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Vorland CJ, Brown AW, Dawson JA, Dickinson SL, Golzarri-Arroyo L, Hannon BA, Heo M, Heymsfield SB, Jayawardene WP, Kahathuduwa CN, Keith SW, Oakes JM, Tekwe CD, Thabane L, Allison DB. Errors in the implementation, analysis, and reporting of randomization within obesity and nutrition research: a guide to their avoidance. Int J Obes (Lond) 2021; 45:2335-2346. [PMID: 34326476 PMCID: PMC8528702 DOI: 10.1038/s41366-021-00909-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Randomization is an important tool used to establish causal inferences in studies designed to further our understanding of questions related to obesity and nutrition. To take advantage of the inferences afforded by randomization, scientific standards must be upheld during the planning, execution, analysis, and reporting of such studies. We discuss ten errors in randomized experiments from real-world examples from the literature and outline best practices for their avoidance. These ten errors include: representing nonrandom allocation as random, failing to adequately conceal allocation, not accounting for changing allocation ratios, replacing subjects in nonrandom ways, failing to account for non-independence, drawing inferences by comparing statistical significance from within-group comparisons instead of between-groups, pooling data and breaking the randomized design, failing to account for missing data, failing to report sufficient information to understand study methods, and failing to frame the causal question as testing the randomized assignment per se. We hope that these examples will aid researchers, reviewers, journal editors, and other readers to endeavor to a high standard of scientific rigor in randomized experiments within obesity and nutrition research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colby J Vorland
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA.
| | - Andrew W Brown
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - John A Dawson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Stephanie L Dickinson
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Lilian Golzarri-Arroyo
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Bridget A Hannon
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Moonseong Heo
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Steven B Heymsfield
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Wasantha P Jayawardene
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Chanaka N Kahathuduwa
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Scott W Keith
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Division of Biostatistics, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - J Michael Oakes
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Carmen D Tekwe
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Lehana Thabane
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - David B Allison
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA.
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2
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Brown AW, Altman DG, Baranowski T, Bland JM, Dawson JA, Dhurandhar NV, Dowla S, Fontaine KR, Gelman A, Heymsfield SB, Jayawardene W, Keith SW, Kyle TK, Loken E, Oakes JM, Stevens J, Thomas DM, Allison DB. Childhood obesity intervention studies: A narrative review and guide for investigators, authors, editors, reviewers, journalists, and readers to guard against exaggerated effectiveness claims. Obes Rev 2019; 20:1523-1541. [PMID: 31426126 PMCID: PMC7436851 DOI: 10.1111/obr.12923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Being able to draw accurate conclusions from childhood obesity trials is important to make advances in reversing the obesity epidemic. However, obesity research sometimes is not conducted or reported to appropriate scientific standards. To constructively draw attention to this issue, we present 10 errors that are commonly committed, illustrate each error with examples from the childhood obesity literature, and follow with suggestions on how to avoid these errors. These errors are as follows: using self-reported outcomes and teaching to the test; foregoing control groups and risking regression to the mean creating differences over time; changing the goal posts; ignoring clustering in studies that randomize groups of children; following the forking paths, subsetting, p-hacking, and data dredging; basing conclusions on tests for significant differences from baseline; equating "no statistically significant difference" with "equally effective"; ignoring intervention study results in favor of observational analyses; using one-sided testing for statistical significance; and stating that effects are clinically significant even though they are not statistically significant. We hope that compiling these errors in one article will serve as the beginning of a checklist to support fidelity in conducting, analyzing, and reporting childhood obesity research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W Brown
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Douglas G Altman
- Centre for Statistics in Medicine, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Tom Baranowski
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas
| | - J Martin Bland
- Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - John A Dawson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas
| | | | - Shima Dowla
- School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Kevin R Fontaine
- Department of Health Behavior, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Andrew Gelman
- Department of Statistics and Department of Political Science, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Steven B Heymsfield
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Wasantha Jayawardene
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Scott W Keith
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Division of Biostatistics, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Eric Loken
- Neag School of Education, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
| | - J Michael Oakes
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - June Stevens
- Departments of Nutrition and Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Diana M Thomas
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, New York
| | - David B Allison
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Indiana University School of Public Health-Bloomington, Bloomington, Indiana
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Heo M, Nair SR, Wylie-Rosett J, Faith MS, Pietrobelli A, Glassman NR, Martin SN, Dickinson S, Allison DB. Trial Characteristics and Appropriateness of Statistical Methods Applied for Design and Analysis of Randomized School-Based Studies Addressing Weight-Related Issues: A Literature Review. J Obes 2018; 2018:8767315. [PMID: 30046468 PMCID: PMC6036807 DOI: 10.1155/2018/8767315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether clustering effects, often quantified by the intracluster correlation coefficient (ICC), were appropriately accounted for in design and analysis of school-based trials. METHODS We searched PubMed and extracted variables concerning study characteristics, power analysis, ICC use for power analysis, applied statistical models, and the report of the ICC estimated from the observed data. RESULTS N=263 papers were identified, and N=121 papers were included for evaluation. Overall, only a minority (21.5%) of studies incorporated ICC values for power analysis, fewer studies (8.3%) reported the estimated ICC, and 68.6% of studies applied appropriate multilevel models. A greater proportion of studies applied the appropriate models during the past five years (2013-2017) compared to the prior years (74.1% versus 63.5%, p=0.176). Significantly associated with application of appropriate models were a larger number of schools (p=0.030), a larger sample size (p=0.002), longer follow-up (p=0.014), and randomization at a cluster level (p < 0.001) and so were studies that incorporated the ICC into power analysis (p=0.016) and reported the estimated ICC (p=0.030). CONCLUSION Although application of appropriate models has increased over the years, consideration of clustering effects in power analysis has been inadequate, as has report of estimated ICC. To increase rigor, future school-based trials should address these issues at both the design and analysis stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moonseong Heo
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Singh R. Nair
- Department of Anesthesiology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Judith Wylie-Rosett
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Myles S. Faith
- Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology, Graduate School of Education, University at Buffalo-SUNY, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Angelo Pietrobelli
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Nancy R. Glassman
- D. Samuel Gottesman Library, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Sarah N. Martin
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Stephanie Dickinson
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - David B. Allison
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
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Flores OC, Orellana YZ, Leyton BD, Valenzuela RB, Barrera CR, Almagià AF, Martínez VC, Ivanovic D. Overnutrition and Scholastic Achievement: Is There a Relationship? An 8-Year Follow-Up Study. Obes Facts 2018; 11:344-359. [PMID: 30308520 PMCID: PMC6257092 DOI: 10.1159/000492004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to assess the association between overnutrition and scholastic achievement (SA). METHODS A representative and proportional sample of 477 children of the 5th elementary school grade of both genders was randomly chosen during 2010, in the Metropolitan Region of Chile. SA was measured through the 2009 Education Quality Measurement System (SIMCE) tests of language (LSA), mathematics (MSA) and understanding of the natural environment (UNESA). Current nutritional status was assessed through the body mass index Z-score (Z-BMI). Nutritional quality of diet, schedule exercise, socioeconomic status, family, and educational variables were also recorded. Four and 8 years later, SA was assessed through the 2013 SIMCE and the University Selection Test (2017 PSU), respectively. RESULTS Socioeconomic status, the number of repeated school years, and maternal schooling were strong predictors of 2009 SIMCE and the independent variables with the greatest explanatory power for LSA (Model R2 = 0.178; p < 0.00001) variances, besides of gender for MSA (Model R2 = 0.205; p< 0.00001) and UNESA (Model R2 = 0.272; p < 0.00001). Overnourished children did not have significantly lower 2009 and 2013 SIMCE and 2017 PSU outcomes. CONCLUSIONS These results confirm that overnourished children did not achieve significantly lower SA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofelia C. Flores
- Dr. Fernando Monckeberg Barros, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Yasna Z. Orellana
- Dr. Fernando Monckeberg Barros, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Bárbara D. Leyton
- Dr. Fernando Monckeberg Barros, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Cynthia R. Barrera
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Atilio F. Almagià
- Institute of Biology, Laboratory of Physical Anthropology and Human Anatomy, Faculty of Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Víctor C. Martínez
- Department of Commercial Engineering, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniza Ivanovic
- Dr. Fernando Monckeberg Barros, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
- *Prof. Daniza Ivanovic, Dr. Fernando Monckeberg Barros, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Avda. El Líbano 5524, Santiago, Chile,
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George BJ, Beasley TM, Brown AW, Dawson J, Dimova R, Divers J, Goldsby TU, Heo M, Kaiser KA, Keith S, Kim MY, Li P, Mehta T, Oakes JM, Skinner A, Stuart E, Allison DB. Common scientific and statistical errors in obesity research. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2016; 24:781-90. [PMID: 27028280 PMCID: PMC4817356 DOI: 10.1002/oby.21449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
This review identifies 10 common errors and problems in the statistical analysis, design, interpretation, and reporting of obesity research and discuss how they can be avoided. The 10 topics are: 1) misinterpretation of statistical significance, 2) inappropriate testing against baseline values, 3) excessive and undisclosed multiple testing and "P-value hacking," 4) mishandling of clustering in cluster randomized trials, 5) misconceptions about nonparametric tests, 6) mishandling of missing data, 7) miscalculation of effect sizes, 8) ignoring regression to the mean, 9) ignoring confirmation bias, and 10) insufficient statistical reporting. It is hoped that discussion of these errors can improve the quality of obesity research by helping researchers to implement proper statistical practice and to know when to seek the help of a statistician.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J. George
- Office of Energetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - T. Mark Beasley
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Andrew W. Brown
- Office of Energetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - John Dawson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
| | - Rositsa Dimova
- Department of Biostatistics, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260
| | - Jasmin Divers
- Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157
| | - TaShauna U. Goldsby
- Office of Energetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Moonseong Heo
- Department of Epidemiology & Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10467
| | - Kathryn A. Kaiser
- Office of Energetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Scott Keith
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Division of Biostatistics, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Mimi Y. Kim
- Department of Epidemiology & Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10467
| | - Peng Li
- Office of Energetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Tapan Mehta
- Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Department of Health Services Administration, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - J. Michael Oakes
- Department of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55454
| | - Asheley Skinner
- Department of Health Policy and Management, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Elizabeth Stuart
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - David B. Allison
- Office of Energetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
- Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
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6
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Allison DB, Bassaganya-Riera J, Burlingame B, Brown AW, le Coutre J, Dickson SL, van Eden W, Garssen J, Hontecillas R, Khoo CSH, Knorr D, Kussmann M, Magistretti PJ, Mehta T, Meule A, Rychlik M, Vögele C. Goals in Nutrition Science 2015-2020. Front Nutr 2015; 2:26. [PMID: 26442272 PMCID: PMC4563164 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2015.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David B Allison
- Office of Energetics and Nutrition Obesity Research Center, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, AL , USA ; Section on Statistical Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, AL , USA ; Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, AL , USA ; Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, AL , USA
| | - Josep Bassaganya-Riera
- Nutritional Immunology and Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Barbara Burlingame
- Deakin University , Melbourne, VIC , Australia ; American University of Rome , Rome , Italy
| | - Andrew W Brown
- Office of Energetics and Nutrition Obesity Research Center, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, AL , USA
| | - Johannes le Coutre
- Nestlé Research Center , Lausanne , Switzerland ; Organization for Interdisciplinary Research Projects, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan ; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Suzanne L Dickson
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
| | - Willem van Eden
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Johan Garssen
- Faculty of Science, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University , Utrecht , Netherlands
| | - Raquel Hontecillas
- Nutritional Immunology and Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Chor San H Khoo
- North American Branch of International Life Sciences Institute , Washington, DC , USA
| | | | - Martin Kussmann
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland ; Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences SA , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Pierre J Magistretti
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology , Thuwal , Saudi Arabia ; Laboratory of Neuroenergetics and Cellular Dynamics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Tapan Mehta
- Department of Health Services Administration, Nutrition Obesity Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, AL , USA
| | - Adrian Meule
- Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg , Salzburg , Austria
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München , Freising , Germany
| | - Claus Vögele
- Research Unit INSIDE, Institute for Health and Behaviour, University of Luxembourg , Luxembourg , Luxembourg
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