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Zafar A, Khan MJ, Naeem A. MDM2- an indispensable player in tumorigenesis. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:6871-6883. [PMID: 37314603 PMCID: PMC10374471 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08512-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Murine double minute 2 (MDM2) is a well-recognized molecule for its oncogenic potential. Since its identification, various cancer-promoting roles of MDM2 such as growth stimulation, sustained angiogenesis, metabolic reprogramming, apoptosis evasion, metastasis, and immunosuppression have been established. Alterations in the expression levels of MDM2 occur in multiple types of cancers resulting in uncontrolled proliferation. The cellular processes are modulated by MDM2 through transcription, post-translational modifications, protein degradation, binding to cofactors, and subcellular localization. In this review, we discuss the precise role of deregulated MDM2 levels in modulating cellular functions to promote cancer growth. Moreover, we also briefly discuss the role of MDM2 in inducing resistance against anti-cancerous therapies thus limiting the benefits of cancerous treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aasma Zafar
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, 45550 Pakistan
| | | | - Aisha Naeem
- Department of Oncology, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Center, 20057 Washington, DC U.S
- Qatar University Health, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
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2
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Manirakiza F, Yamada H, Iwashita Y, Ishino K, Ishikawa R, Kovacs Z, Osvath E, Nzitakera A, Gurzu S, Sugimura H. TP53 mutations in Romanian patients with colorectal cancer. Genes Environ 2023; 45:20. [PMID: 37391803 DOI: 10.1186/s41021-023-00277-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colorectal cancer (CRC) has been ranked as the second most deadly cancer and the third most diagnosed cancer cases for the year 2020. Specifically for Romania, the number of CRC-related deaths in 2019 was estimated at 6307 people, with a standardized mortality rate of 33.8 per 100,000 inhabitants. Although the tumor protein 53 (TP53) gene is intensively studied, there are few data on TP53 mutations in Romanian CRC. Furthermore, since genetic alterations may show geographical differences, our study aimed to analyze the clinical status and TP53 somatic variation in Romanian CRC patients. SUBJECTS AND METHODS DNA from 40 randomly selected cases of CRC was extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues and sequenced using direct Sanger sequencing techniques, and variants were annotated according to the recommendations of the Human Genome Variation Society. Novel variants were analyzed using MutationTaster2021 to predict their effects. RESULTS The mean age was 63.6 years (range 33-85 years) with a male to female ratio of 2.3. More than 45% (18/40) had an advanced cancer stage (≥ stage III). Mutations were found in 21/40 cases (52.5%), with one case having two mutations, giving a total of twenty-two mutations in the TP53 coding DNA. These mutations include 3 (13.6%) insertion-deletion mutations, two of which are novel frameshift mutations: c.165delT (in exon 4) and c.928_935dup (in exon 9), both of which are predicted to lead to nonsense-mediated mRNA decay and are classified as deleterious. The remaining 19 (86.36%) were substitution mutations: 1 nonsense and 18 (81.8%) missense mutations, with G > A (n = 7/19; 36.8%) and C > T (n = 6/19; 31.5%) transitions being the most common. The G > T transversion was found in 21.05% (4/19) of the substitution mutations. CONCLUSION We have described two novel frameshift mutations in TP53. The discovery of novel mutations following the efforts of The Cancer Genome Atlas and other large-scale cancer genome sequencing projects may be further evidence of the heterogeneous nature of mutations in cancer and may indicate that the identification of carcinogenic mutations is not yet saturated. Further sequencing is therefore needed, especially in less studied populations. Importantly, consideration of their geographical environment will shed light on population-specific carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Manirakiza
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 3286, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Hidetaka Yamada
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
| | - Yuji Iwashita
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
| | - Keiko Ishino
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
| | - Rei Ishikawa
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
| | - Zsolt Kovacs
- Research Center of Oncopathology and Translational Research (CCOMT), George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology, Targu-Mures, 540139, Romania
| | - Eva Osvath
- Department of Pathology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology, Targu-Mures, 540139, Romania
| | - Augustin Nzitakera
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Sciences, School of Health Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 3286, Kigali, Rwanda
| | - Simona Gurzu
- Research Center of Oncopathology and Translational Research (CCOMT), George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology, Targu-Mures, 540139, Romania
- Department of Pathology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology, Targu-Mures, 540139, Romania
| | - Haruhiko Sugimura
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Shizuoka, 431-3192, Japan.
- Sasaki Institute, Sasaki Foundation, 2-2, Kanda Surugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0062, Japan.
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The RING finger protein family in health and disease. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:300. [PMID: 36042206 PMCID: PMC9424811 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01152-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitination is a highly conserved and fundamental posttranslational modification (PTM) in all eukaryotes regulating thousands of proteins. The RING (really interesting new gene) finger (RNF) protein, containing the RING domain, exerts E3 ubiquitin ligase that mediates the covalent attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) to target proteins. Multiple reviews have summarized the critical roles of the tripartite-motif (TRIM) protein family, a subgroup of RNF proteins, in various diseases, including cancer, inflammatory, infectious, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Except for TRIMs, since numerous studies over the past decades have delineated that other RNF proteins also exert widespread involvement in several diseases, their importance should not be underestimated. This review summarizes the potential contribution of dysregulated RNF proteins, except for TRIMs, to the pathogenesis of some diseases, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative disorder. Since viral infection is broadly involved in the induction and development of those diseases, this manuscript also highlights the regulatory roles of RNF proteins, excluding TRIMs, in the antiviral immune responses. In addition, we further discuss the potential intervention strategies targeting other RNF proteins for the prevention and therapeutics of those human diseases.
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Zhou Z, Zalutsky MR, Chitneni SK. Stapled peptides as scaffolds for developing radiotracers for intracellular targets: Preliminary evaluation of a radioiodinated MDM2-binding stapled peptide in the SJSA-1 osteosarcoma model. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2022; 66:128725. [PMID: 35436588 PMCID: PMC9940446 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2022.128725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Stapled peptides are promising scaffolds for inhibiting protein-protein interactions in cells, including between the intracellular oncoprotein MDM2 and p53. Herein, we have investigated the potential utility of a stapled peptide, VIP116, for developing radiolabeled agents targeting MDM2. VIP116 was radioiodinated using the prosthetic agent N-succinimidyl-3-[*I]iodobenzoate ([*I]SIB). The resulting labeled peptide [*I]SIB-VIP116 exhibited high uptake (165.3 ± 27.7%/mg protein) and specificity in SJSA-1 tumor cells. Tissue distribution studies of [*I]SIB-VIP116 revealed a peak tumor uptake of 2.19 ± 0.56 percent injected dose per gram (%ID/g) in SJSA-1 xenografts at 2 h post-injection, which was stable until 6 h. [*I]SIB-VIP116 exhibited high activity (8.33 ± 1.18%ID/g) in the blood pool but had high tumor-to-muscle ratios (12.0 ± 5.7), at 30 min. Metabolic stability studies in mice indicated that about 80% of the activity in plasma was intact [*I]SIB-VIP116 at 4 h. Our results confirm the cell permeability and specific binding of [*I]SIB-VIP116 to MDM2 and the suitability of the VIP116 scaffold for radiolabeled probe development.
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Wang S, Chen FE. Small-molecule MDM2 inhibitors in clinical trials for cancer therapy. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 236:114334. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Qin J, Ng CS, He P, Lin X, Lin X, Hou P. Pulmonary artery intimal sarcoma - A primeval or rediscovered tumor? A report of 14 new cases with literature review. Pathol Res Pract 2021; 224:153548. [PMID: 34280751 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2021.153548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary artery sarcomas (PAS) are rare with many being undifferentiated pleomorphic or spindle cell (UPSC) sarcomas with variable atypia. The term pulmonary artery intimal sarcoma (PAIS) was rarely coined in the early literature and sometimes used for luminal sarcomas. With the advent of immunohistochemistry and molecular genetics, many of these UPSC sarcomas were found to frequently overpress MDM2 and/or CDK4 and PDGFRA with genetic alterations in 12q12-15 and 4q12, where the MDM2, CDK4 and PDGFRA genes are located. These recent developments enabled refinement in diagnosis of PAIS. We diagnosed 14 cases of PAIS (6 males and 8 females, mean age 44 years) in 2015 - 2020 in our institution. Six were initially misdiagnosed as thromboembolism and the remaining pulmonary artery tumors. The tumors were pulmonary artery intraluminal polypoid masses with histology of spindle cell sarcomas exhibiting immunohistochemical positivity for MDM2 (100%) and CDK4 (79%) with MDM2 gene amplification (100%). Ten surgically treated patients fared better than four other biopsy only and not surgically treated patients, who died of disease within 5-11 months. PAIS needs to be differentiated from other spindle cell tumors and those exhibiting MDM2 gene amplification, especially dedifferentiated liposarcoma. The use of biopsy to provide diagnostic material poses a sampling error problem and correlation with clinical, radiologic, histologic, immunophenotypic and genotypic features are essential for accurate diagnosis and early surgical intervention of PAIS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jilong Qin
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 151 Yanjiang West Road, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Chi Sing Ng
- Department of Pathology, St. Teresa's Hospital, 327 Prince Edward Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Ping He
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 151 Yanjiang West Road, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Xiaodong Lin
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 151 Yanjiang West Road, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Xina Lin
- Department of Pathology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 151 Yanjiang West Road, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Peng Hou
- PET-CT Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 151 Yanjiang West Road, Guangzhou 510120, China
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7
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Lees A, Sessler T, McDade S. Dying to Survive-The p53 Paradox. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3257. [PMID: 34209840 PMCID: PMC8268032 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13133257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The p53 tumour suppressor is best known for its canonical role as "guardian of the genome", activating cell cycle arrest and DNA repair in response to DNA damage which, if irreparable or sustained, triggers activation of cell death. However, despite an enormous amount of work identifying the breadth of the gene regulatory networks activated directly and indirectly in response to p53 activation, how p53 activation results in different cell fates in response to different stress signals in homeostasis and in response to p53 activating anti-cancer treatments remains relatively poorly understood. This is likely due to the complex interaction between cell death mechanisms in which p53 has been activated, their neighbouring stressed or unstressed cells and the local stromal and immune microenvironment in which they reside. In this review, we evaluate our understanding of the burgeoning number of cell death pathways affected by p53 activation and how these may paradoxically suppress cell death to ensure tissue integrity and organismal survival. We also discuss how these functions may be advantageous to tumours that maintain wild-type p53, the understanding of which may provide novel opportunity to enhance treatment efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Lees
- Patrick G Johnston Centre for Cancer Research, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7AE, UK;
| | | | - Simon McDade
- Patrick G Johnston Centre for Cancer Research, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 7AE, UK;
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8
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Liebl MC, Hofmann TG. The Role of p53 Signaling in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:2125. [PMID: 33924934 PMCID: PMC8125348 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13092125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The transcription factor p53 functions as a critical tumor suppressor by orchestrating a plethora of cellular responses such as DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, cellular senescence, cell death, cell differentiation, and metabolism. In unstressed cells, p53 levels are kept low due to its polyubiquitination by the E3 ubiquitin ligase MDM2. In response to various stress signals, including DNA damage and aberrant growth signals, the interaction between p53 and MDM2 is blocked and p53 becomes stabilized, allowing p53 to regulate a diverse set of cellular responses mainly through the transactivation of its target genes. The outcome of p53 activation is controlled by its dynamics, its interactions with other proteins, and post-translational modifications. Due to its involvement in several tumor-suppressing pathways, p53 function is frequently impaired in human cancers. In colorectal cancer (CRC), the TP53 gene is mutated in 43% of tumors, and the remaining tumors often have compromised p53 functioning because of alterations in the genes encoding proteins involved in p53 regulation, such as ATM (13%) or DNA-PKcs (11%). TP53 mutations in CRC are usually missense mutations that impair wild-type p53 function (loss-of-function) and that even might provide neo-morphic (gain-of-function) activities such as promoting cancer cell stemness, cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis, thereby promoting cancer progression. Although the first compounds targeting p53 are in clinical trials, a better understanding of wild-type and mutant p53 functions will likely pave the way for novel CRC therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena C. Liebl
- Institute of Toxicology, University Medical Center Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg University, 55131 Mainz, Germany;
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9
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10
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Wu HQ, Baker D, Ovaa H. Small molecules that target the ubiquitin system. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 48:479-497. [PMID: 32196552 PMCID: PMC7200645 DOI: 10.1042/bst20190535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Eukaryotic life depends upon the interplay between vast networks of signaling pathways composed of upwards of 109-1010 proteins per cell. The integrity and normal operation of the cell requires that these proteins act in a precise spatial and temporal manner. The ubiquitin system is absolutely central to this process and perturbation of its function contributes directly to the onset and progression of a wide variety of diseases, including cancer, metabolic syndromes, neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmunity, inflammatory disorders, infectious diseases, and muscle dystrophies. Whilst the individual components and the overall architecture of the ubiquitin system have been delineated in some detail, how ubiquitination might be successfully targeted, or harnessed, to develop novel therapeutic approaches to the treatment of disease, currently remains relatively poorly understood. In this review, we will provide an overview of the current status of selected small molecule ubiquitin system inhibitors. We will further discuss the unique challenges of targeting this ubiquitous and highly complex machinery, and explore and highlight potential ways in which these challenges might be met.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Qiu Wu
- Oncode Institute, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - David Baker
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Huib Ovaa
- Oncode Institute, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2300 RC, Leiden, The Netherlands
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11
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Brocca G, Ferraresso S, Zamboni C, Martinez-Merlo EM, Ferro S, Goldschmidt MH, Castagnaro M. Array Comparative Genomic Hybridization Analysis Reveals Significantly Enriched Pathways in Canine Oral Melanoma. Front Oncol 2019; 9:1397. [PMID: 31921654 PMCID: PMC6920211 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Human Mucosal Melanoma (hMM) is an aggressive neoplasm of neuroectodermal origin with distinctive features from the more common cutaneous form of malignant melanoma (cMM). At the molecular level, hMMs are characterized by large chromosomal aberrations rather than single-nucleotide mutations, typically observed in cMM. Given the scarcity of available cases, there have been many attempts to establish a reliable animal model. In pet dogs, Canine Oral Melanoma (COM) is the most common malignant tumor of the oral cavity, sharing clinical and histological aspects with hMM. To improve the knowledge about COM's genomic DNA alterations, in the present work, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples of COM from different European archives were collected to set up an array Comparative Genomic Hybridization (aCGH) analysis to estimate recurrent Copy Number Aberrations (CNAs). DNA was extracted in parallel from tumor and healthy fractions and 19 specimens were successfully submitted to labeling and competitive hybridization. Data were statistically analyzed through GISTIC2.0 and a pathway-enrichment analysis was performed with ClueGO. Recurrent gained regions were detected, affecting chromosomes CFA 10, 13 and 30, while lost regions involved chromosomes CFA 10, 11, 22, and 30. In particular, CFA 13 showed a whole-chromosome gain in 37% of the samples, while CFA 22 showed a whole-chromosome loss in 25%. A distinctive sigmoidal trend was observed in CFA 10 and 30 in 25 and 30% of the samples, respectively. Comparative analysis revealed that COM and hMM share common chromosomal changes in 32 regions. MAPK- and PI3K-related genes were the most frequently involved, while pathway analysis revealed statistically significant perturbation of cancer-related biological processes such as immune response, drug metabolism, melanocytes homeostasis, and neo-angiogenesis. The latter is a new evidence of a significant involvement of neovascularization-related pathways in COMs and can provide the rationale for future application in anti-cancer targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginevra Brocca
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Serena Ferraresso
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Clarissa Zamboni
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Italy
| | | | - Silvia Ferro
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Michael H Goldschmidt
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Massimo Castagnaro
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Italy
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Giannuzzi D, Marconato L, Elgendy R, Ferraresso S, Scarselli E, Fariselli P, Nicosia A, Pegolo S, Leoni G, Laganga P, Leone VF, Giantin M, Troise F, Dacasto M, Aresu L. Longitudinal transcriptomic and genetic landscape of radiotherapy response in canine melanoma. Vet Comp Oncol 2019; 17:308-316. [PMID: 30805995 DOI: 10.1111/vco.12473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Canine malignant melanoma (MM) is a highly aggressive tumour with a low survival rate and represents an ideal spontaneous model for the human counterpart. Considerable progress has been recently obtained, but the therapeutic success for canine melanoma is still challenging. Little is known about the mechanisms beyond pathogenesis and melanoma development, and the molecular response to radiotherapy has never been explored before. A faster and deeper understanding of cancer mutational processes and developing mechanisms are now possible through next generation sequencing technologies. In this study, we matched whole exome and transcriptome sequencing in four dogs affected by MM at diagnosis and at disease progression to identify possible genetic mechanisms associated with therapy failure. According to previous studies, a genetic similarity between canine MM and its human counterpart was observed. Several somatic mutations were functionally related to MAPK, PI3K/AKT and p53 signalling pathways, but located in genes other than BRAF, RAS and KIT. At disease progression, several mutations were related to therapy effects. Natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity and several immune-system-related pathways resulted activated opening a new scenario on the microenvironment in this tumour. In conclusion, this study suggests a potential role of the immune system associated to radiotherapy in canine melanoma, but a larger sample size associated with functional studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Giannuzzi
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | - Laura Marconato
- Centro Oncologico Veterinario, Sasso Marconi, Bologna, Italy
| | - Ramy Elgendy
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Serena Ferraresso
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Piero Fariselli
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | - Alfredo Nicosia
- Nouscom AG, Basel, Switzerland.,Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy.,CEINGE-Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a.r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Sara Pegolo
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural resources, Animals and Environment, University of Padua, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Paola Laganga
- Centro Oncologico Veterinario, Sasso Marconi, Bologna, Italy
| | - Vito F Leone
- Centro Oncologico Veterinario, Sasso Marconi, Bologna, Italy
| | - Mery Giantin
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Mauro Dacasto
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padua, Legnaro, Padua, Italy
| | - Luca Aresu
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Grugliasco, Turin, Italy
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Miedl H, Lebhard J, Ehart L, Schreiber M. Association of the MDM2 SNP285 and SNP309 Genetic Variants with the Risk, Age at Onset and Prognosis of Breast Cancer in Central European Women: A Hospital-Based Case-Control Study. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20030509. [PMID: 30691044 PMCID: PMC6387136 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20030509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
SNP309T>G (rs2279744) and SNP285G>C (rs117039649) in the MDM2 promoter are thought to have opposite effects on the binding of transcription factor SP1 (specificity protein 1), and consequently on MDM2 expression, p53 levels, cancer risk, age at onset, and prognosis. Here, we genotyped SNP309 and SNP285 in 406 Austrian breast cancer patients and 254 female controls. The SNP309GG genotype was associated with an increased breast cancer risk in p53 negative (OR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.09–3.03; p = 0.02), but not p53 positive or unselected patients. In contrast, the SNP309TT genotype was associated with an earlier age at onset (TT, 57.0 ± 12.9; TG, 58.6 ± 13.9; GG, 59.7 ± 15.0 years; p = 0.048). 31% of SNP309TT, 26% of TG, and 13% of GG tumors were p53 positive (p = 0.034), indicating a lower selective pressure to mutate TP53 in the presence of the G-allele. Moreover, SNP309TT patients exhibited a shortened metastasis-free survival in multivariable analysis. Censoring carriers of the SNP285C-allele hardly altered the strength of these associations of SNP309, thus challenging the proposed antagonistic function of SNP285C towards SNP309G. The minor SNP285C-allele tended to be non-significantly associated with an increased breast cancer risk and a poor disease-free and metastasis-free survival, which may be bystander effects of its complete linkage disequilibrium with SNP309G. We conclude that the SNP309G-allele attenuates the p53-response and leads to a higher breast cancer risk, but also to a later onset of breast cancer and a trend towards a good prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Miedl
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Farooqi AA, de la Roche M, Djamgoz MBA, Siddik ZH. Overview of the oncogenic signaling pathways in colorectal cancer: Mechanistic insights. Semin Cancer Biol 2019; 58:65-79. [PMID: 30633978 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer is a multifaceted disease which is therapeutically challenging. Based on insights gleaned from almost a quarter century of research, it is obvious that deregulation of spatio-temporally controlled signaling pathways play instrumental role in development and progression of colorectal cancer. High-throughput technologies have helped to develop a sharper and broader understanding of the wide ranging signal transduction cascades which also contribute to development of drug resistance, loss of apoptosis and, ultimately, of metastasis. In this review, we have set the spotlight on role of JAK/STAT, TGF/SMAD, Notch, WNT/β-Catenin, SHH/GLI and p53 pathways in the development and progression of colorectal cancer. We have also highlighted recent reports on TRAIL-mediated pathways and molecularly distinct voltage-gated sodium channels in colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammad Ahmad Farooqi
- Institute of Biomedical and Genetic Engineering (IBGE), Islamabad, Pakistan.
| | - Marc de la Roche
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, 80 Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1GA, United Kingdom.
| | - Mustafa B A Djamgoz
- Imperial College London, Department of Life Sciences, Neuroscience Solutions to Cancer Research Group, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Cyprus International University, Biotechnology Research Centre, Haspolat, Mersin 10, North Cyprus, Turkey.
| | - Zahid H Siddik
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA.
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15
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Liao G, Yang D, Ma L, Li W, Hu L, Zeng L, Wu P, Duan L, Liu Z. The development of piperidinones as potent MDM2-P53 protein-protein interaction inhibitors for cancer therapy. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 159:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Dembla V, Somaiah N, Barata P, Hess K, Fu S, Janku F, Karp DD, Naing A, Piha-Paul SA, Subbiah V, Tsimberidou AM, Shaw K, Meric-Bernstam F, Hong DS. Prevalence of MDM2 amplification and coalterations in 523 advanced cancer patients in the MD Anderson phase 1 clinic. Oncotarget 2018; 9:33232-33243. [PMID: 30237864 PMCID: PMC6145698 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.26075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background TP53 is the most commonly mutated gene in cancer and codes for the best studied tumor suppressor, p53. MDM2 is involved in the negative regulation of p53 and itself serves as an oncogene, reported to be overexpressed in several cancer tumor types. In this retrospective study, we assessed the occurrence of MDM2 amplification among patients with various types of cancers and its association with clinical factors, other genetic aberrations, and response to targeted therapy in a phase I clinical trial setting. Methods Samples from patients with advanced solid tumors who had been referred to the MD Anderson phase I clinical trials program between January 2011 and January 2016 were collected and analyzed for MDM2 amplification using FoundationOne's genomic profiling assay. Patients whose tumors expressed MDM2 amplification were compared to those with tumors of the same histologic types without MDM2 amplification. Results We tested tumors from 523 patients, of which 23 (4.4%) had MDM2 amplification. The highest prevalence of MDM2 amplification was in sarcoma (57%), breast cancer (13%) and bladder cancer (9%). Six patients with liposarcoma were treated on phase I protocol with an MDM2 inhibitor. The most common molecular aberrations co-occurring with MDM2 amplification was CDK4 amplification (70%). TP53 mutation was also detected in 7 patients (30%). Conclusion MDM2 amplification was most commonly associated with liposarcoma. Concomitant alterations in additional genes such as CDK4 amplification and TP53 mutations, along with variable responses to targeted therapies including MDM2 inhibitors, suggest that further combinational studies are needed to target this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Dembla
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Neeta Somaiah
- Department of Sarcoma Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Pedro Barata
- Department of Solid Tumors, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Kenneth Hess
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Siqing Fu
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Filip Janku
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Daniel D Karp
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Aung Naing
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Sarina Anne Piha-Paul
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Vivek Subbiah
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Apostolia M Tsimberidou
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Kenna Shaw
- Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan Institute for Personalized Cancer Therapy, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Funda Meric-Bernstam
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - David S Hong
- Department of Investigational Cancer Therapeutics (Phase 1 Program), The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
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17
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Zhao K, Yang Y, Zhang G, Wang C, Wang D, Wu M, Mei Y. Regulation of the Mdm2-p53 pathway by the ubiquitin E3 ligase MARCH7. EMBO Rep 2018; 19:305-319. [PMID: 29295817 PMCID: PMC5797962 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201744465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor suppressor p53 plays a prominent role in the protection against cancer. The activity of p53 is mainly controlled by the ubiquitin E3 ligase Mdm2, which targets p53 for proteasomal degradation. However, the regulation of Mdm2 remains not well understood. Here, we show that MARCH7, a RING domain-containing ubiquitin E3 ligase, physically interacts with Mdm2 and is essential for maintaining the stability of Mdm2. MARCH7 catalyzes Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of Mdm2, which impedes Mdm2 autoubiquitination and degradation, thereby leading to the stabilization of Mdm2. MARCH7 also promotes Mdm2-dependent polyubiquitination and degradation of p53. Furthermore, MARCH7 is able to regulate cell proliferation, DNA damage-induced apoptosis, and tumorigenesis via a p53-dependent mechanism. These findings uncover a novel mechanism for the regulation of Mdm2 and reveal MARCH7 as an important regulator of the Mdm2-p53 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kailiang Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yang Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Guang Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Chenfeng Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Decai Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Mian Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yide Mei
- CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, School of Life Sciences and Medical Center, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, Hefei, Anhui, China
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18
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Wang P, Lu YC, Li YF, Wang L, Lee SC. Advanced Glycation End Products Increase MDM2 Expression via Transcription Factor KLF5. J Diabetes Res 2018; 2018:3274084. [PMID: 30271790 PMCID: PMC6151196 DOI: 10.1155/2018/3274084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes increases the risk for all-site cancers including colon cancer. Diabetic patients present typical pathophysiological features including an increased level of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which comes from a series of nonenzymatic reactions between sugars and biological macromolecules, positively associated with the occurrence of diabetic complications. MDM2 is an oncogene implicated in cancer development. The present study investigated whether diabetes promoted MDM2 expression in colon cells and the underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that AGE increased the protein level of MDM2 in a cell model and promoted binding between MDM2 and Rb as well as p53, which led to degradation of Rb and p53. KLF5 was able to bind to the regulatory sequence of the MDM2 gene, and knockdown of the KLF5 protein level inhibited the AGE-triggered MDM2 overexpression, which indicated that KLF5 was the transcription factor for MDM2. In a mouse model of diabetes, we found that AGE level was increased in serum. The protein levels of both KLF5 and MDM2 were increased. KLF5 was able to bind to the regulatory sequence of the MDM2 gene. In conclusion, our results suggest that diabetes increases the level of AGE which enhances the expression of MDM2 via transcription factor KLF5 in colon cells. MDM2 overexpression is a candidate biological link between type 2 diabetes and colon cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pu Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Yu Cheng Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Yuan Fei Li
- Department of Oncology, The First Clinical Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Lan Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Shao Chin Lee
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
- Department of Bological Science, School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221000, China
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19
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McNeil NE, Padilla-Nash HM, Buishand FO, Hue Y, Ried T. Novel mouse model recapitulates genome and transcriptome alterations in human colorectal carcinomas. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2016; 56:199-213. [PMID: 27750367 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.22426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human colorectal carcinomas are defined by a nonrandom distribution of genomic imbalances that are characteristic for this disease. Often, these imbalances affect entire chromosomes. Understanding the role of these aneuploidies for carcinogenesis is of utmost importance. Currently, established transgenic mice do not recapitulate the pathognonomic genome aberration profile of human colorectal carcinomas. We have developed a novel model based on the spontaneous transformation of murine colon epithelial cells. During this process, cells progress through stages of pre-immortalization, immortalization and, finally, transformation, and result in tumors when injected into immunocompromised mice. We analyzed our model for genome and transcriptome alterations using ArrayCGH, spectral karyotyping (SKY), and array based gene expression profiling. ArrayCGH revealed a recurrent pattern of genomic imbalances. These results were confirmed by SKY. Comparing these imbalances with orthologous maps of human chromosomes revealed a remarkable overlap. We observed focal deletions of the tumor suppressor genes Trp53 and Cdkn2a/p16. High-level focal genomic amplification included the locus harboring the oncogene Mdm2, which was confirmed by FISH in the form of double minute chromosomes. Array-based global gene expression revealed distinct differences between the sequential steps of spontaneous transformation. Gene expression changes showed significant similarities with human colorectal carcinomas. Pathways most prominently affected included genes involved in chromosomal instability and in epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Our novel mouse model therefore recapitulates the most prominent genome and transcriptome alterations in human colorectal cancer, and might serve as a valuable tool for understanding the dynamic process of tumorigenesis, and for preclinical drug testing. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E McNeil
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Hesed M Padilla-Nash
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Floryne O Buishand
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.,Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Yue Hue
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Thomas Ried
- Genetics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
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20
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Gerarduzzi C, de Polo A, Liu XS, El Kharbili M, Little JB, Yuan ZM. Human epidermal growth factor receptor 4 (Her4) Suppresses p53 Protein via Targeting the MDMX-MDM2 Protein Complex: IMPLICATION OF A NOVEL MDMX SER-314 PHOSPHOSITE. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:25937-25949. [PMID: 27777309 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.752303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Deregulated receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling is frequently associated with tumorigenesis and therapy resistance, but its underlying mechanisms still need to be elucidated. In this study, we have shown that the RTK human epidermal growth factor receptor 4 (Her4, also known as Erbb4) can inhibit the tumor suppressor p53 by regulating MDMX-mouse double minute 2 homolog (MDM2) complex stability. Upon activation by either overexpression of a constitutively active vector or ligand binding (Neuregulin-1), Her4 was able to stabilize the MDMX-MDM2 complex, resulting in suppression of p53 transcriptional activity, as shown by p53-responsive element-driven luciferase assay and mRNA levels of p53 target genes. Using a phospho-proteomics approach, we functionally identified a novel Her4-induced posttranslational modification on MDMX at Ser-314, a putative phosphorylation site for the CDK4/6 kinase. Remarkably, inhibition of Ser-314 phosphorylation either with Ser-to-Ala substitution or with a specific inhibitor of CDK4/6 kinase blocked Her4-induced stabilization of MDMX-MDM2 and rescued p53 activity. Our study offers insights into the mechanisms of deregulated RTK-induced carcinogenesis and provides the basis for the use of inhibitors targeting RTK-mediated signals for p53 restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casimiro Gerarduzzi
- From the John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Anna de Polo
- From the John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Xue-Song Liu
- From the John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Manale El Kharbili
- From the John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - John B Little
- From the John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Zhi-Min Yuan
- From the John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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21
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Brito AF, Abrantes AM, Tralhão JG, Botelho MF. Targeting Hepatocellular Carcinoma: What did we Discover so Far? Oncol Rev 2016; 10:302. [PMID: 27994769 PMCID: PMC5136756 DOI: 10.4081/oncol.2016.302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is increasingly considered an issue of global importance. Its rates of incidence and mortality have been markedly increasing over the last decades. Among risk factors, some should be highlighted, namely the infections by hepatitis B and C virus, as well as clinical cases of cirrhosis. HCC is characterized as asymptomatic disease in the initial stages which most often leads to a late diagnosis. At molecular and genetic level HCC represents a highly complex tumor entity, including a wide variety of mutations, thus accounting for different mechanisms of resistance towards therapeutic approaches. In particular, mutations of the TP53 gene, as well as a deregulation between the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins of the BCL-2 family are observed. Regarding treatment modalities, surgical procedures offer the best chance of cure, however, due to a late diagnosis, most of concerned patients cannot be subjected to them. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are also ineffective, and currently, the treatment with sorafenib is the most commonly used systemic therapy although it can only increase the patient survival for some months. In this sense, a quick and accurate investigation is of utmost importance in order to develop ways of early diagnosis as well as new therapies for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Filipa Brito
- Faculty of Medicine of University of Coimbra, Pólo III - Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Celas. 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal. +351.239480200 - +351.239480217.
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22
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Bi H, Tian T, Zhu L, Zhou H, Hu H, Liu Y, Li X, Hu F, Zhao Y, Wang G. Copy number variation of E3 ubiquitin ligase genes in peripheral blood leukocyte and colorectal cancer. Sci Rep 2016; 6:29869. [PMID: 27417709 PMCID: PMC4945909 DOI: 10.1038/srep29869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that E3 ubiquitin ligases (E3) regulate specific protein degradation in many cancer-related biological processes. E3 copy number variation (CNV) may affect the development and prognosis of colorectal cancer (CRC). Therefore, we detected CNVs of five E3 genes in 518 CRC patients and 518 age, gender and residence matched controls in China, and estimated the association between E3 gene CNVs and CRC risk and prognosis. We also estimated their interactions with environmental factors and CRC risk. We find a significant association between the CNVs of MDM2 and CRC risk (amp v.s. wt: odds ratio = 14.37, 95% confidence interval: 1.27, 163.74, P = 0.032), while SKP2 CNVs may significantly decrease CRC risk (del v.s. wt: odds ratio = 0.32, 95% confidence interval: 0.10, 1.00, P = 0.050). However, we find no significant association between the CNVs of other genes and CRC risk. The only significant gene-environment interaction effects are between SKP2 CNVs and consumption of fish and/or fruit (P = 0.014 and P = 0.035) and between FBXW7 CNVs and pork intake (P = 0.040). Finally, we find marginally significant association between β-TRCP CNVs and CRC prognosis (amp v.s. wt, hazard ratio = 0.42, 95% confidence interval: 0.19, 0.97, P = 0.050).
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Bi
- Department of Epidemiology, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian Tian
- Department of Epidemiology, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Zhu
- Department of Epidemiology, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Haibo Zhou
- Department of Epidemiology, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Hanqing Hu
- Department of Colorectal Cancer Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, 246 Xuefu Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanhong Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, 246 Xuefu Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xia Li
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Fulan Hu
- Department of Epidemiology, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yashuang Zhao
- Department of Epidemiology, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Guiyu Wang
- Department of Colorectal Cancer Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, 246 Xuefu Street, Harbin, Heilongjiang, People's Republic of China
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23
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Liu X, Tan Y, Zhang C, Zhang Y, Zhang L, Ren P, Deng H, Luo J, Ke Y, Du X. NAT10 regulates p53 activation through acetylating p53 at K120 and ubiquitinating Mdm2. EMBO Rep 2016; 17:349-66. [PMID: 26882543 PMCID: PMC4772976 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201540505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
As a genome guardian, p53 maintains genome stability by arresting cells for damage repair or inducing cell apoptosis to eliminate the damaged cells in stress response. Several nucleolar proteins stabilize p53 by interfering Mdm2–p53 interaction upon cellular stress, while other mechanisms by which nucleolar proteins activate p53 remain to be determined. Here, we identify NAT10 as a novel regulator for p53 activation. NAT10 acetylates p53 at K120 and stabilizes p53 by counteracting Mdm2 action. In addition, NAT10 promotes Mdm2 degradation with its intrinsic E3 ligase activity. After DNA damage, NAT10 translocates to nucleoplasm and activates p53‐mediated cell cycle control and apoptosis. Finally, NAT10 inhibits cell proliferation and expression of NAT10 decreases in human colorectal carcinomas. Thus, our data demonstrate that NAT10 plays a critical role in p53 activation via acetylating p53 and counteracting Mdm2 action, providing a novel pathway by which nucleolar protein activates p53 as a cellular stress sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Yuqin Tan
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Chunfeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Medical Genetics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Laboratory of Genetics, Peking University School of Oncology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Liangliang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Pengwei Ren
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Hongkui Deng
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Jianyuan Luo
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Medical Genetics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Medical & Research Technology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yang Ke
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Laboratory of Genetics, Peking University School of Oncology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojuan Du
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China Department of Cell Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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24
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Michalk M, Meinrath J, Künstlinger H, Koitzsch U, Drebber U, Merkelbach-Bruse S, Bollschweiler E, Kloth M, Hartmann W, Hölscher A, Quaas A, Grimminger PP, Odenthal M. MDM2 gene amplification in esophageal carcinoma. Oncol Rep 2016; 35:2223-7. [PMID: 26796597 DOI: 10.3892/or.2016.4578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer (EC) is one of the most common malignancies diagnosed in the Western world with an increasing incidence noted for esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). Despite improvements in staging, surgical procedures and postoperative treatments, the overall survival of patients with EC remains low. Murine double minute‑2 (MDM2) acts as an oncogene by inducing the degradation of the tumor‑suppressor protein TP53. In order to evaluate the MDM2 gene amplification status in EAC and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), we established a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay, screening a total of 127 esophageal carcinoma cases for MDM2 amplification. Esophageal carcinoma cases with enhanced MDM2 gene copy numbers were further analyzed by fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and MDM2 immunostaining. Among a total of 23 specimens (18%), identified by qPCR to possess elevated MDM2 gene copy numbers, one third (6.3%) showed a cluster‑like fluorescence pattern by FISH analyses and marked MDM2 protein immunostaining. MDM2 gene amplifications did not correlate with the occurrence of TP53 mutations. Due to the high therapeutic relevance of MDM2 overexpression, but the high cost of FISH, we suggest a primary screening of MDM2 copy number variations by qPCR, followed by detailed FISH analysis of the identified ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Michalk
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Jeannine Meinrath
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Helen Künstlinger
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Ulrike Koitzsch
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Uta Drebber
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | | | | | - Michael Kloth
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Hartmann
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Arnulf Hölscher
- Clinic for Visceral Surgery, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Alexander Quaas
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Peter P Grimminger
- Clinic for Visceral Surgery, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
| | - Margarete Odenthal
- Institute for Pathology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne 50924, Germany
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Wienken M, Dickmanns A, Nemajerova A, Kramer D, Najafova Z, Weiss M, Karpiuk O, Kassem M, Zhang Y, Lozano G, Johnsen SA, Moll UM, Zhang X, Dobbelstein M. MDM2 Associates with Polycomb Repressor Complex 2 and Enhances Stemness-Promoting Chromatin Modifications Independent of p53. Mol Cell 2016; 61:68-83. [PMID: 26748827 PMCID: PMC6284523 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The MDM2 oncoprotein ubiquitinates and antagonizes p53 but may also carry out p53-independent functions. Here we report that MDM2 is required for the efficient generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from murine embryonic fibroblasts, in the absence of p53. Similarly, MDM2 depletion in the context of p53 deficiency also promoted the differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells and diminished clonogenic survival of cancer cells. Most of the MDM2-controlled genes also responded to the inactivation of the Polycomb Repressor Complex 2 (PRC2) and its catalytic component EZH2. MDM2 physically associated with EZH2 on chromatin, enhancing the trimethylation of histone 3 at lysine 27 and the ubiquitination of histone 2A at lysine 119 (H2AK119) at its target genes. Removing MDM2 simultaneously with the H2AK119 E3 ligase Ring1B/RNF2 further induced these genes and synthetically arrested cell proliferation. In conclusion, MDM2 supports the Polycomb-mediated repression of lineage-specific genes, independent of p53.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Wienken
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Antje Dickmanns
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Alice Nemajerova
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Daniela Kramer
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Zeynab Najafova
- Department of General, Visceral, and Pediatric Surgery, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Miriam Weiss
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Oleksandra Karpiuk
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Moustapha Kassem
- Molecular Endocrinology and Stem Cell Research Unit (KMEB), University Hospital of Odense and University of Southern Denmark, Odense 5000, Denmark
| | - Yanping Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514, USA
| | - Guillermina Lozano
- Department of Genetics, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Steven A Johnsen
- Department of General, Visceral, and Pediatric Surgery, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Ute M Moll
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany; Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Xin Zhang
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany.
| | - Matthias Dobbelstein
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center for Molecular Biosciences (GZMB), University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen 37077, Germany.
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Hrstka R, Bouchalova P, Michalova E, Matoulkova E, Muller P, Coates PJ, Vojtesek B. AGR2 oncoprotein inhibits p38 MAPK and p53 activation through a DUSP10-mediated regulatory pathway. Mol Oncol 2015; 10:652-62. [PMID: 26733232 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor suppressor p53 plays a key role in malignant transformation and tumor development. However, the frequency of p53 mutations within individual types of cancer is different, suggesting the existence of other mechanisms attenuating p53 tumor suppressor activity. Changes in upstream regulators of p53 such as MDM2 amplification and overexpression, expression of viral oncoproteins, estrogen receptor signaling, or changes in p53 transcriptional target genes were previously described in wild-type p53 tumors. We identified a novel pathway responsible for attenuation of p53 activity in human cancers. We demonstrate that AGR2, which is overexpressed in a variety of human cancers and provides a poor prognosis, up-regulates DUSP10 which subsequently inhibits p38 MAPK and prevents p53 activation by phosphorylation. Analysis of human breast cancers reveals that AGR2 specifically provides a poor prognosis in ER+ breast cancers with wild-type p53 but not ER- or mutant p53 breast cancers, and analysis of independent data sets show that DUSP10 levels also have prognostic significance in this specific sub-group of patients. These data not only reveal a novel pro-oncogenic signaling pathway mediating resistance to DNA damaging agents in human tumors, but also has implications for designing alternative strategies for modulation of wild-type p53 activity in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Hrstka
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Bouchalova
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Michalova
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Matoulkova
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Muller
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Philip J Coates
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Borivoj Vojtesek
- Regional Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology (RECAMO), Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53, Brno, Czech Republic.
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Qi J, Ronai ZA. Dysregulation of ubiquitin ligases in cancer. Drug Resist Updat 2015; 23:1-11. [PMID: 26690337 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ubiquitin ligases (UBLs) are critical components of the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS), which governs fundamental processes regulating normal cellular homeostasis, metabolism, and cell cycle in response to external stress signals and DNA damage. Among multiple steps of the UPS system required to regulate protein ubiquitination and stability, UBLs define specificity, as they recognize and interact with substrates in a temporally- and spatially-regulated manner. Such interactions are required for substrate modification by ubiquitin chains, which marks proteins for recognition and degradation by the proteasome or alters their subcellular localization or assembly into functional complexes. UBLs are often deregulated in cancer, altering substrate availability or activity in a manner that can promote cellular transformation. Such deregulation can occur at the epigenetic, genomic, or post-translational levels. Alterations in UBL can be used to predict their contributions, affecting tumor suppressors or oncogenes in select tumors. Better understanding of mechanisms underlying UBL expression and activities is expected to drive the development of next generation modulators that can serve as novel therapeutic modalities. This review summarizes our current understanding of UBL deregulation in cancer and highlights novel opportunities for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfei Qi
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, 21201, USA.
| | - Ze'ev A Ronai
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, 92037, USA.
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Urso L, Calabrese F, Favaretto A, Conte P, Pasello G. Critical review about MDM2 in cancer: Possible role in malignant mesothelioma and implications for treatment. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2015; 97:220-30. [PMID: 26358421 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor suppressor p53 regulates genes involved in DNA repair, metabolism, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and senescence. p53 is mutated in about 50% of the human cancers, while in tumors with wild-type p53 gene, the protein function may be lost because of overexpression of Murine Double Minute 2 (MDM2). MDM2 targets p53 for ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation. p53 reactivation through MDM2 inhibitors seems to be a promising strategy to sensitize p53 wild-type cancer cells to apoptosis. Moreover, additional p53-independent molecular functions of MDM2, such as neoangiogenesis promotion, have been suggested. Thus, MDM2 might be a target for anticancer treatment because of its antiapoptotic and proangiogenetic role. Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is an aggressive asbestos-related tumor where wild-type p53 might be present. The present review gives a complete landscape about the role of MDM2 in cancer pathogenesis, prognosis and treatment, with particular focus on Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loredana Urso
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Fiorella Calabrese
- Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Adolfo Favaretto
- Medical Oncology 2, Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCS, Padova, Italy
| | - PierFranco Conte
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova, Italy; Medical Oncology 2, Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCS, Padova, Italy
| | - Giulia Pasello
- Medical Oncology 2, Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCS, Padova, Italy.
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Caratozzolo MF, Valletti A, Gigante M, Aiello I, Mastropasqua F, Marzano F, Ditonno P, Carrieri G, Simonnet H, D'Erchia AM, Ranieri E, Pesole G, Sbisà E, Tullo A. TRIM8 anti-proliferative action against chemo-resistant renal cell carcinoma. Oncotarget 2015; 5:7446-57. [PMID: 25277184 PMCID: PMC4202135 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In some tumours, despite a wild-type p53 gene, the p53 pathway is inactivated by alterations in its regulators or by unknown mechanisms, leading to resistance to cytotoxic therapies. Understanding the mechanisms of functional inactivation of wild-type p53 in these tumours may help to define prospective targets for treating cancer by restoring p53 activity. Recently, we identified TRIM8 as a new p53 modulator, which stabilizes p53 impairing its association with MDM2 and inducing the reduction of cell proliferation. In this paper we demonstrated that TRIM8 deficit dramatically impairs p53-mediated cellular responses to chemotherapeutic drugs and that TRIM8 is down regulated in patients affected by clear cell Renal Cell Carcinoma (ccRCC), an aggressive drug-resistant cancer showing wild-type p53. These results suggest that down regulation of TRIM8 might be an alternative way to suppress p53 activity in RCC. Interestingly, we show that TRIM8 expression recovery in RCC cell lines renders these cells sensitive to chemotherapeutic treatments following p53 pathway re-activation. These findings provide the first mechanistic link between TRIM8 and the drug resistance of ccRCC and suggest more generally that TRIM8 could be used as enhancer of the chemotherapy efficacy in cancers where p53 is wild-type and its pathway is defective.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alessio Valletti
- Institute of Biomembranes and Bioenergetics IBBE, Bari, Italy. Contributed equally to this work
| | | | - Italia Aiello
- Dept Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari "A. Moro", Bari, Italy
| | - Francesca Mastropasqua
- Dept Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari "A. Moro", Bari, Italy
| | | | - Pasquale Ditonno
- Dept Emergency and Organ Transplantation DETO, University of Bari "A. Moro", Bari, Italy
| | | | - Hélène Simonnet
- Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Lyon, Faculté de Médecine Lyon-Est, LYON Cedex 08 France
| | - Anna Maria D'Erchia
- Dept Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari "A. Moro", Bari, Italy
| | - Elena Ranieri
- Dept Biomedical Science, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Graziano Pesole
- Institute of Biomembranes and Bioenergetics IBBE, Bari, Italy. Dept Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari "A. Moro", Bari, Italy
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Lee MY, Marina M, King JL, Saavedra HI. Differential expression of centrosome regulators in Her2+ breast cancer cells versus non-tumorigenic MCF10A cells. Cell Div 2014; 9:3. [PMID: 25278993 PMCID: PMC4181616 DOI: 10.1186/1747-1028-9-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrosome amplification (CA) amongst particular breast cancer subtypes (Her2+ subtype) is associated with genomic instability and aggressive tumor phenotypes. However, changes in signaling pathways associated with centrosome biology have not been fully explored in subtype specific models. Novel centrosome regulatory genes that are selectively altered in Her2+ breast cancer cells are of interest in discerning why CA is more prevalent in this subtype. To determine centrosome/cell cycle genes that are altered in Her2+ cells that display CA (HCC1954) versus non-tumorigenic cells (MCF10A), we carried out a gene microarray. Expression differences were validated by real-time PCR and Western blotting. After the microarray validation, we pursued a panel of upregulated and downregulated genes based on novelty/relevance to centrosome duplication. Functional experiments measuring CA and BrdU incorporation were completed after genetic manipulation of targets (TTK, SGOL1, MDM2 and SFRP1). Amongst genes that were downregulated in HCC1954 cells, knockdown of MDM2 and SFRP1 in MCF10A cells did not consistently induce CA or impaired BrdU incorporation. Conversely, amongst upregulated genes in HCC1954 cells, knockdown of SGOL1 and TTK decreased CA in breast cancer cells, while BrdU incorporation was only altered by SGOL1 knockdown. We also explored the Kaplan Meier Plot resource and noted that MDM2 and SFRP1 are positively associated with relapse free survival in all breast cancer subtypes, while TTK is negatively correlated with overall survival of Luminal A patients. Based on this functional screen, we conclude that SGOL1 and TTK are important modulators of centrosome function in a breast cancer specific model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Young Lee
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, C3084, 1365C Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mihaela Marina
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, C3084, 1365C Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jamie L King
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, C3084, 1365C Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365C Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Harold I Saavedra
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, C3084, 1365C Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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31
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Histone deacetylase 2 controls p53 and is a critical factor in tumorigenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2014; 1846:524-38. [PMID: 25072962 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Revised: 07/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) regulates biological processes by deacetylation of histones and non-histone proteins. HDAC2 is overexpressed in numerous cancer types, suggesting general cancer-relevant functions of HDAC2. In human tumors the TP53 gene encoding p53 is frequently mutated and wild-type p53 is often disarmed. Molecular pathways inactivating wild-type p53 often remain to be defined and understood. Remarkably, current data link HDAC2 to the regulation of the tumor suppressor p53 by deacetylation and to the maintenance of genomic stability. Here, we summarize recent findings on HDAC2 overexpression in solid and hematopoietic cancers with a focus on mechanisms connecting HDAC2 and p53 in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we present an evidence-based model that integrates molecular pathways and feedback loops by which p53 and further transcription factors govern the expression and the ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation of HDAC2 and of p53 itself. Understanding the interactions between p53 and HDAC2 might aid in the development of new therapeutic approaches against cancer.
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32
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He Y, Tollini L, Kim TH, Itahana Y, Zhang Y. The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome is an E3 ubiquitin ligase for Mdm2. Cell Cycle 2014; 13:2101-9. [PMID: 24804778 DOI: 10.4161/cc.29106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The Mdm2 proto-oncoprotein is the primary negative regulator for p53. While it is believed that Mdm2 degradation is regulated via its own E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, recent development of knock-in mouse models demonstrates that Mdm2 E3 ligase function is dispensable for self-degradation in vivo. Here, we show that the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase for Mdm2 degradation. We demonstrate that APC2, a scaffold subunit of APC/C, binds to Mdm2 and is required for Mdm2 polyubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Downregulation of APC2 by RNAi results in transcription-independent accumulation of Mdm2 and attenuation of stress-induced p53 stabilization, leading to decreased senescence and increased cell survival. Furthermore, APC2 expression is frequently downregulated in human cancers; in tumor cell lines, APC2 downregulation correlates with Mdm2 overexpression. Our study shows the regulation of Mdm2 by the E3 ubiquitin ligase APC/C and has important therapeutic implications for tumors with Mdm2 overexpression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yizhou He
- Department of Radiation Oncology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Laura Tollini
- Department of Radiation Oncology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Tae-Hyung Kim
- Department of Radiation Oncology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Yoko Itahana
- Department of Radiation Oncology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Yanping Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Department of Pharmacology; School of Medicine; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chapel Hill, NC USA; Laboratory of Biological Cancer Therapy; Xuzhou Medical College; Xuzhou, China
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33
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Li Q, Zhang Y, El-Naggar AK, Xiong S, Yang P, Jackson JG, Chau G, Lozano G. Therapeutic efficacy of p53 restoration in Mdm2-overexpressing tumors. Mol Cancer Res 2014; 12:901-11. [PMID: 24598047 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-14-0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The p53 (TP53) tumor suppressor is the most frequently mutated gene in human cancers. Restoring expression of wild-type p53 has led to tumor growth suppression in a variety of tumor models that are p53 deficient. Other mechanisms, for example, upregulation of Mdm2, exist in tumors to inactivate the p53 pathway. Mdm2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets p53 for proteasomal degradation, is present at high levels in many tumors with wild-type p53. In this study, the effects of restoring p53 activity were probed in Mdm2-overexpressing tumors genetically using animal models. Here, it was demonstrated that elevated levels of Mdm2 and decreased levels of p53 act additively to dampen p53 activity in DNA damage response and tumor development. Our data further indicate that restoration of wild-type p53 expression in Mdm2-overexpressing angiosarcomas results in tumor stasis and regression in some cases. Finally, it was determined that restored p53 suppressed cell proliferation but did not elicit apoptosis in the Mdm2-overexpressing angiosarcomas. IMPLICATIONS Restoration of wild-type p53 expression in Mdm2-overexpressing tumors suppresses tumor growth, which represents a potential clinical strategy to treat tumors with high levels of Mdm2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Li
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Genetics, Program in Genes and Development, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, and
| | - Yun Zhang
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Genetics
| | - Adel K El-Naggar
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | | | | | | | - Gilda Chau
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Genetics
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Kakazu N, Yamane H, Miyachi M, Shiwaku K, Hosoi H. Identification of the 12q15 amplicon within the homogeneously staining regions in the embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma cell line RMS-YM. Cytogenet Genome Res 2014; 142:167-73. [PMID: 24480864 DOI: 10.1159/000357930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene amplification represents one of the molecular mechanisms of oncogene overexpression in many types of tumors. Homogeneously staining regions (HSRs) are cytogenetic hallmarks of gene amplification. Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common malignant soft-tissue tumor in children. RMS-YM is an embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma cell line that possesses 3 HSRs. This cytogenetic finding suggests the presence of gene amplifications associated with tumor development or progression in RMS-YM. Here, using fluorescence in situ hybridization, we detected high amplification of the MDM2 gene in the HSRs of RMS-YM. We also refined the region of the amplicon and identified that the FRS2 gene and others are amplified in RMS-YM. MDM2 and FRS2 play important roles as a regulator of p53 and a mediator of FGF signaling, respectively, and thus are potential molecular targets for therapy in many different tumors. RMS-YM may be useful for studies of the molecular pathways of tumorigenesis and tumor progression in rhabdomyosarcoma and for in vitro evaluation of newly developed therapeutic agents that target MDM2 or FRS2.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Kakazu
- Department of Environmental and Preventive Medicine, Shimane University School of Medicine, Izumo, Japan
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35
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Mapping genetic alterations causing chemoresistance in cancer: identifying the roads by tracking the drivers. Oncogene 2013; 32:5315-30. [PMID: 23474753 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although new agents are implemented to cancer therapy, we lack fundamental understandings of the mechanisms of chemoresistance, the main obstacle to cure in cancer. Here we review clinical evidence linking molecular defects to drug resistance across different tumour forms and discuss contemporary experimental evidence exploring these mechanisms. Although evidence, in general, is sparse and fragmentary, merging knowledge links drug resistance, and also sensitivity, to defects in functional pathways having a key role in cell growth arrest or death and DNA repair. As these pathways may act in concert, there is a need to explore multiple mechanisms in parallel. Taking advantage of massive parallel sequencing and other novel high-throughput technologies and base research on biological hypotheses, we now have the possibility to characterize functional defects related to these key pathways and to design a new generation of studies identifying the mechanisms controlling resistance to different treatment regimens in different tumour forms.
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Abstract
The MDM2 and MDMX (also known as HDMX and MDM4) proteins are deregulated in many human cancers and exert their oncogenic activity predominantly by inhibiting the p53 tumour suppressor. However, the MDM proteins modulate and respond to many other signalling networks in which they are embedded. Recent mechanistic studies and animal models have demonstrated how functional interactions in these networks are crucial for maintaining normal tissue homeostasis, and for determining responses to oncogenic and therapeutic challenges. This Review highlights the progress made and pitfalls encountered as the field continues to search for MDM-targeted antitumour agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Wade
- Center for Genomic Science of IIT@SEMM, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Adamello 16, 20139 Milan, Italy
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37
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Nyiraneza C, Jouret-Mourin A, Kartheuser A, Camby P, Plomteux O, Detry R, Dahan K, Sempoux C. Distinctive patterns of p53 protein expression and microsatellite instability in human colorectal cancer. Hum Pathol 2011; 42:1897-910. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2010.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Revised: 06/08/2010] [Accepted: 06/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Hav M, Libbrecht L, Ferdinande L, Pattyn P, Laurent S, Peeters M, Praet M, Pauwels P. MDM2 gene amplification and protein expressions in colon carcinoma: is targeting MDM2 a new therapeutic option? Virchows Arch 2010; 458:197-203. [PMID: 21113617 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-010-1012-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate murine double minute-2 (MDM2) gene copy number changes in colon carcinoma and to correlate these findings with an immunohistochemical analysis of MDM2 protein expression and histopathologic prognostic indicators of the tumors. The study included 80 cases of sporadic colon carcinomas. MDM2 protein expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry, and MDM2 gene status by fluorescence in situ hybridization. MDM2 gene amplification was detected in 18% of the 80 cases examined. A strong correlation was found between MDM2 gene amplification and the presence, intensity, and staining proportion of cytoplasmic MDM2 protein expression (p = 0.01). No correlation was found between MDM2 gene amplification and the well-established histopathologic prognostic factors. Given the correlation with gene amplification, we clearly demonstrated that cytoplasmic expression of MDM2 protein is true and relevant and that this finding has to be taken into account when immunohistochemistry would be used as a screening for MDM2 gene amplification in the near future. Targeting MDM2 could be a new approach in colon cancer therapy. The amplification status could be a predictive factor of the response to MDM2-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monirath Hav
- Department of Pathology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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Sugano N, Suda T, Godai TI, Tsuchida K, Shiozawa M, Sekiguchi H, Yoshihara M, Matsukuma S, Sakuma Y, Tsuchiya E, Kameda Y, Akaike M, Miyagi Y. MDM2 gene amplification in colorectal cancer is associated with disease progression at the primary site, but inversely correlated with distant metastasis. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2010; 49:620-9. [PMID: 20461754 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.20774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MDM2 is a crucial negative regulator of the TP53 tumor suppressor and almost 10% of human tumors exhibit MDM2 amplification. Although TP53 pathway perturbation has been extensively examined in colorectal cancer (CRC), only one previous report has evaluated MDM2 amplification in relation to clinicopathological factors. In that report, MDM2 amplification was shown to be associated with disease progression from Dukes' Stages A to D. In this study, we investigated MDM2 amplification by quantitative PCR and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) together with the SNP309 genotypes, and analyzed the correlations with TP53 and KRAS mutations and clinicopathological features in 211 Japanese CRC patients. MDM2 amplification was detected in 8% of the specimens and its incidence was significantly higher in Dukes' stage C than in the combined earlier Stages A and B (P = 0.025). Unexpectedly, the incidence was significantly decreased in Stage D metastatic disease (P = 0.043). The copy number gain ranged from four to eight copies and was generally concordant with gain of centromere 12 using FISH analysis. Together with the results of centromere 1 FISH and TP53 copy number assessment, the MDM2 increment most likely resulted from chromosome 12 gain. The mechanism of the copy number gain and incidence in Dukes' Stage D differed considerably from the previous report. Ethnic or geographic factors could be responsible for these differences. Several promising therapeutic strategies targeting the TP53-MDM2 system are being developed. Further understanding of the significance of MDM2 and MDM2 amplification in CRC is required to facilitate personalized treatment for CRC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhiro Sugano
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Kanagawa Cancer Center Hospital, Yokohama, Japan
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Sorokin AV, Kim ER, Ovchinnikov LP. Proteasome system of protein degradation and processing. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2010; 74:1411-42. [PMID: 20210701 DOI: 10.1134/s000629790913001x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In eukaryotic cells, degradation of most intracellular proteins is realized by proteasomes. The substrates for proteolysis are selected by the fact that the gate to the proteolytic chamber of the proteasome is usually closed, and only proteins carrying a special "label" can get into it. A polyubiquitin chain plays the role of the "label": degradation affects proteins conjugated with a ubiquitin (Ub) chain that consists at minimum of four molecules. Upon entering the proteasome channel, the polypeptide chain of the protein unfolds and stretches along it, being hydrolyzed to short peptides. Ubiquitin per se does not get into the proteasome, but, after destruction of the "labeled" molecule, it is released and labels another molecule. This process has been named "Ub-dependent protein degradation". In this review we systematize current data on the Ub-proteasome system, describe in detail proteasome structure, the ubiquitination system, and the classical ATP/Ub-dependent mechanism of protein degradation, as well as try to focus readers' attention on the existence of alternative mechanisms of proteasomal degradation and processing of proteins. Data on damages of the proteasome system that lead to the development of different diseases are given separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Sorokin
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia.
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Nam TK, Lee JS, Kim HR, Ahn SJ, Song JY, Yoon MS. Molecular prognostic factors in rectal cancer treated by preoperative chemoradiotherapy. Oncol Lett 2010; 1:23-29. [PMID: 22966250 DOI: 10.3892/ol_00000004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 09/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study evaluated the expression of p53, pRb, hMLH1 and MDM2 prior to preoperative chemoradiotherapy (CRT) in patients with rectal cancer, and attempted to determine any correlation with treatment outcome. Forty-five patients with available pretreatment biopsy tissues and who received preoperative CRT were enrolled in this study. Preoperative CRT consisted of a median 50.4 Gy and 2 cycles of concurrent administration of 5-fluorouracil + leucovorin. Surgery was performed approximately seven weeks after CRT. Protein expression in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded biopsy specimens was assessed by immunohistochemistry. A positive expression of p53, pRb, hMLH1 and MDM2 was found in 40, 46.7, 40 and 66.7% of the tissue specimens, respectively. The 5-year overall (OS), disease-free (DFS) and locoregional recurrence-free survival (LRFS) rates for patients included in the study were 71.3, 66.1 and 60.9%, respectively. p53 expression presented a significantly different OS (positive vs. negative, 45.8 vs. 86.2%; p=0.02). However, the expression of pRb, hMLH1 and MDM2 was not significant for OS. The expression of p53 was a borderline significant prognostic factor for DFS and for LRFS. Age, p53 and MDM2 expression were significant factors in the multivariate analysis performed for OS with 12 covariates, including 8 clinicopathological parameters and 4 proteins. No significant factor affected DFS or LRFS in the multivariate analysis. We suggest that the expression of p53 is a potential marker of survival. Determinations of this protein expression may be useful for selecting candidates from rectal cancer patients for more tailored treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taek-Keun Nam
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Korea
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