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Reho G, Lelièvre V, Cadiou H. Planarian nociception: Lessons from a scrunching flatworm. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:935918. [PMID: 35959107 PMCID: PMC9362985 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.935918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to being studied for their exceptional regeneration abilities, planarians (i.e., flatworms) have also been extensively used in the context of pharmacological experiments during the past century. Many researchers used planarians as a model system for the study of drug abuse because they display high similarities with the nervous system of vertebrates at cellular and molecular levels (e.g., neuronal morphology, neurotransmitter ligands, and receptor function). This research field recently led to the discovery of causal relationships between the expression of Transient Receptor Potential ion channels in planarians and their behavioral responses to noxious stimuli such as heat, cold or pharmacological analogs such as TRP agonists, among others. It has also been shown that some antinociceptive drugs modulate these behaviors. However, among the few authors that tried to implement a full behavior analysis, none reached a consensual use of the terms used to describe planarian gaits yet, nor did they establish a comprehensive description of a potential planarian nociceptive system. The aim of this review is therefore to aggregate the ancient and the most recent evidence for a true nociceptive behavior in planarians. It also highlights the convenience and relevance of this invertebrate model for nociceptive tests and suggests further lines of research. In regards to past pharmacological studies, this review finally discusses the opportunities given by the model to extensively screen for novel antinociceptive drugs.
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Wu JP, Li MH. The use of freshwater planarians in environmental toxicology studies: Advantages and potential. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2018; 161:45-56. [PMID: 29859407 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Regarding the humane use of animals in scientific research, invertebrates are often recommended in toxicological studies. "Freshwater planarians" refers to numerous free-living freshwater members of the Class "Turbellaria" of the phylum Platyhelminthes. This group of invertebrates has received extensive attention from biologists for many years because of their unique biological characteristics, such as the primitive form of the central nervous system and notable capability to regenerate tissues. Using freshwater planarians as test animals in chemical toxicity studies has grown in popularity since the 1960s. Results from various toxicological experiments have collectively suggested that freshwater planarians can serve as not only alternative models for chemical toxicity screenings in laboratories but also as potential bioindicators for the quality of freshwater environments. However, thus far, no standardized battery of tests for conducting toxicological studies that includes freshwater planarians has been proposed. This paper comprehensively reviews the toxicological information obtained from chemically exposed planarians and proposes practical factors for consideration in toxicity experiments with freshwater planarians as test organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Pin Wu
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Hui Li
- Environmental Toxicology Lab, Department of Geography, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Wu JP, Lee HL, Li MH. Cadmium neurotoxicity to a freshwater planarian. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2014; 67:639-650. [PMID: 24996536 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-014-0056-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Although freshwater planarians are evolutionarily primitive, they are some of the simplest bilateral animals possessing integrated neural networks similar to those in vertebrates. We attempted to develop planarian Dugesia japonica as a model for investigating the neurotoxicity of environmental pollutants such as cadmium (Cd). This study was therefore designed to study the effects of Cd on the locomotor activity, neurobehavior, and neurological enzymes of D. japonica. After planarians were exposed to Cd at high concentrations, altered neurobehavior was observed that exhibited concentration-dependent patterns. Morphological alterations in Cd-treated planarians included irregular shape, body elongation, screw-like hyperkinesia, and bridge-like position. To study the direct effects of Cd on neurological enzymes, tissue homogenates of planarians were incubated in vitro with Cd before their activity was measured. Results showed that acetylcholinesterase (AChE), adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase), and monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) activities were inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner. MAO-B activity was significantly induced by Cd at low concentrations and inhibited at high concentrations. Changes in the in vivo activity of AChE and ATPase were also found after planarians were treated with Cd at a sublethal concentration (5.56 μM). These observations indicate that neurotransmission systems in planarians are disturbed after Cd exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Pin Wu
- Environmental Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Geography, National Taiwan University, 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
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Cowles MW, Omuro KC, Stanley BN, Quintanilla CG, Zayas RM. COE loss-of-function analysis reveals a genetic program underlying maintenance and regeneration of the nervous system in planarians. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004746. [PMID: 25356635 PMCID: PMC4214590 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the COE family of transcription factors are required for central nervous system (CNS) development. However, the function of COE in the post-embryonic CNS remains largely unknown. An excellent model for investigating gene function in the adult CNS is the freshwater planarian. This animal is capable of regenerating neurons from an adult pluripotent stem cell population and regaining normal function. We previously showed that planarian coe is expressed in differentiating and mature neurons and that its function is required for proper CNS regeneration. Here, we show that coe is essential to maintain nervous system architecture and patterning in intact (uninjured) planarians. We took advantage of the robust phenotype in intact animals to investigate the genetic programs coe regulates in the CNS. We compared the transcriptional profiles of control and coe RNAi planarians using RNA sequencing and identified approximately 900 differentially expressed genes in coe knockdown animals, including 397 downregulated genes that were enriched for nervous system functional annotations. Next, we validated a subset of the downregulated transcripts by analyzing their expression in coe-deficient planarians and testing if the mRNAs could be detected in coe+ cells. These experiments revealed novel candidate targets of coe in the CNS such as ion channel, neuropeptide, and neurotransmitter genes. Finally, to determine if loss of any of the validated transcripts underscores the coe knockdown phenotype, we knocked down their expression by RNAi and uncovered a set of coe-regulated genes implicated in CNS regeneration and patterning, including orthologs of sodium channel alpha-subunit and pou4. Our study broadens the knowledge of gene expression programs regulated by COE that are required for maintenance of neural subtypes and nervous system architecture in adult animals. COE transcription factors are conserved across widely divergent animals and are crucial for organismal development. COE genes also play roles in adult animals and have been implicated in central nervous system (CNS) diseases; however, the function of COE in the post-embryonic CNS remains poorly understood. Planarian regeneration provides an excellent model to study the function of transcription factors in cell differentiation and in terminally differentiated cells. In planarians, coe is expressed in differentiating and mature neurons, and its function is required for CNS regeneration. In this study, we show that coe is required to maintain structure and function of the CNS in uninjured planarians. We took advantage of this phenotype to identify genes regulated by coe by comparing global gene expression changes between control and coe mRNA-deficient planarians. This approach revealed downregulated genes downstream of coe with biological roles in CNS function. Expression analysis of downregulated genes uncovered previously unknown candidate targets of coe in the CNS. Furthermore, functional analysis of downstream targets identified coe-regulated genes required for CNS regeneration. These results demonstrate that the roles of COE in stem cell specification and neuronal function are active and indispensable during CNS renewal in adult animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martis W. Cowles
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Kerilyn C. Omuro
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Brianna N. Stanley
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Carlo G. Quintanilla
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Ricardo M. Zayas
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Prokai D, Nguyen T, Kamrowski K, Chandra A, Talamantes T, Baxter LR, Prokai L. An exploratory evaluation of tyrosine hydroxylase inhibition in planaria as a model for parkinsonism. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:23289-96. [PMID: 24287905 PMCID: PMC3876044 DOI: 10.3390/ijms141223289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Planaria are the simplest organisms with bilateral symmetry and a central nervous system (CNS) with cephalization; therefore, they could be useful as model organisms to investigate mechanistic aspects of parkinsonism and to screen potential therapeutic agents. Taking advantage of the organism’s anti-tropism towards light, we measured a significantly reduced locomotor velocity in planaria after exposure to 3-iodo-l-tyrosine, an inhibitor of tyrosine hydroxylase that is an enzyme catalyzing the first and rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of catecholamines. A simple semi-automatic assay using videotaped experiments and subsequent evaluation by tracking software was also implemented to increase throughput. The dopaminergic regulation of locomotor velocity was confirmed by bromocriptine, a drug whose mechanisms of action to treat Parkinson’s disease is believed to be through the stimulation of nerves that control movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Prokai
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; E-Mails: (D.P.); (L.R.B.)
| | - Thinh Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA; E-Mails: (T.N.); (K.K.); (A.C.); (T.T.)
| | - Kurt Kamrowski
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA; E-Mails: (T.N.); (K.K.); (A.C.); (T.T.)
| | - Ashwin Chandra
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA; E-Mails: (T.N.); (K.K.); (A.C.); (T.T.)
| | - Tatjana Talamantes
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA; E-Mails: (T.N.); (K.K.); (A.C.); (T.T.)
| | - Lewis R. Baxter
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; E-Mails: (D.P.); (L.R.B.)
| | - Laszlo Prokai
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA; E-Mails: (T.N.); (K.K.); (A.C.); (T.T.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-817-735-2206; Fax: +1-817-735-2118
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Raffa RB, Baron S, Bhandal JS, Brown T, Song K, Tallarida CS, Rawls SM. Opioid receptor types involved in the development of nicotine physical dependence in an invertebrate (Planaria) model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 112:9-14. [PMID: 24084318 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent data suggest that opioid receptors are involved in the development of nicotine physical dependence in mammals. Evidence in support of a similar involvement in an invertebrate (Planaria) is presented using the selective opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, and the more receptor subtype-selective antagonists CTAP (D-Phe-Cys-Tyr-D-Trp-Arg-Thr-Pen-Thr-NH2) (μ, MOR), naltrindole (δ, DOR), and nor-BNI (norbinaltorphimine) (κ, KOR). Induction of physical dependence was achieved by 60-min pre-exposure of planarians to nicotine and was quantified by abstinence-induced withdrawal (reduction in spontaneous locomotor activity). Known MOR and DOR subtype-selective opioid receptor antagonists attenuated the withdrawal, as did the non-selective antagonist naloxone, but a KOR subtype-selective antagonist did not. An involvement of MOR and DOR, but not KOR, in the development of nicotine physical dependence or in abstinence-induced withdrawal was thus demonstrated in a sensitive and facile invertebrate model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Nishimura K, Kitamura Y, Taniguchi T, Agata K. Analysis of motor function modulated by cholinergic neurons in planarian Dugesia japonica. Neuroscience 2010; 168:18-30. [PMID: 20338223 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies of the freshwater planarian Dugesia japonica have revealed fundamental mechanisms and unique aspects of neuroscience and neuroregeneration. Here, we identified the gene for planarian choline acetyltransferase (Djchat), which is essential for acetylcholine (ACh) biosynthesis. Immunofluorescence studies using anti-Dugesia japonica ChAT (DjChAT) antibody revealed that cholinergic neurons are widely distributed in the planarian nervous system, including the brain, ventral nerve cords, optic nerves, and pharyngeal nerve plexus. In order to investigate the function of cholinergic neurons in planarians, we used both pharmacological and RNA interference (RNAi) approaches. Administration of physostigmine (an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor) clearly elevated the amount of ACh, and then induced sudden muscle contraction behavior in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, we found that pretreatment with tubocurarine (a muscle nicotinic ACh receptor antagonist) or atropine (a non-selective muscarinic ACh receptor antagonist), but not pretreatment with mecamylamine (a neural nicotinic ACh receptor antagonist), significantly extended the latency time for physostigmine-induced contraction behavior, suggesting that muscle nicotinic ACh receptors and muscarinic ACh receptors contribute to physostigmine-induced contraction behavior. We also confirmed that ACh biosynthesis ability and DjChAT-immunoreactivity were eliminated in Djchat(RNAi) planarians. Moreover, the decrease of the level of ACh induced by Djchat(RNAi) caused extension of the latency time for contraction behavior. Our findings support the possibility that the cholinergic functions of planarians are similar to those of vertebrates, suggesting that planarians are simple but useful model organisms for getting insight into the cholinergic nervous system in higher animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Nishimura
- Department of Biophysics, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Oiwake, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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Abstract
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors have been identified in Planaria, a model used for studying the pharmacology of behavioral phenomena. This study characterized the behavioral and locomotor effects of 5-HT, a 5-HT1A agonist, a 5-HT1B/2C agonist, and a 5-HT1A antagonist to examine the role of 5-HT receptor activation in this species. Planarians were video recorded individually in a clear plastic cube containing drug solution or vehicle. To quantify locomotor velocity (pLMV), planarians were placed individually into a dish containing drug solution or vehicle and the rate of gridline crossings was recorded. For the antagonist experiments, four conditions were studied: water alone, agonist alone, antagonist alone, and agonist plus antagonist. The decrease in pLMV induced by the5-HT1A agonist (8-OH-DPAT), and the 5-HT1B/2C agonist (mCPP), was antagonized by pretreatment with the 5-HT1A antagonist (WAY-100635) at a dose that had no effect of its own on pLMV. At a higher concentration of WAY-100635, further decreases in pLMV induced by 8-OH-DPAT were observed. Each agonist produced increased occurrences of 'C-like position' and 'screw-like hyperkinesia', 5-HT and mCPP produced 'writhing', and only mCPP produced a significant increase in duration of 'headswing' behavior. The results demonstrate that the 5-HT1A receptor identified in Planaria mediates behavioral responses to 5-HT receptor ligands, supporting the notion that planarians possess functional 5-HT receptors and might serve as a simple model for their study.
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Withdrawal-like behavior in planarians is dependent on drug exposure duration. Neurosci Lett 2008; 439:84-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.04.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2008] [Revised: 04/17/2008] [Accepted: 04/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Buttarelli FR, Pellicano C, Pontieri FE. Neuropharmacology and behavior in planarians: translations to mammals. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 147:399-408. [PMID: 18294919 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2008.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2007] [Revised: 01/16/2008] [Accepted: 01/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Planarians are the simplest animals to exhibit a body plan common to all vertebrates and many invertebrates, characterized by bilateral rather than radial symmetry, dorsal and ventral surfaces, and a rostrocaudal axis with a head and a tail, including specialized sense organs and an aggregate of nerve cells in the head. Neurons in planarian more closely resemble those of vertebrates than those of advanced invertebrates, exhibiting typical vertebrate features of multipolar shape, dendritic spines with synaptic boutons, a single axon, expression of vertebrate-like neural proteins, and relatively low spontaneously generated electrical activity. Here we report the most relevant contribution to the knowledge of the neuropharmacology of planarians, with particular reference to the behavioral consequences of the exposure to drugs acting on neural transmission. Neurochemical and histochemical data indicate the presence of several neurotransmitter-receptor systems in planarians. Moreover, a variety of experimental studies characterized specific behavioral patterns of these animals following the exposure to drugs acting on neural transmission. There is also evidence of the interactions between discrete neurotransmitter-receptor systems in modulating behavior in planarians. Finally, the model has proved efficacy for investigating the neurotoxicology of the dopamine neurons, and for the initial screening of the neuroprotective potential of drugs. In conclusion, these findings indicate that interactions between discrete neurotransmitter-receptor systems occur very early along phylogeny, although they may have evolved from very fundamental behaviors, such as motor activity in planarian, to more complex and integrated functions in vertebrates.
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Reversal of cocaine-induced planarian behavior by parthenolide and related sesquiterpene lactones. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 89:160-70. [PMID: 18222535 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2007] [Revised: 11/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Here we report the prevention and reversal of cocaine-induced behaviors in planarian worms by parthenolide and two related cyclic sesquiterpene lactones (SL), costunolide and santonin. Using established protocols, we studied two cocaine-induced behavioral effects in planaria; the induction of motility decrease and the induction of C-like hyperkinesia. Cocaine, parthenolide, costunolide, santonin, and a lactone-less cyclic sesquiterpene, beta-eudesmol, decreased planarian motility in a concentration-dependent manner. Only cocaine induced C-like hyperkinesia. At concentrations that did not show any motility decrease, parthenolide, costunolide and santonin, but not beta-eudesmol, significantly reduced the cocaine-induced motility decrease and C-like hyperkinesia, in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, parthenolide, costunolide and santonin were able to rescue planaria from C-like hyperkinesia, after the worms were exposed to cocaine. Conversely, cocaine at a concentration that did not show any measurable effects (10 microM), was able to alleviate the SL-, but not the beta-eudesmol-induced motility decrease. Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry experiments demonstrated that cocaine does not interact directly with any of the cyclic sesquiterpenoids, which suggests specific biochemical targets for these compounds in planarians. Our data suggests a common binding site for cocaine and the sesquiterpene lactones in planarians.
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Raffa RB, Stagliano GW, Ross G, Powell JA, Phillips AG, Ding Z, Rawls SM. The kappa-opioid receptor antagonist nor-BNI inhibits cocaine and amphetamine, but not cannabinoid (WIN 52212-2), abstinence-induced withdrawal in planarians: an instance of 'pharmacologic congruence'. Brain Res 2007; 1193:51-6. [PMID: 18178175 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The broad applicability of receptor theory to diverse species, from invertebrates to mammals, provides evidence for the evolution in complexity of pharmacologic receptor diversification and of receptor-effector signal transduction mechanisms. However, pre-mammalian species have less receptor subtype differentiation, and thus, might share signal transduction pathways to a greater extent than do mammals, a phenomenon that we term 'pharmacologic congruence'. We have demonstrated previously that the lowest species considered to have a centralized nervous system, planarians, display both abstinence-induced and antagonist-precipitated withdrawal signs, indicative of the development of physical dependence. We report here: (1) amphetamine abstinence-induced withdrawal, and (2) the attenuation of cocaine and amphetamine, but not cannabinoid agonist (WIN 52212-2), abstinence-induced withdrawal by the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone and by the selective kappa-opioid receptor subtype antagonist nor-BNI (nor-Binaltorphimine), but not by the selective mu-opioid or the delta-opioid receptor subtype antagonists CTAP (D-Phe-Cys-Tyr-D-Trp-Arg-Thr-Pen-Thr-NH(2)) and naltrindole. These results provide evidence that the withdrawal from cocaine and amphetamine, but not cannabinoids, in planarians is mediated through a common nor-BNI-sensitive (kappa-opioid receptor-like) pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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Raffa RB, Cavallo F, Capasso A. Flumazenil-sensitive dose-related physical dependence in planarians produced by two benzodiazepine and one non-benzodiazepine benzodiazepine-receptor agonists. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 564:88-93. [PMID: 17368613 PMCID: PMC2697456 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2006] [Revised: 01/27/2007] [Accepted: 02/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Two benzodiazepine (midazolam and clorazepate) and one non-benzodiazepine (zolpidem) benzodiazepine-receptor agonists produced dose-related physical dependence, as evidenced by abstinence-induced decrease in planarian locomotor velocity (pLMV) when drug-exposed planarians were placed into drug-free water, but not when they were placed into drug-containing water (i.e., an abstinence-induced withdrawal, since the effect was only obtained in the removal of drug and not in the continued presence of drug). We have previously shown that the decrease in pLMV is associated with specific and transient withdrawal signs. In the present study, the selective benzodiazepine-receptor antagonist flumazenil significantly antagonized (P<0.05), by co-application, the ability of each agonist to produce the withdrawal. These results: (1) suggest that benzodiazepine-receptor agonists, for two different chemical categories, produce dose-related physical dependence manifested as abstinence-induced withdrawal in this simple and convenient model, and (2) in the absence of cloning or radioligand binding literature, suggest a possible specific interaction site (receptor?) for these compounds in planarians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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14
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Rawls SM, Gomez T, Raffa RB. An NMDA antagonist (LY 235959) attenuates abstinence-induced withdrawal of planarians following acute exposure to a cannabinoid agonist (WIN 55212-2). Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 86:499-504. [PMID: 17306870 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2006] [Revised: 12/19/2006] [Accepted: 01/12/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms that facilitate the development and expression of cannabinoid physical dependence in humans and other mammals are poorly understood. The present experiments used a planarian model to provide evidence that pharmacological antagonism of NMDA receptors significantly attenuates the development of cannabinoid physical dependence. Abstinence-induced withdrawal from the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55212-2 (10 microM) was manifested as a significant (P<0.05) decrease in the rate of planarian spontaneous locomotor velocity (pLMV) when WIN 55212-2 (10 microM)-exposed planarians were placed into drug-free water. No change in pLMV occurred when WIN 55212-2 (10 microM)-exposed planarians were placed into water containing WIN 55212-2 (10 microM). WIN 55212-2 (10 microM)-exposed planarians placed into water containing LY 235959 (1 or 10 microM) did not display withdrawal (no significant difference, P>0.05, in pLMV). In addition, withdrawal was not observed (no significant difference, P>0.05, in pLMV) in planarians that were co-exposed to a solution containing WIN 55212-2 (10 microM) and LY 235959 (10 microM). The present results reveal that NMDA receptor activation mediates the development of cannabinoid physical dependence and the expression of cannabinoid withdrawal in planarians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Rawls
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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15
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Raffa RB, Stagliano GW, Tallarida RJ. Nonlinear isobologram and superadditive withdrawal from cocaine: cannabinoid combinations in planarians. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 556:89-90. [PMID: 17141755 PMCID: PMC1866290 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.10.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2006] [Revised: 10/23/2006] [Accepted: 10/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Elucidation of interactions between drugs used in polydrug abuse is especially important. However, the necessary experimental conditions for precise quantitative analysis are difficult to establish. Because withdrawal effects of cocaine and the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55212-2 are easily quantified in planarians, demonstration of synergistic effects (P<0.01) of certain ratios of this combination was possible. This synergy, here analyzed with the latest (nonlinear) isobolographic methodology, is now quantitatively established for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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Raffa RB, Stagliano GW, Tallarida RJ. Subadditive withdrawal from cocaine/κ-opioid agonist combinations in Planaria. Brain Res 2006; 1114:31-5. [PMID: 16914122 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2006] [Revised: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 07/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We have previously developed and extensively characterized a convenient and sensitive metric for the quantification of withdrawal responses using Planaria. Planaria are particularly valuable for these studies because of their permeable exteriors and their relevant neurotransmitter systems (e.g., dopaminergic, opioid, and serotonergic). In the present study, we used this metric and mathematically rigorous joint-action analysis to investigate poly-drug withdrawal from fixed-ratio cocaine/kappa-opioid agonist combinations. The D50 (concentration producing half-maximal effect) for cocaine and U-50,488H was 10.3 and 1.02 microg, respectively. The D50 for 19:1 or 1:19 combinations did not differ significantly (p>0.05) from expected additive values (11.6+/-3.0 vs. 9.9+/-1.4 and 1.1+/-0.2 vs. 1.5+/-0.1, respectively), but the 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3 ratios did (34.5+/-6.9 vs. 7.7+/-1.1; 55.1+/-10.0 vs. 5.7+/-0.7; and 40.8+/-8.9 vs. 3.3+/-0.4, respectively), indicating subadditive interaction at these ratios. The finding of subadditivity in this model suggests that abstinence-induced withdrawal from the combination is less intense than that predicted from the individual drug potencies. The concept that certain combinations of drugs leads to attenuated withdrawal might generalize to humans.
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MESH Headings
- 3,4-Dichloro-N-methyl-N-(2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-cyclohexyl)-benzeneacetamide, (trans)-Isomer/pharmacology
- Anesthetics, Local/pharmacology
- Animals
- Behavior, Addictive/metabolism
- Behavior, Addictive/physiopathology
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Cocaine/pharmacology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Drug Combinations
- Planarians/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/agonists
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/metabolism
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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17
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Rawls SM, Rodriguez T, Baron DA, Raffa RB. A nitric oxide synthase inhibitor (L-NAME) attenuates abstinence-induced withdrawal from both cocaine and a cannabinoid agonist (WIN 55212-2) in Planaria. Brain Res 2006; 1099:82-7. [PMID: 16782070 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.04.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2006] [Revised: 04/26/2006] [Accepted: 04/28/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that planarians (Dugesia dorotocephala) that have been exposed to cocaine for 1 h undergo abstinence-induced withdrawal when placed into cocaine-free, but not cocaine-containing, water. We now report that planarians also display dose-related abstinence-induced withdrawal following exposure to the synthetic cannabinoid agonist WIN 55212-2, but not its inactive enantiomer (WIN 55212-3). The withdrawal from WIN 55212-2 was manifested as a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the rate of planarian spontaneous locomotor activity over a 5-min observation period, using a recently designed metric (pLMV). We also report that withdrawal from cocaine (80 microM) or WIN 55212-2 (10 microM) was attenuated by the selective inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis L-NAME (L-nitro-arginine methyl ester), which had no effect of its own on pLMV. These results suggest a common NO-dependent pathway of withdrawal from cocaine and WIN 55212-2 in Planaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Rawls
- Temple University School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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18
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Rawls SM, Gomez T, Stagliano GW, Raffa RB. Measurement of glutamate and aspartate in Planaria. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2006; 53:291-5. [PMID: 16332445 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2005.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2005] [Accepted: 10/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The major excitatory neurotransmitters in the mammalian central nervous system are glutamate and aspartate. We developed a rapid and efficient method for the extraction and measurement of these amino acids in Planaria--a valuable model for mammalian processes because of their simple, centralized nervous system and similar neurotransmitter systems. METHOD The method utilized buffer extraction (perchloric acid containing 0.025% of L-cystine and Na2EDTA), simple derivatization, high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), and fluorescence detection. RESULTS The mean+/-S.E.M. amounts of glutamate and aspartate were 322.6+/-43.6 and 188.6+/-27.6 pmol/mg-planarian, respectively. DISCUSSION The method provides the ability to investigate changes in glutamate and aspartate in response to drug administration or withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Rawls
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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19
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Raffa RB, Desai P. Description and quantification of cocaine withdrawal signs in Planaria. Brain Res 2005; 1032:200-2. [PMID: 15680960 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous work provided indirect evidence that planarians undergo abstinence-induced withdrawal from cocaine. The present study's purpose was to determine if planarians display withdrawal signs and, if so, to quantify the behaviors. Planarians were soaked in cocaine then transferred to either the same cocaine concentration or cocaine-free water. Compared to the cocaine/cocaine group, the cocaine/water group displayed a significant number of atypical behaviors, providing direct evidence of a 'withdrawal phenomenon' in planarians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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20
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Umeda S, Stagliano GW, Borenstein MR, Raffa RB. A reverse-phase HPLC and fluorescence detection method for measurement of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) in Planaria. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2005; 51:73-6. [PMID: 15596117 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2004.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2004] [Accepted: 07/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Planaria have proven to be a good model system in which to investigate mammalian behaviors and responses to drugs. We have recently studied the response of planarians to dopaminergic ligands and to the effects of cocaine and opioids. To correlate behavior (specifically, drug withdrawal) with neurotransmitter levels, we developed a method to quantify 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; serotonin) in planarians. METHODS Following the homogenization of planarians in aqueous solvent (perchloric acid, L-cystine, and Na(2)EDTA) and centrifugation of supernatant (14,000 x g at 4 degrees C for 20 min), 5-HT was measured using HPLC (aqueous citric acid buffer mobile phase; 5-microm C(18) column with fluorescence detection, 280/340 nm). N(omega)-methyl-5-HT was used as an internal standard (IS). RESULTS 5-HT was rapidly extracted and conveniently measured from the planarians. The detection limit of the procedure (0.35 ng) was below the amount of 5-HT in one animal. DISCUSSION The ability to measure neurotransmitter levels provides a methodological opportunity to correlate behavior with biochemical changes in planarians and to extend behavioral observations to intracellular transmitter and second messenger transduction pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumiyo Umeda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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21
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Raffa RB, Martley AF. Amphetamine-induced increase in planarian locomotor activity and block by UV light. Brain Res 2005; 1031:138-40. [PMID: 15621023 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.10.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The dopamine D2-receptor antagonist sulpiride decreases spontaneous locomotor velocity of planarians (pLMV) in an enantiomeric-selective and dose-dependent manner and is significantly attenuated by UV light (254 and 366 nm). We now report that amphetamine (10 microM) produced the opposite effect and was also reversed by UV light. These findings strengthen the hypothesis that the effects of dopaminergic ligands and UV light on pLMV relate to interaction with neurotransmitter transduction process(es).
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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22
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Abstract
A considerable body of evidence suggests that UV light disrupts ligand binding in vitro. In vivo, UV light effects have been reported to disrupt simple behaviors such as spontaneous locomotor activity. However, there are no reports of UV light blocking a more complex drug-altered behavior. We now report that: (1) cocaine dose-relatedly reversed planarians' usual selection of dark over light (from 19.4+/-4.4% to 73.3+/-6.7%) (this effect was not due to an increase in locomotor activity, since cocaine only minimally increases locomotor activity at the highest dose tested); and (2) the cocaine-induced alteration of behavioral choice was attenuated significantly (P<0.05) by UV light (366 nm and 254 nm). The results demonstrate alteration of a relatively complex choice behavior by UV light.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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23
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Umeda S, Stagliano GW, Raffa RB. Cocaine and κ-opioid withdrawal in Planaria blocked by d-, but not l-, glucose. Brain Res 2004; 1018:181-5. [PMID: 15276876 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Planarians (Dugesia dorotocephala) that were exposed for 1 h to cocaine (80 microM) or to the kappa-selective opioid receptor agonist U-50,488H (1 microM) displayed an abstinence-induced withdrawal syndrome, indicative of the development of physical dependence, when they were tested in cocaine- (or U-50,488H-) free water, but not when they were tested in cocaine- (or U-50,488H-) containing water. The withdrawal was manifested as a significant (P<0.05) decrease in the rate of planarian spontaneous locomotor activity over a 5-min observation period, using a recently designed metric. Co-exposure of the planarians to D-glucose (1 microM) or to 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG, 1 microM), but not to L-glucose (1 microM), significantly attenuated (P<0.05) the development of physical dependence, shown by an attenuated withdrawal syndrome, from cocaine and U-50,488H. These results suggest that either D-glucose and 2-deoxy-D-glucose compete with a common cocaine and kappa-opioid transport mechanism or that the development of physical dependence (or the inhibition of abstinence-induced withdrawal) in planarians requires energy supplied from glucose metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumiyo Umeda
- Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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24
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Kato C, Mihashi K, Ishida S. Motility recovery during the process of regeneration in freshwater planarians. Behav Brain Res 2004; 150:9-14. [PMID: 15033274 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2003.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2003] [Revised: 06/24/2003] [Accepted: 06/24/2003] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Planarians are phylogenetically considered to be the most primitive animals to have acquired a central nervous system and a bilateral symmetry. However, very little is known about the relationship between planarian brain integration and motility. A behavioural and histological study was therefore undertaken in an aspect of planarian motility recovery during its process of regeneration. Quantitative analysis showed that the tail-regenerates recovered their motility gradually as the new heads reformed, while the non-head reforming tail fragments showed no signs of recovery. The head fragments recovered their motility soon after cutting. The cephalic margin was not a function of the motility. The brain regenerated back to its original form in approximately two weeks, the same amount of time it took for the decapitated tails to recover their motility to initial levels. This study provides quantitative evidence that the planarian motility recovered in relation to the head formation during its process of regeneration. Our results reinforce the view that the brain plays a functional part in activating planarian motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Kato
- Graduate School of Mathematics, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
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25
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Kumar D, McGeown JG, Reynoso-Ducoing O, Ambrosio JR, Fairweather I. Observations on the musculature and isolated muscle fibres of the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica. Parasitology 2004; 127:457-73. [PMID: 14653535 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182003003925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica relies on a well-developed muscular system, not only for attachment, but for many aspects of its biology. Despite this, little is known about the system beyond the gross organization of the main somatic muscle layers. In the present study, a range of techniques have been applied to F. hepatica in order to understand more about various aspects of muscle organization, biochemistry (in terms of muscle proteins) and identity of isolated muscle fibres. Scanning electron microscopy has provided a direct visualization in situ of the somatic muscle layers and the organization of the muscle fibres within the ventral sucker. The muscle bundles contributing to the main somatic muscle layers are made up of up to 10 individual muscle fibres. Phalloidin staining for actin, in conjunction with confocal microscopy, confirmed the presence of 2 main somatic muscle layers (outer circular, inner longitudinal), beneath which lies a third layer of oblique muscle fibres. The use of propidium iodide in combination with phalloidin staining for actin demonstrated that the cell bodies associated with the 2 main somatic muscle layers are situated beneath the longitudinal muscle layer and are connected to their respective muscle fibres by short cytoplasmic processes. Myosin immunoreactivity was demonstrated in the somatic muscle layers and in the muscle layers surrounding various organ systems within the fluke. Double labelling for actin and myosin confirmed the co-localization of the 2 muscle proteins in the muscle fibres of the ventral sucker. Muscle fibres from the somatic muscle layers and the ventral sucker have been isolated and images obtained with phase-contrast microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The muscle fibres contain actin and myosin, but lack a nucleus, the connection with the cell body having been broken during the isolation procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kumar
- Parasite Proteomics and Therapeutics Research Group, School of Biology, and Biochemistry, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, Northern Ireland
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26
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Abstract
Many drug-abusers engage in poly-drug abuse, but there has been relatively little quantification of withdrawal from poly-drug use. Planarians are an advantageous model for these studies due to mammalian-relevant neurotransmitter systems (e.g. dopamine, opioid, and 5-HT). We recently developed a metric that quantified an acute cocaine withdrawal phenomenon in planarians. However, despite much indirect evidence, we lacked direct evidence of a receptor- or carrier-mediated effect. We now report dose-related, naloxone- and nor-binaltorphine-sensitive acute abstinence-induced withdrawal and naloxone-precipitated withdrawal from the kappa-opioid agonist U-50,488H (trans-(+/-)-3,4-dichloro-N-methyl-N-(2-[1-pyrrolidinyl]cyclohexyl)-benzeneacetamide). The less active enantiomer [1R,2R]U-50,488 produced significantly less withdrawal and U-50,488H withdrawal was not due to pH or osmolarity. These data provide pharmacologic evidence of a kappa-opioid receptor-mediated withdrawal phenomenon and neuroadaptation to a pharmacologic stimulus (adaptations in transduction mechanisms) in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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27
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Abstract
Cocaine-exposed planarians displayed abstinence-induced withdrawal behavior when placed into cocaine-free, but not cocaine-containing, water. The effect, manifested and quantified using a new spontaneous locomotor velocity metric, was dose-dependently related to cocaine exposure (8x10(-9) to 8x10(-5) M). Ultraviolet light (254 nm=7.83x10(-19) J), which was previously shown to interfere with drug-receptor interactions in Planaria, enhanced the abstinence-induced decreased locomotor velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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Raffa RB, Holland LJ, Schulingkamp RJ. Quantitative assessment of dopamine D2 antagonist activity using invertebrate (Planaria) locomotion as a functional endpoint. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2001; 45:223-6. [PMID: 11755386 DOI: 10.1016/s1056-8719(01)00152-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Dopaminergic ligands, including drugs of abuse, modulate the locomotor activity of planarians and induce characteristic abnormal patterns of motility at high doses. It has been presumed that the effect is related to dopamine receptors based on ligand specificity and effects on second messenger levels. However, to date, the measured changes have been mostly qualitative in nature and it is not completely clear that the effect is related to stereospecific receptor mechanisms. METHODS The present study addressed these issues by devising a convenient and sensitive metric (locomotor velocity, pLMV) and applied the method to test Planaria enantiomer-sensitivity to a dopamine D2-receptor antagonist. RESULTS pLMV was remarkably constant over the observation period and established a stable baseline against which to study and quantitate pharmacologic intervention. Further, S(-)-sulpiride at low doses (10(-10) to 10(-8) M) attenuated pLMV in a dose-dependent manner, but R(+)-sulpiride was only 1/25th as potent. DISCUSSION The new methodology thus provides a method for quantifying actions of D2 ligands in a simple in vivo system.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, USA.
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29
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Raffa RB, Valdez JM, Holland LJ, Schulingkamp RJ. Energy-dependent UV light-induced disruption of (-)sulpiride antagonism of dopamine. Eur J Pharmacol 2000; 406:R11-2. [PMID: 11040357 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(00)00730-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The dopamine D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride decreases the spontaneous locomotor activity of Planaria in an enantiomeric-selective and dose-dependent manner. We now report that (-)sulpiride (0.1 microM)-induced decrease of planarian locomotor activity is significantly (P<0.05) attenuated by low-energy (366 nm) ultraviolet (UV) light and to a greater extent by high-energy (254 nm) UV light. The phenomenon offers a novel approach for studying dopamine D2 receptor transduction processes in a simple in vivo model.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Raffa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA.
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30
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Buttarelli FR, Pontieri FE, Margotta V, Palladini G. Acetylcholine/dopamine interaction in planaria. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2000; 125:225-31. [PMID: 11790344 DOI: 10.1016/s0742-8413(99)00111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Planaria represents the most primitive example of centralization and cephalization of nervous system. Previous reports indicate that planaria shows specific behavioral patterns, analogous to mammalian stereotypes, in response to drugs acting on acetylcholine or dopamine transmission. Here we further characterized these responses, and investigated the interactions between cholinergic and dopaminergic systems by means of behavioral methods. Exposure to cholinergic agonists physostigmine or nicotine produced hypokinesia with 'bridge-like' and 'walnut' positions, respectively. Blockade of muscarinic receptors by atropine produced 'screw-like' hyperkinesia. Exposure to dopamine agonists (nomifensine, apomorphine) produced marked hyperkinesia with 'screw-like' movements. Finally, exposure to dopamine antagonists produced immobility or 'bridge-like' position. Pre-exposure to physostigmine blocked the behavioral effects of nomifensine and reduced and markedly delayed the behavioral effects of apomorphine. Pre-exposure to apomorphine slightly reduced and delayed the behavioral changes by physostigmine. Finally, planaria exposed to atropine after either SCH23388 or sulpiride showed 'C-like' or 'screw-like' hyperkinesia, respectively. Thus, reduction of cholinergic transmission seems to play a pivotal role in determining hyperkinesia in planaria. Under these conditions, different patterns of hyperkinetic activities occur, according to the subpopulation of dopamine receptors stimulated by drugs. These findings suggest that interactions between cholinergic and dopaminergic systems occur very early in animal phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R Buttarelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Neurologiche, Università 'La Sapienza', Viale dell'Università, 30 (box no. 41), 00185 Rome, Italy
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31
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Passarelli F, Merante A, Pontieri FE, Margotta V, Venturini G, Palladini G. Opioid-dopamine interaction in planaria: a behavioral study. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART C, PHARMACOLOGY, TOXICOLOGY & ENDOCRINOLOGY 1999; 124:51-5. [PMID: 10579648 DOI: 10.1016/s0742-8413(99)00048-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The behavioral response of planaria to the exposure to selective opioid agonists was studied. The mu agonist [d-ala2, N-methyl-Phe4,Gly5-ol]enkephalin (DAMGO) and the 6 agonist [D-Pen2, D-Pen5]enkephalin (DPDPE) failed to alter motor activity at all doses tested. Low doses of the selective kappa agonist (+/-)-trans-U-50-trans-3,4-dichloro-N-methyl-N[2-(1-pyrrodinyl)-cyclohexyl]benzene acetamide methasulphonate (U50, 488) and bremazocine-HCl increased motor activity leading to C-like position (CLP) and screw-like hyperkinesia (SLH). These changes were identical to those seen previously with the exposure to D2 or D1 dopamine receptor agonists, respectively. Higher doses of kappa agonists produced the enhancement of CLP and SLH together with robust snake-like movements (SLM). This latter response, that was typical of stimulation of kappa opioid receptors, was blocked by co-exposure to naloxone or the selective kappa antagonist Nor-binaltorphimine (Nor-BNI). Finally, co-exposure to sulpiride or SH-23390 respectively blocked the CLP or SLH response produced by U50,488 or bremazocine. Our data indicate the presence of kappa opioid receptors in planaria and suggest the functional interaction between the opioid and dopamine system in this simple animal model.
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MESH Headings
- 3,4-Dichloro-N-methyl-N-(2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-cyclohexyl)-benzeneacetamide, (trans)-Isomer/pharmacology
- Animals
- Benzomorphans/pharmacology
- Dopamine/physiology
- Dopamine Antagonists/pharmacology
- Enkephalin, Ala(2)-MePhe(4)-Gly(5)-/pharmacology
- Enkephalin, D-Penicillamine (2,5)-/pharmacology
- Motor Activity/drug effects
- Narcotic Antagonists
- Planarians/drug effects
- Planarians/physiology
- Receptors, Opioid/agonists
- Receptors, Opioid/physiology
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/agonists
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/physiology
- Sulpiride/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- F Passarelli
- Department of Neuroscience, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
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32
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Caronti B, Margotta V, Merante A, Pontieri FE, Palladini G. Treatment with 6-hydroxydopamine in planaria (Dugesia gonocephala s.l.): morphological and behavioral study. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART C, PHARMACOLOGY, TOXICOLOGY & ENDOCRINOLOGY 1999; 123:201-7. [PMID: 10530891 DOI: 10.1016/s0742-8413(99)00020-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Morpho-functional and behavioral effects of exposure to 6-hydroxydopamine (OHDA)-HCI (24 microg/ml per day for 24 h and 7 days) were studied in planarias (Dugesia gonocephala s.l.). Exposure to 6-OHDA-HC1 for 24 h produced hypokinesia of the specimens. These behavioral changes were more pronounced, leading to complete immobility, after 7 days of exposure to the neurotoxin. Moreover, specimens exposed to 6-OHDA-HCI for 24 h and 7 days failed to show any behavioral response to nomifensine, thus furnishing evidence of the damage of presynaptic dopamine terminals. Exposure to 6-OHDA-HCl for 24 h significantly reduced cathecolamine content in neuropil region, as demonstrated by histochemistry, and electron-dense presynaptic vesicles, as observed on electron microscopy examination. All these alterations were significantly more pronounced and were accompanied by swelling and strong increase of electron-density in cytoplasm of numerous neurons after exposure to the neurotoxin for 7 days. This appears to be the first demonstration of the neurotoxic effects of 6-OHDA-HCI in flatworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Caronti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Neurologiche, Università La Sapienza, Viale dell'Università, Rome, Italy
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33
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Palladini G, Ruggeri S, Stocchi F, De Pandis MF, Venturini G, Margotta V. A pharmacological study of cocaine activity in planaria. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART C, PHARMACOLOGY, TOXICOLOGY & ENDOCRINOLOGY 1996; 115:41-5. [PMID: 8983168 DOI: 10.1016/s0742-8413(96)00053-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Planaria has been proposed as a suitable research model in neurobiology because of its relatively simple organization. Dopaminergic agonists induce in this flatworm typical hyperkinesias that can be antagonized by dopaminergic blocking agents. The neurochemical basis of the effects of cocaine in vertebrates has not been fully elucidated, but the inhibition of catecholamine reuptake at a presynaptic level seems to play an important role. In this study we analyzed the involvement of the dopaminergic system in the mechanism of action of cocaine in planaria. The dose-related effects of cocaine on planaria motility and the response to cocaine treatment associated with the administration of specific D1 or D2 dopamine agonists and antagonists were investigated. The effects of reuptake inhibitors on cocaine activity were also studied. Planaria specimens treated with low doses of cocaine become motionless, whereas high doses induce a typical behavioural response, identical to the response induced by specific D2 agonists. This response is inhibited by a D2 selective blocking agent. Nomifensine, a specific dopamine reuptake inhibitor, induces a mixed D1/D2 response. The results of these experiments are discussed, also in relation with the conservation of dopaminergic receptors during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Palladini
- Department of Neurological Sciences, V.Le Universita 30, Italy
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Algeri S, Carolei A, Ferretti P, Gallone C, Palladini G, Venturini G. Effects of dopaminergic agents on monoamine levels and motor behaviour in planaria. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. C, COMPARATIVE PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY 1983; 74:27-9. [PMID: 6132769 DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(83)90142-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
1. Dopamine, serotonin and, in lesser amounts, norepinephrine were detected in Dugesia gonocephala using electrochemical detection coupled with liquid chromatography (LCED). 2. Treatment with L-dopa induced hyperkinesias, and a rise in dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine content, whereas reserpine reduced motor activity and the concentrations of all three monoamines. 3. Haloperidol reduced motor activity and dopamine and norepinephrine levels. 4. Apomorphine induced hyperkinesias without altering monoamine levels.
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Gardner CR, Walker RJ. The roles of putative neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in annelids and related invertebrates. Prog Neurobiol 1982; 18:81-120. [PMID: 6127753 DOI: 10.1016/0301-0082(82)90014-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Palladini G, Margotta V, Carolei A, Hernandez MC. Dopamine agonist performance in Planaria after manganese treatment. EXPERIENTIA 1980; 36:449-50. [PMID: 7379922 DOI: 10.1007/bf01975141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Using Planaria motor performance as model, the authors confirm that Mn++ basically inhibits dopaminergic release with transitory hyper-release.
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Palladini G, Medolago-Albani L, Margotta V, Conforti A, Carolei A. The pigmentary system of planaria. II. Physiology and functional morphology. Cell Tissue Res 1979; 199:203-11. [PMID: 38910 DOI: 10.1007/bf00236132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The pigmentary system of the planaria, Dugesia gonocephala s.l. (Platyhelminthes, Turbellaria, Tricladida), consists of granules contained in chromatophore cells distributed in the parenchyma tissue. The administration of MSH release-inhibiting Factor (M.I.F.) leads to an easily observable general decolouration of the animal due to the migration of the pigment granules towards the deeper-lying cell nucleus. In planarians bisected transversely through the pharyngeal region, the decolouration occurs only in the cephalic segment, and the caudal segment remains dark. When, however, the decapitated caudal segment regenerates a head region, a decolouration response occurs when exposed to M.I.F. The significance of these results is discussed, and an hypothesis on the hormonal regulation of the pigmentary system is proposed.
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Czubaj A. Ultrastructural distribution of AChE in Catenula leptocephala (Nuttycombe, 1956). HISTOCHEMISTRY 1979; 61:189-98. [PMID: 457454 DOI: 10.1007/bf00496531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE, E.C. 3.1.1.7) was examined in different tissues of Catenula leptocephala (Nuttycombe, 1956). Eserine and iso-OMPA were used to distinguish AChE from non-specific cholinesterases (ChE, E.C. 3.1.1.8). The enzyme was located mainly in the brain neuropil, the peripheral nervous system, neuromuscular junctions, on the membrane of muscle cells and of cells with rhabdites. The distribution of the enzyme suggests that cholinergic transmission occurs in Catenula leptocephala, while simultaneously the presence of AChE on the membranes of muscle cells points to the receipt of cholinergic stimulation. The role of AChE in differentiation and maturation of cells with rhabdites is also discussed in this paper.
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Flemenbaum A. Postsynaptic supersensitivity and kindling: further evidence of similarities. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 1978; 5:247-54. [PMID: 570804 DOI: 10.3109/00952997809028002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Fourteen Sprague-Dawley rats of 150 to 200 g of initial weight were given either d-amphetamine or cocaine intermittently following both a drug-abuse model previously described by the author and an intermittent model for pharmacological "kindling." The psychotogenic effects of the drugs were measured as stereotyped behavior utilizing standardized scales. A retest with the same drug and same protocol as the pretest stage was executed after an off-drug period of 12 weeks, demonstrating dopamine receptors hypersensitivity as measured by stereotyped behavior for both d-amphetamine and cocaine. The importance of demonstrating dopamine receptor hypersensitivity with an intermittent (kindling) drug-abuse-type model is discussed.
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