Fluid and Electrolyte Disturbances in COVID-19 and Their Complications

Changes of b2-microglobulin and electrolytes in different stages of COPD and their value in evaluating prognosis

Background

To investigate the changes of b2-microglobulin and electrolyte in different stages of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and the value of evaluating prognosis.

Methods

A retrospective study was undertaken on 120 patients diagnosed with COPD and treated at our respiratory department between February 1, 2020, and January 31, 2023. These patients were classified into three groups based on the GOLD classification: mild (FEV1 > 81%), moderate (51% < FEV1 ≤ 80%), and severe (FEV1 ≤ 50%). As a control group, 40 healthy individuals who had routine examinations during the same period were selected. The COPD patients were then followed up and divided into a good prognosis group (n = 67) and a poor prognosis group (n = 53). The levels of b2-microglobulin and electrolytes were measured in patients with different stages of the disease and different prognoses. Kendall's tau-b and ordered logistic regression were employed to analyze how the changes in b2-microglobulin and electrolyte levels correlated with disease severity. Furthermore, the prognostic value of b2-microglobulin and electrolyte levels in COPD was assessed using an ROC curve.

Results

In comparison to the control group, the severity of COPD patients displayed a notable increase in b2microglobulin levels, while there was a significant decrease in levels of calcium, chlorine, potassium, and sodium. Kendall's tau-b correlation coefficient analysis indicated a positive correlation between COPD severity and b2microglobulin, and a negative correlation between COPD severity and levels of calcium, chlorine, potassium, and sodium. Logistic regression analysis revealed that there was a positive correlation between disease severity and b2microglobulin, and a negative correlation between disease severity and levels of calcium, chlorine, potassium, and sodium. Furthermore, the poor prognosis group exhibited a significant increase in b2-microglobulin levels, alongside a significant decrease in levels of calcium, chlorine, potassium, and sodium compared to the good prognosis group (P < 0.05). ROC curve analysis demonstrated that a combined detection of b2-microglobulin, calcium, chlorine, potassium, and sodium yielded significantly higher area under the curve, sensitivity, and specificity values compared to single detection methods, highlighting its significant predictive value for COPD prognosis.

Conclusions

Patients who presented with a more severe form of the disease exhibited elevated levels of b2microglobulin and reduced electrolyte levels. Prognostic accuracy was significantly enhanced when b2-microglobulin and electrolyte levels were analyzed together, offering a superior method for predicting patient outcomes.

A Study of Hydroelectrolytic and Acid-Base Disturbances in MIS-C Patients: A Perspective on Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion

COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) is a rare autoimmune disorder characterized by a range of polymorphic manifestations, similar to but distinct from other well-known inflammatory syndromes in children. We conducted a retrospective-descriptive study in which we summarized the clinical presentation of, biomarker variations in, and complications occurring in patients diagnosed with MIS-C, admitted to the Emergency Clinical Hospital for Children "Sf. Ioan", Galati, between July 2020 and June 2024. A total of 36 children met the MIS-C classification criteria according to the WHO-approved case definitions. A total of 41.7% (n = 15) were male and 58.3% (n = 21) were female. The median age of the study group was 4 years (IQR: 1.75-9.25 years). Surgical involvement was suspected in 16.7% (n = 6) of the patients, while 52.8% (n = 19) required intensive care. Clinically, fever was the most common symptom present in 89% (n = 32) of the cases. Gastrointestinal disorders were also common, with 50% (n = 18) presenting with inappetence, 42% (n = 15) with vomiting, and 39% (n = 14) with abdominal pain from admission, which worsened over time. Paraclinically, all patients exhibited signs of inflammation, and 86.1% (n = 31) had hydroelectrolytic and acid-base imbalances. The median hospital stay was 10 days (IQR: 7-12 days), with a stagnant clinical course in most cases. The inflammatory mechanisms in MIS-C, which can affect the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), were correlated with hydroelectrolytic disturbances and may lead to severe complications. For this reason, it is imperative to evaluate hydroelectrolytic disorders in the context of MIS-C and use diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers to develop effective therapeutic management strategies, ultimately improving the quality of life of affected children.

Acute angle-closure glaucoma before, during, and after the outbreak of COVID-19 in China

Objectives

Acute angle-closure glaucoma (AACG) is a major cause of irreversible and severe visual function loss. Robust rise in AACG was observed in the ophthalmic outpatient clinics concomitant with the outbreak of COVID-19 infection in China after the relaxing of "zero-COVID policy" in early December 2022. Here we compared the demographic and clinical profiles of patients with AACG before, during and after the COVID-19 outbreak. Underlying mechanisms were tentatively investigated.

Methods

This is a retrospective comparative study. Consecutive cases with newly diagnosed AACGs in a tertiary eye hospital were retrospectively collected during December 17, 2022 to January 8, 2023. Data from the same period in 2018-2019 and 2019-2020, 2020-2021 and 2021-2022, and 2023-2024 were collected as pre-pandemic, pandemic-control, and post-pandemic control, respectively. For the patients in 2022-2023 outbreak group, COVID-19 infection was confirmed by reversed transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction or antibody test for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from nasopharyngeal swabs. Ocular parameters, serum electrolytes and coagulative parameters were compared between COVID-19 positive and negative AACGs in observational group. SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid in the aqueous humor was detected.

Results

A total of 106 AACG cases were diagnosed during the outbreak period in 2022-2023. In contrast, 18 (in 2018-2019) and 22 (in 2019-2020) cases were included during pre-pandemic period, and 21 (in 2023-2024) during the post-pandemic period. Only 13 and 4 newly onset AACG were included in 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 during the pandemic-control period, respectively. Younger age and higher proportion of bilateral involvement were detected in COVID-19 outbreak group than that of other groups (p = 0.034 and p = 0.080). Sixty-eight (64.2 %) patients in the outbreak group had a confirmed COVID-19 infection. Intervals between infection and AACG attack was 52 ± 85h (0-15d). Fifty-three patients (77.9 %) reported the applications of ibuprofen or other antipyretic medications and 25 (36.8 %) reported large volume water intake before AACG attack. COVID-19-positive AACG patients had higher level of D-dimer than their negative counterparts (1.13 ± 2.60 mg/L vs. 0.46 ± 0.43 mg/L, p = 0.083). No difference in IOP, serum electrolytes, and coagulative parameters other than D-dimer was observed between COVID-19 positive and negative cases. SARS-CoV-2 were negative in the aqueous humor from 14 COVID-19 positive and 8 negative patients.

Conclusion

COVID-19 infection surged the onset of AACG in patients at risk. Mental stress, water intake, increased choroidal thickness due to SARS-CoV-2 induced ACE receptor activation, and hyper-coagulation, may contribute to the disease onset. Ocular involvement should not be ignored in both routine and new systemic emergent conditions.

Implications of Dysnatremia and Endocrine Disturbances in COVID-19 Patients

Sodium imbalance is a common electrolyte disturbance in COVID-19, often linked to disruptions in hormonal regulation. This review explores the relationship between sodium dysregulation and endocrine disturbances, particularly focusing on primary and secondary hypothyroidism, hypocortisolism, and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Hypocortisolism in COVID-19, due to adrenal insufficiency or secondary to pituitary dysfunction, can lead to hyponatremia through inadequate cortisol levels, which impair renal free water excretion and enhance antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion. Similarly, hypothyroidism is associated with decreased renal blood flow and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which also increases ADH activity, leading to water retention and dilutional hyponatremia. Furthermore, COVID-19 can disrupt RAAS (primarily through its interaction with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor), diminishing aldosterone secretion and further contributing to sodium loss and hyponatremia. These hormonal disruptions suggest that sodium imbalance in COVID-19 is multifactorial and warrants further investigation into the complex interplay between COVID-19, endocrine function, and sodium homeostasis. Future research should focus on understanding these mechanisms to develop management algorithms that address both sodium imbalance and underlying hormonal disturbances in order to improve prognosis and outcomes in COVID-19 patients.

The spike of acute angle closure after the epidemic downgrade of COVID-19 management: a hospital-based comparative study from China

PURPOSE

To analyse and compare the clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of patients with acute angle closure (AAC) who presented before the COVID-19 pandemic, during the COVID-19 management and after their downgrading.

METHODS

Consecutive AAC patients were recruited from our hospital and divided into three groups: those treated before the COVID-19 pandemic (Group1), during the COVID-19 management (Group2) and after the management downgrade (Group3). The demographic variables, clinical characteristics, treatment methods and therapeutic outcomes of the groups were compared.

RESULTS

When compared to Groups1 and 2, Group3 showed a significantly higher incidence of AAC (0.27%, P < 0.001), a longer time from symptoms to treatment (TST; 160.88 ± 137.05 h, P = 0.031) and worse uncorrected visual acuity (P = 0.009) at presentation. In Group3, 68.9% had a history of COVID-19 and 28.5% developed ocular symptoms of AAC after taking medication for COVID-19 symptoms. The average time from the onset of COVID-19 to the appearance of eye symptoms was 3.21 ± 4.00 days.

CONCLUSIONS

The COVID-19 has had a multifaceted impact on the incidence of AAC. Therefore, it is crucial to strengthen health education on glaucoma, especially AAC. The prevention and timely treatment of AAC should be emphasised to combat global blindness.

The Impact of Cardiovascular Antecedents on the Prognosis of COVID-19 Critically Ill Patients

Background/Objectives: The objective of the study is to analyze the impact of cardiovascular history on mortality in COVID-19 patients, hospitalized in the intensive care unit with indications for continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and subsequently mechanical ventilation, without oncological disease. Methods: A retrospective observational study was carried out on a group of 108 critical COVID-19 patients. We compared demographic data, paraclinical and clinical parameters, days of hospitalization, and mortality rate between two groups of patients, one group with a history of cardiovascular disease (81 patients) and a group without a history of cardiovascular disease (27 patients). Results: Patients with cardiovascular antecedents had a higher mortality rate than those without cardiovascular antecedents, presenting severe forms with shorter survival time in the intensive care unit and increased inflammatory evidence. Compared to patients without a history of cardiovascular illness, those with cardiovascular disease had a lower average age, and developed a severe form of COVID-19. Conclusions: Cardiovascular antecedents can worsen the prognosis of patients with COVID-19, requiring a careful screening and multidisciplinary approach.

Electrolyte disturbances in patients hospitalized for COVID-19 infection: An observational study

There are multiple mechanisms by which The Coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) infection can cause electrolyte abnormalities, which may not be the case for bacterial causes of pneumonia. This study aimed to assess the differences in electrolyte levels between patients suffering from COVID-19 and bacterial pneumonia. This is an original, retrospective study. Two cohorts of hospitalized patients were included, 1 suffering from COVID-19 and the other from bacterial pneumonia. Their day 1 and day 3 levels of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus, as well as their outcomes, were extracted from the charts. Statistical analysis was subsequently performed. Mean admission levels of sodium, potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium were 135.64 ± 6.13, 4.38 ± 0.69, 3.53 ± 0.69, and 2.03 ± 0.51, respectively. The mean day 3 levels of these electrolytes were 138.3 ± 5.06, 4.18 ± 0.59, 3.578 ± 0.59, and 2.11 ± 0.64, respectively. Patients suffering from bacterial pneumonia were significantly older (N = 219, mean = 64.88 ± 15.99) than patients with COVID-19 pneumonia (N = 240, mean = 57.63 ± 17.87). Bacterial pneumonia group had significantly higher serum potassium (N = 211, mean = 4.51 ± 0.76), and magnesium (N = 115, mean = 2.12 ± 0.60) levels compared to COVID-19 group (N = 227, mean = 4.254 ± 0.60 for potassium and N = 118, mean = 1.933 ± 0.38 for magnesium). Only magnesium was significantly higher among day 3 electrolytes in the bacterial pneumonia group. No significant association between electrolyte levels and outcomes was seen. We found that COVID-19 patients had lower potassium and magnesium levels on admission, possibly due to the effect of COVID-19 on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system as well as patient characteristics and management. We did not find enough evidence to recommend using electrolyte levels as a determinator of prognosis, but more research is needed.

Assessing the prognostic utility of clinical and radiomic features for COVID-19 patients admitted to ICU: challenges and lessons learned

Severe cases of COVID-19 often necessitate escalation to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), where patients may face grave outcomes, including mortality. Chest X-rays play a crucial role in the diagnostic process for evaluating COVID-19 patients. Our collaborative efforts with Michigan Medicine in monitoring patient outcomes within the ICU have motivated us to investigate the potential advantages of incorporating clinical information and chest X-ray images for predicting patient outcomes. We propose an analytical workflow to address challenges such as the absence of standardized approaches for image pre-processing and data utilization. We then propose an ensemble learning approach designed to maximize the information derived from multiple prediction algorithms. This entails optimizing the weights within the ensemble and considering the common variability present in individual risk scores. Our simulations demonstrate the superior performance of this weighted ensemble averaging approach across various scenarios. We apply this refined ensemble methodology to analyze post-ICU COVID-19 mortality, an occurrence observed in 21% of COVID-19 patients admitted to the ICU at Michigan Medicine. Our findings reveal substantial performance improvement when incorporating imaging data compared to models trained solely on clinical risk factors. Furthermore, the addition of radiomic features yields even larger enhancements, particularly among older and more medically compromised patients. These results may carry implications for enhancing patient outcomes in similar clinical contexts.

Why have SGLT2 Inhibitors Failed to Achieve the Desired Success in COVID-19?

The SARS-CoV-2 virus emerged towards the end of 2019 and caused a major worldwide pandemic lasting at least 2 years, causing a disease called COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 caused a severe infection with direct cellular toxicity, stimulation of cytokine release, increased oxidative stress, disruption of endothelial structure, and thromboinflammation, as well as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) down-regulation-mediated renin-angiotensin system (RAS) activation. In addition to glucosuria and natriuresis, sodium-glucose transport protein 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (SGLT2i) cause weight loss, a decrease in glucose levels with an insulin-independent mechanism, an increase in erythropoietin levels and erythropoiesis, an increase in autophagy and lysosomal degradation, Na+/H+-changer inhibition, prevention of ischemia/reperfusion injury, oxidative stress and they have many positive effects such as reducing inflammation and improving vascular function. There was great anticipation for SGLT2i in treating patients with diabetes with COVID-19, but current data suggest they are not very effective. Moreover, there has been great confusion in the literature about the effects of SGLT2i on COVID-19 patients with diabetes . Various factors, including increased SGLT1 activity, lack of angiotensin receptor blocker co-administration, the potential for ketoacidosis, kidney injury, and disruptions in fluid and electrolyte levels, may have hindered SGLT2i's effectiveness against COVID-19. In addition, the duration of use of SGLT2i and their impact on erythropoiesis, blood viscosity, cholesterol levels, and vitamin D levels may also have played a role in their failure to treat the virus. This article aims to uncover the reasons for the confusion in the literature and to unravel why SGLT2i failed to succeed in COVID-19 based on some solid evidence as well as speculative and personal perspectives.

A Case of Intractable Hypophosphatemia in a Patient with Guillain-Barré Syndrome and Encephalitis after SARS-CoV-2 Infection

BACKGROUND

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection attacks the respiratory and nervous systems. Among patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, cases with simultaneous central and peripheral nervous system damage are rare, and those with intractable hypophosphatemia and hypokalemia complicating the former have not been reported yet.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 59-year-old woman presented to the emergency department with incoherent speech evolving for 3 days. She had tested positive for the SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR assay 8 days earlier. Her physical examination showed progressive limb weakness with diminished tendon reflexes and normal sensory examination. Cranial MRI revealed multiple abnormal signals in the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis and electromyography revealed acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN), further diagnosed as encephalitis combined with Guillain.Barré syndrome (GBS). The patient received glucocorticoid therapy, intravenous immune globulin (IVIG), and rehabilitation therapy. The patient experienced an intractable hypophosphatemia and hypokalemia during the treatment period, which was not effectively corrected several times. The symptoms improved after 1 month of treatment.

CONCLUSION

Early diagnosis is important for the management of Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, in order to prevent life-threatening long-term persistent electrolyte disturbances in non-seriously ill patients, clinicians should pay particular attention to their electrolyte status.

Relationship between COVID-19 and Neurological Disorder

Abstract:

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a socially isolating way of life, and dementia patients are among those who are most affected. Lockdown procedures and the inability to monitor illnesses have led to a rapid decline in cognitive function in these individuals, with neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as agitation, delirium, and impaired motor performance being prevalent. However, the use of antipsychotics in treating these symptoms can increase the risk of death during COVID-19. Effective pain therapy can be used as an alternative to reduce or avoid the use of antipsychotics, given the consistent relationship between agitation and pain in dementia patients. The importance of properly assessing and managing pain in dementia patients is highlighted. Additionally, the article discusses how COVID-19 can affect brain health through inflammation, blood clotting, and blood vessel damage, leading to potential long-term effects on cognitive function. Healthcare professionals must be aware of the increased risk of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia patients during the pandemic and prioritize pain management as a viable alternative to antipsychotics. Proper care and attention are necessary to prevent cognitive decline and potential long-term effects on brain health in these vulnerable individuals.

Association of hypernatremia with mortality in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic worldwide has caused varying degrees of severity of lung damage in patients, with acute respiratory distress and death in severe cases. However, this is not directly caused by the virus itself, but by the production of inflammasome by monocytes in the body, leading to a systemic inflammatory response, which results in a very poor clinical prognosis for patients with COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to look at the relationship between hypernatremia and mortality in COVID-19 patients.

METHODS

We searched the PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane databases for articles published from the inception of the database until August 27, 2022. Three researchers reviewed the literature, retrieved data, and assessed the quality of the literature, respectively. A meta-analysis was performed using State 17 software to assess the value of the effect of hypernatremia on mortality in patients with new coronavirus pneumonia.

RESULTS

A total of nine publications was finally included in this study, including a total of 11,801 patients with COVID-19, including 1278 in the hypernatremia group and 10,523 in the normonatremia group. Meta-analysis showed that hypernatremia was associated with mortality in patients with COVID-19 [OR = 4.15, 95% CI (2.95-5.84), p = .002, I² = 66.7%] with a sensitivity of 0.36 [0.26, 0.48] and a specificity of 0.88 [0.83, 0.91]. The posterior probability of mortality was 42% in patients with COVID-19 hypernatremia and 15% in patients who did not have COVID-19 hypernatremia.

CONCLUSION

According to available data, hypernatremia is associated with death in patients with COVID-19.

The Intersection Between COVID-19, Cardiovascular Disease, and Diet: a Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the top comorbidities associated with COVID-19-both pre- and post-infection. This review examines the relationships between COVID-19 infection and cardiovascular health, with a specific focus on diet as an important modifiable risk factor.

RECENT FINDINGS

Pandemic era studies of individuals battling and recovering from COVID-19 infection suggest a strong link between metabolic diseases, such as CVD, and SARS-CoV-2 infection susceptibility and severity. Other studies also demonstrate how COVID-19 lockdown policies and quarantine recommendations led to drastic lifestyle changes associated with increased CVD risk, such as reduced physical activity and lower diet quality. At the same time, new research is emerging that plant-based diets, which have previously been associated with lower CVD risk, may lower COVID-19 infection rates and severity of symptoms. Diet, COVID-19, and CVD intersect through complex biological mechanisms and related behavioral factors evidenced by clinical trials and epidemiological studies. Diet may be a critical tool for modifying risk of communicable and non-communicable conditions in the post-pandemic world.

Evaluation of safety and effectiveness of remdesivir in treating COVID-19 patients after emergency use authorization study

Background: This study aimed to determine the real-world safety and effectiveness of remdesivir in hospitalized adult COVID-19 patients with moderate-to-critical disease in Indonesia. Methods: A multicenter, retrospective cohort study was conducted at four COVID-19 referral hospitals in Jakarta. A total of 587 patients were included, of whom 243 received remdesivir within 72 h of admission. The safety endpoints were the proportions of patients with any adverse event (AE), any grade 3 AE, and AE of each system organ class. The effectiveness endpoints were ICU admission >24 h from baseline, live discharge and mortality at day 14, live discharge and mortality at day 28, and virologic conversion. Patients who received remdesivir within 72 h of admission were considered the treatment group, and those who did not were the control group. Multivariate adjustments were performed using a modified Poisson regression. Results: The study found no significant differences in safety endpoints between the two groups. However, the effectiveness endpoints showed that remdesivir was associated with a decreased risk of ICU admission >24 h from baseline (RR 0.71, 95% CI 0.52-0.96), an increased probability of live discharge at day 14 (RR 1.37, 95% CI 1.08-1.74), and an increased probability of live discharge at day 28 (RR 1.28, 95% CI 1.05-1.57). The rate of virologic conversion was not significantly different between the two groups. Conclusion: The study concludes that remdesivir is safe and effective in the treatment of moderate-to-critical COVID-19 in a real-world setting in Indonesia.

Characteristics, comorbidities and laboratory measures associated with disease severity and poor prognosis in young and elderly patients with COVID-19 admitted to medical wards in Emilia-Romagna region, Italy: a multicentre retrospective study

Background and Objectives. A relatively small number of studies have investigated the characteristics, comorbidities and laboratory measures associated with prognosis in patients with COVID-19, admitted to Internal Medicine Units (IMU) in Italy. Therefore, we performed a retrospective multicentre study to identify baseline features, predisposing to severe disease and poor outcomes, in adult individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection, hospitalized in 5 IMUs in the Emilia-Romagna region (Italy). Materials and Methods. We included 129 consecutive patients (male 75, median age 68 years) from 1st March 2020 to 31st October 2021. Patients’ baseline characteristics, comorbidities, laboratory measures, and outcomes were collected. Results. At admission, the factors significantly associated with a higher risk of in-hospital mortality included: age (median 68 vs. 83 years in survived vs. dead patients, P=0.000), diabetes [Odds Ratio (OR) 4.00, P=0.016], chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR 4.60, P=0.022), cancer (OR 5.81, P=0.021), acute- (OR 9.88, P=0.000) and chronic-renal failure (OR 6.76, P=0.004). During the study period, 16 individuals died (12.4%), all over 70 years old. In deceased vs. non-deceased patients were detected: i) more elevated white blood cells and neutrophils-counts and lower lymphocytes count; ii) higher levels of total/direct bilirubin, creatinine, C-reactive-protein, lactate-dehydrogenase, ferritin, but only a slight Interleukin-6 increase; iii) a trend of lower vitamin D values. Conclusions. We proposed a new I index, a modified form of the Age-Adjusted Charlson Comorbidity Index, by considering pO2/FiO2 ratio, to better characterize the severity of COVID-19. Furthermore, we critically discuss our results with the current assumption which considers COVID-19 as a pathological condition associated with cytokine storm.

Importance of Magnesium Status in COVID-19

A large amount of published research points to the interesting concept (hypothesis) that magnesium (Mg) status may have relevance for the outcome of COVID-19 and that Mg could be protective during the COVID disease course. As an essential element, Mg plays basic biochemical, cellular, and physiological roles required for cardiovascular, immunological, respiratory, and neurological functions. Both low serum and dietary Mg have been associated with the severity of COVID-19 outcomes, including mortality; both are also associated with COVID-19 risk factors such as older age, obesity, type 2 diabetes, kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and asthma. In addition, populations with high rates of COVID-19 mortality and hospitalization tend to consume diets high in modern processed foods, which are generally low in Mg. In this review, we review the research to describe and consider the possible impact of Mg and Mg status on COVID-19 showing that (1) serum Mg between 2.19 and 2.26 mg/dL and dietary Mg intakes > 329 mg/day could be protective during the disease course and (2) inhaled Mg may improve oxygenation of hypoxic COVID-19 patients. In spite of such promise, oral Mg for COVID-19 has thus far been studied only in combination with other nutrients. Mg deficiency is involved in the occurrence and aggravation of neuropsychiatric complications of COVID-19, including memory loss, cognition, loss of taste and smell, ataxia, confusion, dizziness, and headache. Potential of zinc and/or Mg as useful for increasing drug therapy effectiveness or reducing adverse effect of anti-COVID-19 drugs is reviewed. Oral Mg trials of patients with COVID-19 are warranted.

Nutritional Status, Refeeding Syndrome and Some Associated Factors of Patients at COVID-19 Hospital in Vietnam

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome is associated with COVID-19 and can result in reduced food intake, increased muscle catabolism, and electrolyte imbalance. Therefore COVID-19 patients are at high risk of being malnourished and of refeeding syndrome. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence and correlates of malnutrition and refeeding syndrome (RS) among COVID-19 patients in Hanoi, Vietnam. This prospective cohort study analyzed data from 1207 patients who were treated at the COVID-19 hospital of Hanoi Medical University (HMUH COVID-19) between September 2021 and March 2022. Nutritional status was evaluated by the Global Leadership Initiative on Malnutrition (GLIM) and laboratory markers. GLIM-defined malnutrition was found in 614 (50.9%) patients. Among those with malnutrition, 380 (31.5%) and 234 (19.4%) had moderate and severe malnutrition, respectively. The prevalence of risk of RS was 346 (28.7%). Those with severe and critical COVID symptoms are more likely to be at risk of RS compared to those with mild or moderate COVID, and having severe and critical COVID-19 infection increased the incidence of RS by 2.47 times, compared to mild and moderate disease. There was an association between levels of COVID-19, older ages, comorbidities, the inability of eating independently, hypoalbuminemia and hyponatremia with malnutrition. The proportion of COVID-19 patients who suffered from malnutrition was high. These results underscore the importance of early nutritional screening and assessment in COVID-19 patients, especially those with severe and critical infection.

Factors Contributing to Chronic Kidney Disease following COVID-19 Diagnosis in Pre-Vaccinated Hospitalized Patients

In this study, we aim to evaluate the factors that may contribute to the development of chronic kidney disease following COVID-19 infection among hospitalized patients in two private hospitals in Jakarta, Indonesia. This is a retrospective cohort study between March 2020 and September 2021. Patient selection was conducted with a convenience sampling. All patients (n = 378) meeting the inclusion criteria during the study period were enrolled. Various sociodemographic, laboratory test, and diagnostic parameters were measured before the determination of their correlation with the outcome of COVID-19 infection. In this study, all pre-vaccinated patients with COVID-19 had no history of chronic kidney disease (CKD) prior to hospital admission. From this number, approximately 75.7% of the patients developed CKD following COVID-19 diagnosis. Overall, significant correlations were established between the clinical outcome and the CKD status (p = 0.001). Interestingly, there was a significant correlation between serum creatinine level, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and CKD (p < 0.0001). Oxygen saturation (p = 0.03), admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) (p < 0.0001), and sepsis (p = 0.005) were factors that were significantly correlated with CKD status. Additionally, the type of antibiotic agent used was significantly correlated with CKD (p = 0.011). While 82.1% of patients with CKD survived, the survival rate worsened if the patients had complications from hyperuricemia (p = 0.010). The patients who received levofloxacin and ceftriaxone had the highest (100%) survival rate after approximately 50 days of treatment. The patients who received the antiviral agent combination isoprinosine + oseltamivir + ivermectin fared better (100%) as compared to those who received isoprinosine + favipiravir (8%). Factors, such as hyperuricemia and the antibiotic agent used, contributed to CKD following COVID-19 hospitalization. Interestingly, the patients who received levofloxacin + ceftriaxone and the patients without sepsis fared the best. Overall, patients who develop CKD following COVID-19 hospitalization have a low survival rate.

Nomogram Prediction Model of Hypernatremia on Mortality in Critically Ill Patients

Objective

To investigate the value of hypernatremia in the intensive care unit (ICU) for the risk prediction of mortality in severe patients.

Methods

Clinical data of critically ill patients admitted to the ICU of Beijing Friendship Hospital, were collected for retrospective analysis. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were employed to analyze the influencing factors. Nomograms predicting the mortality were constructed with R software and validated with repeated sampling.

Results

A total of 442 cases were eligible for this study. Hypernatremia within 48 hours of ICU admission, change in sodium concentration (CNa+) within 48 hours, septic shock, APACHE II score, hyperlactatemia within 48 hours, use of continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) within 48 hours, and the use of mechanical ventilation (MV) within 48 hours of ICU admission were all identified as independent risk factors for death within 28 days of ICU admission. These predictors were included in a nomogram of 28-day mortality in severe patients, which was constructed using R software.

Conclusion

The nomogram could predict the individualized risk of 28-day mortality based on the above factors. The model has better discrimination and accuracy and has high clinical application value.

Risk factors for Hyponatremia in COVID-19 hospitalised patients

Objectives

To determine the risk factors for Hyponatremia in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients.

Methods

Medical records of all patients admitted in COVID-19 Isolation Intensive Care Unit of Farooq Hospital Westwood Branch, Lahore from 1st July to 30th September, 2020 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients with confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 by Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and having Hyponatremia (serum Sodium (s/Na+ <135mEq/L) were included, patients with Eunatremia (s/Na+ within 135 - 145mEq/L) were taken as control while subjects with Hypernatremia (s/Na+ >145mEq/L) at admission, incomplete medical records and pregnant females were excluded from the study. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data at time of admission in hospital was extracted.

Results

Of 182 included patients, 79.1% (n=144) were male 40.7% (n=74) had Diabetes Mellitus (DM) and 44.5% (n=81) were hypertensive. Forty seven percent (n=86) patients had Hyponatremia while 52.7% (n=96) were eunatremic. Forty nine percent (n=90) patients had Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) and 4.9% (n=9) patients died. Risk factors for Hyponatremia were age >60 years (OR=2.52, p=0.006); DM (OR=2.79, p=0.001); Hypoxemia (OR=3.74, p<0.001); Lymphopenia (OR=7.62, p<0.009); Hypoalbuminemia (OR=9.15, p<0.001); high serum Ferritin (OR=4.46, p<0.001), high Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) (OR=3.58, p<0.001) and AKI (OR=3.40, p<0.001).

Conclusions

Hyponatremia was common in COVID-19 hospitalized patients. Increasing age, DM, Hypoxemia, Hypoalbuminemia, high serum Ferritin and AKI were the most significant risk factors for Hyponatremia. Hyponatremic patients had comparatively higher mortality than Eunatremic patients.

COVID-19 and Gut Injury

COVID-19 induced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is currently a pandemic and it has led to more than 620 million patients with 6.56 million deaths globally. Males are more susceptible to COVID-19 infection and associated with a higher chance to develop severe COVID-19 than females. Aged people are at a high risk of COVID-19 infection, while young children have also increased cases. COVID-19 patients typically develop respiratory system pathologies, however symptoms in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are also very common. Inflammatory cell recruitments and their secreted cytokines are found in the GI tract in COVID-19 patients. Microbiota changes are the key feature in COVID-19 patients with gut injury. Here, we review all current known mechanisms of COVID-19-induced gut injury, and the most acceptable one is that SARS-CoV-2 binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor on host cells in the GI tract. Interestingly, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an inflammatory disorder, but the patients with IBD do not have the increased risk to develop COVID-19. There is currently no cure for COVID-19, but anti-viruses and monoclonal antibodies reduce viral load and shorten the recovery time of the disease. We summarize current therapeutics that target symptoms in the GI tract, including probiotics, ACE2 inhibitors and nutrients. These are promising therapeutic options for COVID-19-induced gut injury.

Role of Micronutrients and Gut Microbiota-Derived Metabolites in COVID-19 Recovery

A balanced and varied diet provides diverse beneficial effects on health, such as adequate micronutrient availability and a gut microbiome in homeostasis. Besides their participation in biochemical processes as cofactors and coenzymes, vitamins and minerals have an immunoregulatory function; meanwhile, gut microbiota and its metabolites coordinate directly and indirectly the cell response through the interaction with the host receptors. Malnourishment is a crucial risk factor for several pathologies, and its involvement during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic has been reported. This pandemic has caused a significant decline in the worldwide population, especially those with chronic diseases, reduced physical activity, and elder age. Diet and gut microbiota composition are probable causes for this susceptibility, and its supplementation can play a role in reestablishing microbial homeostasis and improving immunity response against Coronavirus Disease 2019 infection and recovery. This study reviews the role of micronutrients and microbiomes in the risk of infection, the severity of disease, and the Coronavirus Disease 2019 sequelae.

A prediction model for 30-day mortality of sepsis patients based on intravenous fluids and electrolytes

To establish a prediction model for the 30-day mortality in sepsis patients. The data of 1185 sepsis patients were extracted from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care III (MIMIC-III) and all participants were randomly divided into the training set (n = 829) and the testing set (n = 356). The model was established in the training set and verified in the testing set. After standardization of the data, age, gender, input, output, and variables with statistical difference between the survival group and the death group in the training set were involved in the extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) model. Subgroup analysis was performed concerning age and gender in the testing set. In the XGBoost model with variables related to intravenous (IV) fluid management and electrolytes for the 30-day mortality of sepsis patients, the area under the curve (AUC) was 0.868 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.867-0.869) in the training set and 0.781 (95% CI: 0.779-0.782) in the testing set. The sensitivity was 0.815 (95% CI: 0.774-0.857) in the training set and 0.755 (95% CI: 0.686-0.825) in the testing set. The specificity was 0.761 (95% CI: 0.723-0.798) in the training set, and 0.737 (95% CI: 0.677-0.797) in the testing set. In the XGBoost forest model without variables related to IV fluid management and electrolytes for the 30-day mortality of sepsis patients, in the training set, the AUC was 0.830 (95% CI: 0.829-0.831), the sensitivity was 0.717 (95% CI: 0.669-0.765), the specificity was 0.797 (95% CI: 0.762-0.833), and the accuracy was 0.765 (95% CI: 0.736-0.794). In the testing set, the AUC was 0.751 (95% CI: 0.750-0.753), the sensitivity was 0.612 (95% CI: 0.533-0.691), the specificity was 0.756 (95% CI: 0.698-0.814), and the accuracy was 0.697(95% CI: 0.649-0.744). The prediction model including variables associated with IV fluids and electrolytes had good predictive value for the 30-day mortality of sepsis patients.

Acute kidney injury and electrolyte disorders in COVID-19

Acute kidney injury (AKI) and electrolyte disorders are important complications of hospitalized coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients. AKI is thought to occur due to multiple pathophysiological mechanisms, such as multiple organ dysfunction (mainly cardiac and respiratory), direct viral entry in the renal tubules, and cytokine release syndrome. AKI is present in approximately one in every ten hospitalized COVID-19 patients. The incidence rates of AKI increase in patients who are admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), with levels higher than 50%. Additionally, renal replacement therapy (RRT) is used in 7% of all AKI cases, but in nearly 20% of patients admitted to an ICU. COVID-19 patients with AKI are considered moderate-to-severe cases and are managed with multiple interdisciplinary conducts. AKI acts as a risk factor for mortality in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, especially when RRT is needed. Electrolyte disorders are also common manifestations in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, mainly hyponatremia, hypokalemia, and hypocalcemia. Hyponatremia occurs due to a combination of syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone and gastrointestinal fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea. When it comes to hypokalemia, its mechanism is not fully understood but may derive from hyperaldosteronism due to renin angiotensin aldosterone system overstimulation and gastrointestinal fluid loss as well. The clinical features of hypokalemia in COVID-19 are similar to those in other conditions. Hypocalcemia is the most common electrolyte disorder in COVID-19 and seems to occur because of vitamin D deficiency and parathyroid imbalance. It is also highly associated with longer hospital and ICU stay.

Nomogram Prediction Model of Serum Chloride and Sodium Ions on the Risk of Acute Kidney Injury in Critically Ill Patients

Purpose

This study aims to investigate the effect of serum chloride and sodium ions on AKI occurrence in ICU patients, and further constructs a prediction model containing these factors to explore the predictive value of these ions in AKI.

Methods

The clinical information of patients admitted to ICU of Beijing Friendship Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University was collected for retrospective analysis. Logistic regression analysis was used to analyzing the influencing factors. A nomogram for predicting AKI risk was constructed with R software and validated by repeated sampling. Afterwards, the effectiveness and accuracy of the model were tested and evaluated.

Results

A total of 446 cases met the requirements of this study, of which 178 developed AKI during their stay in ICU, with an incidence rate of 39.9%. Hypernatremia, heart failure, sepsis, APACHE II score, and initial creatinine value and BE value at ICU admission before the diagnosis of AKI were identified as independent risk factors for developing AKI during ICU stay. These predictors were incorporated into the nomogram of AKI risk in critically ill patients, which was constructed by using R software. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was further used and showed that the area under the curve of the model was 0.7934 (95% CI 0.742–0.8447), indicating that the model had an ideal value. Finally, further evaluated its clinical effectiveness. The clinical effect curve and decision curve showed that most areas of the decision curve of this model were greater than 0, indicating that this model owned a certain clinical effectiveness.

Conclusion

The nomogram based on hypernatremia, heart failure, sepsis, APACHE II score, and initial creatinine and BE value in ICU can predict the individualized risk of AKI with satisfactory distinguishability and accuracy.

The Mutual Relationship among Cardiovascular Diseases and COVID-19: Focus on Micronutrients Imbalance

Micronutrients are ions and vitamins humbly required by the human body. They play a main role in several physiological mechanisms and their imbalance is strongly associated with potentially-fatal complications. Micronutrient imbalance is associated with many cardiovascular diseases, such as arrythmias, heart failure, and ischemic heart disease. It has been also observed in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), particularly in most severe patients. The relationship between cardiovascular diseases and COVID-19 is mutual: the latter triggers cardiovascular disease onset and worsening while patients with previous cardiovascular disease may develop a more severe form of COVID-19. In addition to the well-known pathophysiological mechanisms binding COVID-19 and cardiovascular diseases together, increasing importance is being given to the impact of micronutrient alterations, often present during COVID-19 and able to affect the balance responsible for a good functioning of the cardiovascular system. In particular, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hyponatremia, and hypocalcemia are strongly associated with worse outcome, while vitamin A and D deficiency are associated with thromboembolic events in COVID-19. Thus, considering how frequent the cardiovascular involvement is in patients with COVID-19, and how it majorly affects their prognosis, this manuscript provides a comprehensive review on the role of micronutrient imbalance in the interconnection between COVID-19 and cardiovascular diseases.

Potential Association of Hypernatremia With Mortality in Patients With Acute Kidney Injury and COVID-19

Background

The outcome of acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with COVID-19 and the factors associated with its outcome, including mortality, are understudied among the Indian population.

Objective

The objective of this study is to determine the outcome of AKI in a cohort of patients with COVID-19 admitted to medical wards and associated intensive care unit (ICU) and the factors associated with its outcome, including mortality.

Method

This is a retrospective study of patients with COVID-19 and AKI admitted to a tertiary care hospital. A total of 1765 patients were admitted to a hospital with COVID-19 between March 23, 2021, and June 30, 2021, during the second wave of the pandemic chiefly attributed to SARS-Co-V-2 lineage B.1.617. Patients with AKI for whom a nephrology call was sought for management (N=60) were included. Measurements carried out were the stage of AKI, co-morbidities, ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, lab parameters, and mortality. We classified AKI by comparing the highest to lowest recorded serum creatinine in hospital and staged AKI based on the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) system. We further developed stepwise logistic regression models to find independent factors associated with mortality. 

Results

Out of the 1765 patients hospitalized with COVID-19, a total of 60 (3.4%) patients with AKI were referred to nephrology for management. The observed mortality in this cohort was 41/60 (68.3%). AKI stage 3 was observed to be the most common (78.3%). Based on a univariate analysis of association, age, chronic kidney disease, admission to ICU, the requirement for vasopressor and ventilation, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) DH, liver function tests (LFT), hypernatremia, and leucocytosis were associated with the mortality of patients (p<0.05) with AKI and COVID-19 infection. Multivariate analysis using logistic regression led to the identification of hypernatremia (OR 5.24 {0.95-42.31}) and multiple co-morbidities (OR 2.59 {1.03-8.75}, p<0.07) as potential factors independently associated with mortality.

Conclusion

The study indicates the potential association of hypernatremia with mortality in AKI, along with the simultaneous presence of multiple co-morbidities with COVID-19. As the statistical power of the association is weak, we are claiming the association as potential only. It needs to be confirmed in other larger studies. 

Biochemical and Anthropometric Nutritional Assessment in Children Infected with COVID-19: A Cross-sectional Study

Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome has led to a pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Malnutrition either biochemically or anthropometrically is a well-known risk factor for COVID-19 and may be the vice versa Objectives  : To investigate the prevalence of malnutrition in children infected with COVID-19 through evaluating the nutritional biomarkers such as serum electrolytes, serum albumin and hemoglobin together with the anthropometric assessment.  Methods: A cross sectional study that was conducted at ElMatria Teaching Hospital for all children admitted with confirmed COVID-19 over a period of 6 months from 1st February 2021 to the end of July, 2021. Nutritional biochemical evaluation included serum electrolytes particularly   the potassium and other nutritional biomarkers such  as serum albumin and hemoglobin. Nutritional anthropometric evaluation depended on BMI (body mass index), the height/length, weight for length and weight for height..The prevalence of malnutrition esp. hypokalemia was the main outcome. Results: Hypokalemia was present in 21.8% of the study participants . Other nutritional biomarkers were found  as hyponatremia, hypocalcemia , hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia were detected in 49.1% , 38.2%,21.8% and 34.5%  of the study subjects respectively. Anthropometric malnutrition was present in most of the enrolled children with COVID-19 in the study (65.5 %  (n= 36) )through which overweight and obese children occupied a greater percentage. Conclusion: Malnutrition either biochemically or anthropometrically could be linked to   COVID-19 in children. COVID-19 could have negative outcomes on the nutritional status such as electrolytes disturbances. Both malnutrition and COVID-19 are considered synergistic associations   Keywords: Malnutrition. COVID-19. Children. Hypokalemia. Obesity

Hypo- and Hyperphosphatemia at Admission as Independent Factors of Mortality of COVID-19 Patients: Findings from a Retrospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Electrolyte imbalances are common in COVID-19 infection and are associated with poor outcomes in hospitalized patients.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined whether serum phosphate imbalances at admission are associated with mortality in hospitalized COVID-19 patients.

METHODS

In this registry-based single-center retrospective cohort study, 1349 inpatients with COVID-19 were included from March 2020 to March 2021 in an academic hospital in Ilam (southwest Iran). The Cox proportional hazard (PH) regression model was applied to the data set of COVID-19.

RESULTS

The in-hospital median survival time for patients with low, normal, and high serum phosphate levels was 14, 25, and 8 days, respectively. In a multivariate model, adjusted for the other variables, patients with hypophosphatemia (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 2.53; 95% CI, 1.15 - 5.58; P = 0.02) and hyperphosphatemia (adjusted HR, 1.77; 95% CI, 1.00 - 3.14; P = 0.05) had an increased mortality hazard compared with those who had normal levels of serum phosphate.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate associations of hypophosphatemia and hyperphosphatemia with increased in-hospital mortality in COVID-19 patients. Intensive medical care and more attention must be paid to COVID-19 patients with serum phosphate imbalances at admission.

The Association of New-Onset Acute Kidney Injury and Mortality in Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 With Less Severe Clinical Conditions at Admission: A Moderation Analysis

Acute kidney injury (AKI), electrolyte, and acid–base disorders complicate the clinical course of critically ill patients with coronavirus-associated disease (COVID-19) and are associated with poor outcomes. It is not known whether the severity of clinical conditions at admission in the intensive care unit (ICU) changes the clinical significance of AKI and/or electrolyte or acid–base disorders developing during ICU stay. We conducted a retrospective study in critically ill patients with COVID-19 to evaluate whether the severity of clinical conditions at admission in the ICU affects the impact of AKI and of serum electrolytes or acid–base status on mortality. We carried out a 28-day retrospective follow-up study on 115 critically ill patients consecutively admitted to ICU for severe COVID-19 at a tertiary care university hospital and surviving longer than 24 h. We collected baseline demographic and clinical characteristics, and longitudinal data on kidney function, kidney replacement therapy, serum electrolytes, and acid–base status. We used Cox proportional hazards multiple regression models to test the interaction between the time-varying variates new-onset AKI or electrolyte or acid–base disorders and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) or Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) score at admission. After adjusting for age, sex, Charlson’s comorbidity index, and AKI present at ICU admission, new-onset AKI was significantly associated with 28-day mortality only in the patients in the lowest and middle SOFA score tertiles [lowest SOFA tertile, hazard ratio (HR) 4.27 (95% CI: 1.27–14.44; P = 0.019), middle SOFA tertile, HR 3.17 (95% CI: 1.11–9.04, P = 0.031), highest SOFA tertile, HR 0.77 (95% CI: 0.24–2.50; P = 0.66); P = 0.026 for interaction with SOFA as a continuous variable]. After stratifying for APACHE II tertile, results were similar [adjusted HR (aHR) in the lowest tertile 6.24 (95% CI: 1.85–21.03, P = 0.003)]. SOFA or APACHE II at admission did not affect the relationship of serum electrolytes and acid–base status with mortality, except for new-onset acidosis which was associated with increased mortality, with the HR of death increasing with SOFA or APACHE II score (P < 0.001 and P = 0.013, respectively). Thus, unlike in the most severe critically ill patients admitted to the ICU for COVID-19, in patients with the less severe conditions at admission the development of AKI during the stay is a strong indicator of increased hazard of death.

First wave of COVID-19 in Venezuela: Epidemiological, clinical, and paraclinical characteristics of first cases

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has particularly affected countries with weakened health services in Latin America, where proper patient management could be a critical step to address the epidemic. In this study, we aimed to characterize and identify which epidemiological, clinical, and paraclinical risk factors defined COVID-19 infection from the first confirmed cases through the first epidemic wave in Venezuela. A retrospective analysis of consecutive suspected cases of COVID-19 admitted to a sentinel hospital was carried out, including 576 patient cases subsequently confirmed for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. Of these, 162 (28.1%) patients met the definition criteria for severe/critical disease, and 414 (71.2%) were classified as mild/moderate disease. The mean age was 47 (SD 16) years, the majority of which were men (59.5%), and the most frequent comorbidity was arterial hypertension (23.3%). The most common symptoms included fever (88.7%), headache (65.6%), and dry cough (63.9%). Severe/critical disease affected mostly older males with low schooling (p < 0.001). Similarly, higher levels of glycemia, urea, aminotransferases, total bilirubin, lactate dehydrogenase, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate were observed in severe/critical disease patients compared to those with mild/moderate disease. Overall mortality was 7.6% (44/576), with 41.7% (28/68) dying in hospital. We identified risk factors related to COVID-19 infection, which could help healthcare providers take appropriate measures and prevent severe clinical outcomes. Our results suggest that the mortality registered by this disease in Venezuela during the first epidemic wave was underestimated. An increase in fatalities is expected to occur in the coming months unless measures that are more effective are implemented to mitigate the epidemic while the vaccination process is ongoing.

Potential Mechanisms Underlying Hypoxia-Induced Diabetes in a Rodent Model: Implications for COVID-19

Previous studies reported that repetitive hypoxia in rat pups reduces insulin secretion and elevates fasting blood glucose levels; these sequelae persisted for several months. This report describes how episodic hypoxic events elevate a chloride ion exporter, K⁺-Cl⁻ cotransporter-2 (KCC2), in the plasma membrane of insulin-secreting pancreatic β-cells. We assume that acute diabetic symptoms observed in rat pups with periodic oxygen desaturation could result from a lack of blood insulin levels due to disturbed β-cell function. This acute hypo-insulinemia may result from a disruption in chloride balance in β-cells arising from an imbalanced KCC2-NKCC1 (chloride exporter-importer) density as a consequence of periodic oxygen desaturation. Mechanistically, we postulate that a reduced insulin secretion due to the KCC2-NKCC1 imbalance subsequent to acute oxygen desaturation could result in hyperglycemia in rat pups, paralleling symptoms shown in patients with COVID-19 who experienced acute respiratory distress.

Clinical features and independent predictors for recurrence of positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA: A propensity score-matched analysis

Patients with COVID‐19 may be recurrence positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) RNA after being cured and discharged from the hospital. The aim of this study was to explore independent influencing factors as markers for predicting positive SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA recurrence. The study included 601 COVID‐19 patients who were cured and discharged from the Public and Health Clinic Centre of Chengdu from January 2020 to March 2021, and the recurrence positive of patients within 6 weeks after SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA turned negative was followed up. We used propensity score matching to eliminate the influence of confounding factors, and multivariate Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the independent influencing factors for positive SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA recurrence. Multivariate Logistic regression showed that the elevated serum potassium (odds ratio [OR] = 6.537, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.864–22.931, p = 0.003), elevated blood chlorine (OR = 1.169, 95% CI: 1.032–1.324, p = 0.014) and elevated CD3⁺CD4⁺ count (OR = 1.003, 95% CI: 1.001–1.004, p < 0.001) were identified as independent risk factors for positive SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA recurrence (p < 0.05). The difference in virus shedding duration (OR = 1.049, 95% CI: 1.000–1.100, p = 0.05) was borderline statistically significant. For sensitivity analysis, we included virus shedding duration as a categorical variable in the model again and found that the OR value related to recurrence positively increased with delayed virus shedding duration, and the trend test showed a statistical difference (P trend = 0.03). Meanwhile, shortening of activated partial prothrombinase time (OR = 0.908, 95% CI: 0.824–1.000, p = 0.049) was identified as an independent protection factor for SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA recurrence positive. We have identified independent factors that affect the recurrence of SARS‐CoV‐2 RNA positive. It is recommended that doctors pay attention to these indicators when first admitted to the hospital.