data

Detection of the agricultural acid herbicide MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) in drinking water source catchments is of growing concern, with economic and environmental implications for water utilities and wider ecosystem services. MCPA is poorly adsorbed to soil and highly mobile in water, but hydrological pathway processes are relatively unknown at the catchment scale and limited by coarse resolution data. This understanding is required to target mitigation measures and to provide a framework to monitor their effectiveness. To address this knowledge gap, this study reports findings from river discharge and synchronous MCPA concentration datasets (continuous 7 hour and with additional hourly sampling during storm events) collected over a 7 month herbicide spraying season. The study was undertaken in a surface (source) water catchment (384 km²-of which 154 km² is agricultural land use) in the cross-border area of Ireland. Combined into loads, and using two pathway separation techniques, the MCPA data were apportioned into event and baseload components and the former was further separated to quantify a quickflow (QF) and other event pathways. Based on the 7 hourly dataset, 85.2 kg (0.22 kg km^-2 by catchment area, or 0.55 kg km^-2 by agricultural area) of MCPA was exported from the catchment in 7 months. Of this load, 87.7 % was transported via event flow pathways with 72.0 % transported via surface dominated (QF) pathways. Approximately 12 % of the MCPA load was transported via deep baseflows, indicating a persistence in this delayed pathway, and this was the primary pathway condition monitored in a weekly regulatory sampling programme. However, overall, the data indicated a dominant acute, storm dependent process of incidental MCPA loss during the spraying season. Reducing use and/or implementing extensive surface pathway disconnection measures are the mitigation options with greatest potential, the success of which can only be assessed using high temporal resolution monitoring techniques.

Toxicity of 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy acetic acid alone and in combination with cyhalofop-butyl to Cyprinus carpio embryos

Herbicides may pose considerable danger to non-target aquatic organisms and further threaten human health. The present investigation was aimed to assess the effects of 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy acetic acid (MCPA-Na) on Cyprinus carpio embryos. Embryos were exposed to six concentrations of MCPA-Na (0, 52, 54, 56, 58 and 60 mg/L) for 96 h. A series of symptoms were observed in developmental embryos during MCPA-Na exposure, including increased death, hatching inhibited and morphological deformities. Further, MCPA-Na exposure leading to a series of morphological changes (pericardial edema, tail deformation, and spine deformation) in embryos, which were consistent with modifications in the associated genes. In this work, we also investigated the joint toxicity of herbicides (MCPA-Na and cyhalofop-butyl) commonly used in paddy fields on carp embryos, using the 96 h-LC₅₀ of herbicides (59.784 mg/L MCPA-Na and 1.472 mg/L cyhalofop-butyl) and confirmed that a synergistic effect existing in the binary mixtures.

Evaluation and comparison of advanced oxidation processes for the degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D): a review

Organochlorine pesticides have generated public concern worldwide because of their toxicity to human health and the environment, even at low concentrations, and their persistence, being mostly nonbiodegradable. The use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has increased in recent decades, causing severe water contamination. Several treatments have been developed to degrade 2,4-D. This manuscript presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, uses, regulations, environmental and human health impacts of 2,4-D, and different advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to degrade this organic compound, evaluating and comparing operation conditions, efficiencies, and intermediaries. Based on this review, 2,4-D degradation is highly efficient in ozonation (system O₃/plasma, 99.8% in 30 min). Photocatalytic, photo-Fenton, and electrochemical processes have the optimal efficiencies of degradation and mineralization: 97%/79.67% (blue TiO₂ nanotube arrays//UV), 100%/98% (Fe²⁺/H₂O₂/UV), and 100%/84.3% (MI-meso SnO₂), respectively. The ozonation and electrochemical processes show high degradation efficiencies, but energy costs are also high, and photocatalysis is more expensive with a separation treatment used to recover the catalyst in the solution. The Fenton process is a viable economic-environmental option, but degradation efficiencies are often low (50-70%); however, they are increased when solar UV radiation is used (90-100%). AOPs are promising technologies for the degradation of organic pollutants in real wastewater, so evaluating their strengths and weaknesses is expected to help select viable operational conditions and obtain optimal efficiencies.

Cancer and occupational exposure to pesticides: an umbrella review

Purpose

The aim was to identify the scope of the epidemiology literature reviewed regarding the risk of cancer as related to occupational exposure to pesticides and to compare regulatory toxicity results where feasible.

Methods

Review studies of breast, lung, prostate, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and colorectal cancer were identified from the published literature from 2010 to 2020 using a priori inclusion and exclusion criteria. Epidemiology observations were first assessed and then compared against carcinogenicity profiles derived from regulatory toxicology studies.

Results

Several active ingredients were associated with specific cancer but overall, there was neither strong nor consistent epidemiologic data supportive of a positive association between pesticide exposure in occupational settings and cancer. Authors noted common themes related to the heterogeneity of exposure, study design, control for confounders, and the challenge to collect these data reliably and validly with an adequate sample size. Toxicology studies in laboratory animals that assessed carcinogenic potential did not reveal cancer outcomes that were concordant with reported epidemiologic findings.

Conclusions

Farming and pesticides represent diverse exposures that are difficult to quantify in epidemiologic studies. Going forward, investigators will need creative and novel approaches for exposure assessment. Integration of epidemiologic and toxicological studies with attention to biological plausibility, mode of toxicological action and relevance to humans will increase the ability to better assess associations between pesticides and cancer.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00420-020-01638-y.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Salivary Concentrations for Noninvasive Biomonitoring of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D)

Saliva has become a favorable sample matrix for biomonitoring due to its noninvasive attributes and overall flexibility in collection. To ensure measured salivary concentrations reflect the exposure, a solid understanding of the salivary transport mechanism and relationships between salivary concentrations and other monitored matrices (ie, blood, urine) is needed. Salivary transport of a commonly applied herbicide, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), was observed in vitro and in vivo and a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed to translate observations from the cell culture model to those in animal models and further evaluate 2,4-D kinetics in humans. Although apparent differences in experimental in vitro and in vivo saliva:plasma ratios (0.034 and 0.0079) were observed, simulations with the PBPK model demonstrated dynamic time and dose-dependent saliva:plasma ratios, elucidating key mechanisms affecting salivary transport. The model suggested that 2,4-D exhibited diffusion-limited transport to saliva and was additionally impacted by protein binding saturation and permeability across the salivary gland. Consideration of sampling times post-exposure and potential saturation of transport mechanisms are then critical aspects for interpreting salivary 2,4-D biomonitoring observations. This work utilized PBPK modeling in in vitro to in vivo translation to explore benefits and limitations of salivary analysis for occupational biomonitoring.

Photoelectrochemical degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid using electrochemically self-doped Blue TiO2 nanotube arrays with formic acid as electrolyte

Blue TiO₂ nanotube arrays (Blue-TNTs) were fabricated via an electrochemical reduction method with formic acid as the electrolyte. The optimum reduction conditions were obtained as bias potential of -1.3 V, reduction time of 5 min and formic acid of 3 M. Blue-TNTs were remarkably corroded compared with the intact TNTs. Similar crystal structures of the two catalysts were observed using X-ray diffraction, while red-shift was observed for Blue-TNTs using Raman spectra. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy indicated of the presence of Ti³⁺ in Blue-TNTs that resulted from the reduction of Ti⁴⁺ and reduced the resistance of the catalyst. Blue-TNTs exhibited much stronger light-absorption than intact TNTs over the entire ultraviolet-visible region, especially in the visible region. The catalyst was used toward the photoelectrochemical oxidation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) for the first time where the influencing factors were studied. Photoelectrocatalysis with Blue-TNTs presented a 2,4-D degradation rate constant (0.0295 min^-1) more than twice the sum of that of electrocatalysis (0.0055 min^-1) and photocatalysis (0.0089 min^-1). Blue-TNTs fabricated in formic acid showed a better photoelectrocatalytic performance for 2,4-D removal compared with that prepared in ethylene glycol, Na₂SO₄ and NaNO₃ solution. Blue-TNTs is considered to be a promising photoelectric anode for contaminant degradation.

Magnesium supplementation ameliorates toxic effects of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in rat model

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is an extensively used herbicide in the field of agriculture, its ever-escalating use induces toxicity, health effects, and environmental impact. Oxidative stress plays a key role in pathogenesis of 2,4-D-induced liver and kidney damage. Magnesium (Mg) is a highly effective antioxidant agent in restoring oxidative damage by directly influencing the metabolic and physiological processes. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate Mg role in ameliorating the oxidative damages provoked by 2,4-D in rat model. Male Wistar rats (180–220 g) were distributed into four groups and treated intragastrically for 4 weeks. Group 1: control, group 2: 2,4-D (150 mg/kg body weight/day), group 3: simultaneously treated with 2,4-D (150 mg/kg body weight/day) and Mg supplement (50 mg/kg body weight/day), and group 4: Mg supplement (50 mg/kg body weight/day). Under experimental conditions, plasma hepatic and renal biomarkers, tissue oxidative status, and antioxidant enzymes activities were investigated. Results demonstrated that 2,4-D intoxication caused hepatic and renal impairments as indicated by the significantly increased ( p < 0.001) alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, urea, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen levels. In addition, 2,4-D caused a significant enhancement ( p < 0.001) in the level of malondialdehyde as well as reduction ( p < 0.001) of the superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione reductase activities in both hepatic and renal tissues. Mg treatment prevented and reversed the toxic variations induced by 2,4-D. In general, these outcomes suggest that Mg may have antioxidant potential and ameliorative effects against 2,4-D provoking hepatic and renal toxicity in rat model.

Evaluation of non-invasive biomonitoring of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in saliva

The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential for non-invasive biomonitoring of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in saliva. Using an in vitro rat salivary gland epithelial cell (SGEC) system, a collection of experiments investigating chemical protein binding, temporal and directional transport, as well as competitive transport with para-aminohippuric acid (PAH), a substrate for renal organic anion transporters, was conducted to identify cellular transport parameters required to computationally model salivary transport of 2,4-D. Additionally, a physiological protein gradient was implemented to mimic physiologically relevant concentrations of protein in rat plasma and saliva, and under these conditions the transfer of 2,4-D was markedly slower, driven by increased protein binding (i.e. reduced free 2,4-D species available to cross salivary barrier). The rate of transfer was directly proportional to the amount of unbound 2,4-D and demonstrated no indication of active transport. An in vivo assessment of 2,4-D exposure in rats revealed non-linear protein binding in plasma, indicating saturated protein binding and increased levels of unbound 2,4-D species at higher doses. A strong correlation between 2,4-D concentrations in saliva and unbound 2,4-D in plasma was observed (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.95). Saliva:plasma 2,4-D ratios measured in vivo (0.0079) were consistent within the linear protein binding range and expected 2,4-D levels from occupational exposures but were significantly different than ratios measured in vitro (physiological conditions) (0.034), possibly due to 2,4-D concentrations in saliva not being at equilibrium with 2,4-D concentrations in blood, as well as physiological features absent in in vitro settings (e.g. blood flow). We demonstrated that 2,4-D is consistently transported into saliva using both in vitro and in vivo models, making 2,4-D a potential candidate for human non-invasive salivary biomonitoring. Further work is needed to understand whether current sensor limits of detection are sufficient to measure occupationally relevant exposures.

Phenol and chlorinated phenols exhibit different apoptotic potential in human red blood cells (in vitro study)

Phenol and chlorinated phenols are widely spread in the environment and human surrounding, which leads to a common environmental and occupational exposure of humans to these substances. The aim of this study was to assess eryptotic changes in human red blood cells treated with phenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) and pentachlorophenol (PCP). The erythrocytes were incubated with phenols studied in the concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 μg/mL for 24 h or 48 h. The results of the study revealed that all compounds studied caused phosphatidylserine translocation and increased cytosolic calcium ions level in human erythrocytes. It was also noticed that phenol and chlorophenols caused an increase in caspase-3 and calpain activation, which confirmed that they were capable of inducing suicidal death of erythrocytes. The results also revealed that PCP most strongly altered the parameters studied, while phenol exhibited the weakest eryptotic potential in the incubated cells.

Rapid detection and quantification of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in milk using molecularly imprinted polymers-surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

We report the development of a molecularly imprinted polymers-surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (MIPs-SERS) method for rapid detection and quantification of a herbicide residue 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in milk. MIPs were synthesized via bulk polymerization and utilized as solid phase extraction sorbent to selectively extract and enrich 2,4-D from milk. Silver nanoparticles were synthesized to facilitate the collection of SERS spectra of the extracts. Based on the characteristic band intensity of 2,4-D (391 cm^-1), the limit of detection was 0.006 ppm and the limit of quantification was 0.008 ppm. A simple logarithmic working range (0.01-1 ppm) was established, satisfying the sensitivity requirement referring to the maximum residue level of 2,4-D in milk in both Europe and North America. The overall test of 2,4-D for each milk sample required only 20 min including sample preparation. This MIPs-SERS method has potential for practical applications in detecting 2,4-D in agri-foods.

Dioxin Exposure in the Manufacture of Pesticide Production as a Risk Factor for Death from Prostate Cancer: A Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

In pesticide exposure groups such as farmers, the risk of prostate cancer was increased, although the report of the cause of evidence is limited. We selected chlorophenol compounds as an important group of the contaminated pesticide with highly toxic 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). This meta-analysis, the risk of death from prostate cancer was analyzed.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Scholar Google and web of Sciences until 2016 were searched. The standardized mortality rate (SMR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were obtained from the studies. We tested statistical heterogeneity with Cochrane Q test and I2 index. Egger test was used for evaluating publication bias. Random or fixed-effects models and meta-regression were also used in our analysis. Moreover, Cochrane tool was used to assess the risk of bias.

RESULTS

Five available papers consist of 28706 exposed populations were assessed. Overall standardized mortality rate as combined result of prostate cancer risk from the fixed model was 1.2 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02 to 1.42, P=0.027). Some biases are more probable in these studies such as confounding by indication, loss to follow up and misclassification.

CONCLUSION

A contaminated pesticide with dioxins between other pesticides is an important risk factor for prostate cancers.

Phenoxy herbicide removal from aqueous solutions using fast pyrolysis switchgrass biochar

The release of herbicides is known to negatively impact humans and the environment. We report the use of a low cost biochar (prepared through fast pyrolysis) to successfully remove phenoxy herbicides from aqueous solutions. The biochar was characterized using: FT-IR, SEM, pH_pzc, elemental analysis, and surface area measurements. Sorption experiments were run at pH values from 2 to 10, adsorbate concentrations from 25 to 300 mg/L and temperatures from 25 to 45 °C. Adsorption isotherms were evaluated from 25 to 45 °C using both two parameter (Freundlich and Langmuir) and three parameter (Redlich-Peterson and Toth) adsorption isotherm models. The maximum adsorption capacities for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) were Q⁰_SGB∼134 mg/g and Q⁰_SGB∼50 mg/g, respectively, at pH 2. This low surface area switchgrass biochar (1.1 m²/g) can adsorb far more MCPA per unit of measured surface area (45 mg/m²) than high surface area commercial activated carbons (1050-1150 m²/g) which absorb only 0.08-0.11 mg/m², and are also expensive. This indicates that biochar three dimensional swelling occurs in an aqueous environment and adsorbates are imbibed and adsorbed at additional sorption sites.

Effects of oral administration of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) on reproductive parameters in male Wistar rats

The 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is used worldwide in agriculture as a selective herbicide. It has been shown to produce a wide range of adverse effects on the health of both animals and humans from embryotoxicity and teratogenicity to neurotoxicity. In the present study, we have examined the effect of 2,4-D on male reproductive function of rats. Male Wistar rats received daily by force-feeding 100 or 200 mg of 2,4-D/kg body weight for 30 consecutive days. Rats exposed to 100 and 200 mg of 2,4-D/kg showed a significant decrease in body weights only after 24 days of treatment and in relative weights of testis, seminal vesicles and prostate at killing day, when compared with controls. Moreover, a decrease in testosterone and an increase in FSH and LH serum levels were detected in treated rats. Besides, exposure to this herbicide induced pronounced testicular histological alterations with enlarged intracellular spaces, tissue loosening and dramatic loss of gametes in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules. In addition, a decreased motility and a number of epididymal spermatozoa with an increased sperm abnormality rate were found in treated rats in comparison with control. With the highest dose, histological observations of seminal vesicles indicated a considerable decrease of secretions in the lumen, a thinness of the muscle layer surrounding the epithelium with branched mucosal crypts and reduced luminal space. In prostate, the heights of the cells decreased while acinar lumen were enlarged and they lost the typical invaginations. Our results suggest that a subacute treatment of 2,4-D promotes reproductive system toxicity.

Does 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) induce genotoxic effects in tissue cultured Allium roots?

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a synthetic plant growth regulator that is highly toxic to most broad leaved plants and relatively nontoxic to monocotyledonous plants; is frequently used as weed killer. The study aimed to investigate cytogenetic effects of different concentrations of 2,4-D (0.67, 1.34, 2.01, 2.68, 3.35 and 4.02 mg/L) on Allium cepa bulblets' root tips treated for 24 and 48 h. The results showed six types of structural aberrations: C-mitosis, stickiness, laggards, bridges, fragments and multipolarity that varied numerically compared to control. It significantly affected mitotic index (MI) at 24 and 48 h treatment. In the Allium test, MI increased significantly at three lower concentrations (0.67, 1.34, 2.01 mg/L) after treatment with 2,4-D for 24 h and decreased significantly at higher concentration. Whereas, 2,4-D treatment for 48 h increased MI at all concentrations with significantly decreased MI at the highest concentration. The experiment was extended using comet test that did not reveal significant difference among treatments except for application of 4.02 mg/L 2,4-D for 48 h; where cell damages were verified by comet test. Rest of the concentrations for any duration of time were not damaging and toxic to cells. The results showed, visible mitodepressive action of 4.02 mg/L 2,4-D when treated for 48 h that had tendency to become toxic if the roots had been in touch with 2,4-D for a longer time.

Evaluation of exposure to organophosphate, carbamate, phenoxy acid, and chlorophenol pesticides in pregnant women from 10 Caribbean countries

Pesticides are commonly used in tropical regions such as the Caribbean for both household and agricultural purposes. Of particular concern is exposure during pregnancy, as these compounds can cross the placental barrier and interfere with fetal development. The objective of this study was to evaluate exposure of pregnant women residing in 10 Caribbean countries to the following commonly used classes of pesticides in the Caribbean: organophosphates (OPs), carbamates, phenoxy acids, and chlorophenols. Out of 438 urine samples collected, 15 samples were randomly selected from each Caribbean country giving a total of 150 samples. Samples were analyzed for the following metabolites: six OP dialkylphosphate metabolites [dimethylphosphate (DMP), dimethylthiophosphate (DMTP), dimethyldithiophosphate (DMDTP), diethylphosphate (DEP), diethylthiophosphate (DETP) and diethyldithiophosphate (DEDTP)]; two carbamate metabolites [2-isopropoxyphenol (2-IPP) and carbofuranphenol]; one phenoxy acid 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D); and five chlorophenols [2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP), 2,5-dichlorophenol (2,5-DCP), 2,4,5-trichlorophenol (TCP), 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP), and pentachlorophenol (PCP)]. OP metabolites were consistently detected in ≥60% of the samples from Antigua and Barbuda, Bermuda, and Jamaica. Of the carbamate metabolites, 2-IPP was detected in seven of the 10 Caribbean countries with a detection frequency around 30%, whereas carbofuranphenol was detected in only one sample. The detection frequency for the phenoxy acid 2,4-D ranged from 20% in Grenada to a maximum of 67% in Belize. Evidence of exposure to chlorophenol pesticides was also established with 2,4-DCP by geometric means ranging from 0.52 μg L(-1) in St Lucia to a maximum of 1.68 μg L(-1) in Bermuda. Several extreme concentrations of 2,5-DCP were detected in four Caribbean countries-Belize (1100 μg L(-1)), Bermuda (870 μg L(-1)), Jamaica (1300 μg L(-1)), and St Kitts and Nevis (1400 μg L(-1)). 2,4,5-TCP, 2,4,6-TCP, and pentachlorophenol were rarely detected. This biomonitoring study underscores the need for Caribbean public health authorities to encourage their populations, and in particular pregnant women, to become more aware of the potential routes of exposure to pesticides and to utilize these chemicals more cautiously given the possible adverse effects such exposures can have on their unborn children and infants.

Phenoxy herbicides, soft-tissue sarcoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a systematic review of evidence from cohort and case-control studies

BACKGROUND

Phenoxy herbicides have been used widely in agriculture, forestry, parks and domestic gardens. Early studies linked them with soft-tissue sarcoma (STS) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), but when last reviewed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1986, the evidence for human carcinogenicity was limited.

SOURCES OF DATA

We searched Medline and Embase, looking for cohort or case-control studies that provided data on risk of STS and/or NHL in relation to phenoxy herbicides, and checked the reference lists of relevant publications for papers that had been missed.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT, AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

The extensive evidence is not entirely consistent, and a hazard of STS or NHL cannot firmly be ruled out. However, if there is a hazard, then absolute risks must be small.

GROWING POINTS, AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH

Extended follow-up of previously assembled cohorts may be the most efficient way of further reducing uncertainties.

Relationship between NADPH and Th1/Th2 ratio in patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma who have been exposed to pesticides

The effect of pesticides on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen (NADPH), including its level and relationship with the T helper 1 (Th1)/Th2 ratio, in patients suffering from non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) was investigated. One hundred newly diagnosed patients with aggressive NHL (53 men, 47 women) and 40 healthy age-, sex-, and body mass index-matched controls (23 men, 17 women), exposed or not to pesticides, were recruited for a cross-sectional study conducted at the Clinical Hematology Departments of Tlemcen and Sidi Bel-Abbès University Medical Centers in the northwest of Algeria. NADPH levels were significantly increased in patients compared with controls; and in exposed patients compared with those not exposed, and controls (one-way analysis of variance; P=0.000). Albumin, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase activity, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity levels were significantly decreased in patients compared with in the control group. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity levels were significantly decreased in exposed patients compared with in unexposed patients; however, malondialdehyde levels were significantly increased in exposed patients when compared with controls and unexposed patients. Protein carbonyl and xanthine oxidase levels were significantly increased in exposed patients compared with controls; meanwhile, there were no significant differences between the two patient groups or between unexposed patients and controls. The Th1/Th2 ratio was significantly decreased in patients when compared with controls; the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio was significantly increased (for both comparisons, P<0.001). In addition, NADPH was strongly associated with NHL (Mantel–Haenszel common odds ratio estimate =5.55; 95% confidence interval, 2.22–13.88; P=0.000). Moreover, NADPH levels were significantly negatively related to the Th1/Th2 ratio, either in exposed patients or in unexposed patients (respectively, r=−0.498 [P=0.004] and r=−0.327 [P=0.006]). In conclusion, pesticide exposure was strongly associated with NADPH alteration in NHL. The relationship between NADPH and Th1/Th2 ratio should focus on new therapeutic strategies for the disease.

Soft tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides: extended follow-up of a UK cohort

OBJECTIVES

To provide further information on the possible carcinogenicity of phenoxy herbicides, and in particular their relationship to soft tissue sarcoma (STS), non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL).

METHODS

We extended follow-up to December 2012 for 8036 men employed at five factories in the UK which had manufactured phenoxy herbicides, or in a contract spraying business. Mortality was compared with that for England and Wales by the person-years method. Nested case-control analyses compared men with incident or fatal STS (n=15) or NHL/CLL (n=74) and matched controls (up to 10 per case).

RESULTS

4093 men had died, including 2303 since the last follow-up. Mortality from all causes and all cancers was close to expectation, but an excess of deaths from NHL was observed among men who had worked for ≥1 year in jobs with more than background exposure to phenoxy herbicides (19 deaths, SMR 1.85, 95% CI 1.12 to 2.89). Four deaths from STS occurred among men potentially exposed above background (3.3 expected). In the nested case-control analyses, there were no significantly elevated risks or consistent trends across categories of potential exposure for either STS or NHL/CLL. Among men who had worked for ≥1 year in potentially exposed jobs, the highest OR (for STS) was only 1.30 (95% CI 0.30 to 5.62).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings are consistent with the current balance of epidemiological evidence. If phenoxy herbicides pose a hazard of either STS or NHL, then any absolute increase in risk is likely to be small.

Biomonitoring exposure assessment to contemporary pesticides in a school children population of Spain

The exposure to pesticides amongst school-aged children (6-11 years old) was assessed in this study. One hundred twenty-five volunteer children were selected from two public schools located in an agricultural and in an urban area of Valencia Region, Spain. Twenty pesticide metabolites were analyzed in children's urine as biomarkers of exposure to organophosphate (OP) insecticides, synthetic pyrethroid insecticides, and herbicides. These data were combined with a survey to evaluate the main predictors of pesticide exposure in the children's population. A total of 15 metabolites were present in the urine samples with detection frequencies (DF) ranging from 5% to 86%. The most frequently detected metabolites with DF>53%, were 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy, metabolite of chlorpyrifos), diethyl phosphate (DEP, generic metabolite of OP insecticides), 2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine (IMPY, metabolite of diazinon) and para-nitrophenol (PNP, metabolite of parathion and methyl parathion). The calculated geometric means ranged from 0.47 to 3.36 µg/g creatinine, with TCPy and IMPY showing the higher mean concentrations. Statistical significant differences were found between exposure subgroups (Mann-Whitney test, p<0.05) for TCPy, DEP, and IMPY. Children living in the agricultural area had significantly higher concentrations of DEP than those living in the urban area. In contrast, children aged 6-8 years from the urban area, showed statistically higher IMPY levels than those from agricultural area. Higher levels of TCPy were also found in children with high consumption of vegetables and higher levels of DEP in children whose parents did not have university degree studies. The multivariable regression analysis showed that age, vegetable consumption, and residential use of pesticides were predictors of exposure for TCPy, and IMPY; whereas location and vegetable consumption were factors associated with DEP concentrations. Creatinine concentrations were the most important predictors of urinary TCPy and PNP metabolites.